Convoy PQ-17

 This is a newish Osprey Campaign book by Angus Konstam covering the ill-fated Arctic convoy PQ-17 in 1942. I became interested in the Arctic convoys after reading Colin Turbett's book, The Anglo-Soviet Alliance: Comrades and Allies during WW2. He majors on the often forgotten story of the Merchant Marine in WW2, many of whom were volunteers from overseas, who were treated very badly by the British Government after the war. I did my own detailed research when writing my book on HMS Ambuscade. The WW2 version was an escort destroyer on the earlier PQ-14 convoy.

Convoy PQ-17 was an Arctic convoy that departed the UK via Iceland for the Soviet Union in July 1942. After reports that a powerful German surface fleet, including the battleship Tirpitz, might attack, the Admiralty ordered the convoy to scatter. Without their escorts, the merchant ships were left exposed to German submarines and aircraft. It was one of the worst Allied naval disasters of the war—of 36 merchant ships, only 11 reached Russia; the rest were sunk, and over 120,000 tons of vital war supplies were lost.

Angus follows the usual Osprey Campaign format with an introduction and chronology, followed by pen pictures of the opposing commanders. Convoys had a covering force and close escorts, none of which were strong enough to take on the Tirpitz, unless it had been damaged. Most of the Royal Navy commanders were unfairly criticised, except for Convoy Commodore Jack Dowding, due to his efforts to save the scattered remnants of the convoy. For the Germans, Admiral Otto Schniewind, the Kriegsmarine’s Flottenchef (Fleet Commander), masterminded and implemented Operation Rösselsprung. For the Luftwaffe, General Hans-Jürgen Stumpff commanded Luftflotte 5, based in Oslo.

Then we get a detailed breakdown of the opposing forces. The merchant ships sailed in columns and had some light armament. Three Royal Navy commands protected the convoy. The close escort of smaller vessels went all the way to Archangel. The Cruiser Covering Force supported the convoy in the event of a surface attack by German cruisers and destroyers, at least as far as the Barents Sea. The Distant Covering Force of two battleships and the aircraft carrier Victorious was there in case the Tirpitz did sortie. The main German threat came from the Luftwaffe's medium bombers based in Norwegian airfields. The Navy had a U-Boat flotilla and a surface fleet led by the Tirpitz and the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper, supported by cruisers and destroyers.

The Royal Navy expected to get advanced warning of any intervention by the Tirpitz through Enigma and a submarine screen. The Germans planned such an intervention, recognising that air attacks alone would not be sufficient to stop the convoy. Hitler was reluctant to risk the Tirpitz against the Distant Force aircraft carrier, but was persuaded. Several ships ran aground, but when the surface fleet hit the open sea, the weather closed in, and intelligence reports were patchy. The Admiral of the Fleet, Sir Dudley Pound, made the fateful decision to scatter the convoy. The merchant ships were then picked off by U-boats, and the Luftwaffe and the surface fleet were withdrawn. The risk was too great, and the brief sortie had achieved its objective. The individual actions are all covered with plenty of illustrations and the usual high-quality maps. 

Churchill described the disaster as ‘one of the most melancholy naval episodes in the whole of the war.' The Russians were furious, and the subsequent inquiry was something of a whitewash, with Pound being too important to lose. Lessons were learned, and the next convoy suffered fewer losses. A problem that took longer to deal with was the distrust between the British merchant marine and the Royal Navy. Many merchant seamen claimed the Navy had deserted them. 

For the wargamer, most WW2 naval rules will work, or you could use air combat rules for that element on its own. The weather was always an essential factor in Arctic convoys.

My Royal Navy fleet was painted for warmer climes!

Lieutenant Douglas SAS Series

My holiday fiction reading consisted of Douglas Jackson's series of six novels, which chronicle the exploits of an SAS officer during World War II. There is currently a Kindle deal on Amazon for £1.99. 

This is ideal holiday reading. Each book is relatively short and requires little effort. Old school action fiction is the best description I can give.

Douglas is a tank officer, fighting in the desert war, when he is recruited into the SAS. The first volume starts just before the Battle of El Alamein, with our hero being inducted into the ways of the SAS. He takes part in the typical SAS raids against airfields behind enemy lines. This is Rogue Heroes in print, except that Douglas is a bit more sane. He is also drawn into a relationship with a British nurse who turns out to be a German spy. All very much in The Key to Rebecca territory. The action shifts to Tunisia, where his team targets the German command HQ. There is also a parallel story with a team of German Brandenburgers who clash with Douglas's team in most volumes.

The next volume sees Douglas being landed in Yugoslavia to make contact with Tito. Needless to say, this was my favourite. He arrives just as one of the major German offensives starts against the partisans. Fighting across rivers, over mountains, etc. There are a couple of historical errors here; the worst is placing the Serbian collaborationist government led by Nedic in Croatia!

The third story takes his team into occupied France to destroy a Luftwaffe squadron using glider bombs to attack Allied convoys. Here, he meets the inevitable stunning female SOE agent, and a relationship that continues for the rest of the series.

The fourth story involves attacking a secret nerve gas research establishment near Penamunde. This is where the storyline becomes a bit too far-fetched, but needless to say, our hero pulls it off and even manages to whisk the evil SS scientist away. Only for the Russians to pinch him.

In the fifth book, Douglas is tasked with assassinating Rommel just before D-Day. The basic premise here is fine. However, an SOE operative goes with his team, who not only knows the planned date and landing beaches, but also about the plot to kill Hitler. Even worse, this operative tells Douglas all this. It is just like Overlord security didn't matter a jot!

The final book is a joint SAS/US Ranger operation to destroy a German atomic bomb research site. In this version of history, the Germans are ahead of the Allies and have a bomb and aircraft ready to bomb New York. Needless to say, the parallel Brandenburgers meet up, and all is well. We like a 'good' German ending.

If all this sounds a bit too far-fetched, even for fiction - well, it is. However, if you can put your historical sensitivities to one side while lounging on the beach, then this is fast-paced boys' own adventure writing at its best.  At this price, you can't go far wrong.

Jane Haining - A Life of Love and Courage

 The Renfrewshire UNISON branch in Scotland has a Holocaust Memorial project remembering the only Scot who died in a Nazi concentration camp – Jane Haining. UNISON Renfrewshire branch secretary Mark Ferguson said: 'The memorial work we’ve done over the past few years on Jane Haining has been very humbling, and having the opportunity to build a relationship with her family has been so special. We are working on telling the story of someone who lived and worked in our community for a long time, and it’s an incredible story.'

I recently spoke with them about helping with a proposed education pack to support the project's development. I had heard about her story, which has been covered in the Scottish media and was the subject of a BBC documentary. However, for more detail, I turned to Mary Miller's book.

Jane Haining (1897 – 1944) was a Scottish missionary for the Church of Scotland in Budapest, Hungary, who was recognised in 1997 by Yad Vashem in Israel as Righteous Among the Nations for having risked her life to help Jews during the Holocaust. 

Jane came from a small village near Dumfries and went to work in Paisley, hence the link to the Renfrewshire UNISON branch. She was active in the Church of Scotland, and in 1932, she was appointed matron for the girls' hostel attached to its Jewish mission school in Budapest. While there was anti-semitism in Hungary driven by its own fascist party, refugees poured into the country from Germany. Hungary adopted its own anti-Jewish legislation in 1938, along the lines of the Nazi Nuremberg laws. This process accelerated with the outbreak of war, even though Hungary was neutral. Jane was advised to return to Scotland, but she decided to stay to care for the children. 

In December 1941, Britain declared war on Hungary in response to its role in the invasion of the Soviet Union. This made it even more difficult for the school, but Jane continued with her work. That all changed when the Nazis marched into Budapest on 19 March 1944, to stop Hungary pulling out of the war. Jane was denounced by a local Hungarian Nazi to the Gestapo, who arrested her. She was sent to Auschwitz, arriving there on 15 May 1944. We know very little about her time in the camps, and her last letter is dated 15 July 1944. She was probably murdered on 17 July in the gas chambers. The Germans claimed she died in the hospital. 430,000 Hungarian Jews were deported and murdered.

While she is known as the Scot who died at Auschwitz, it is also essential to understand what she did with her life and those she helped. As one of her friends put it, 'If we can do anything in any small measure that Jane did, our world will be a different and much better place.'

Yugoslavia 1941-44

 We are being spoiled by Osprey on the subject of Balkan partisan operations. This book by Pier Paolo Battistelli covers anti-partisan operations in Yugoslavia after the German invasion. Unlike the MAA on Greek partisans, this is a campaign guide that focuses on the operations.

As usual, we get a brief introduction and chronology. Then the opposing commanders. German commanders were regularly rotated, much to their relief, I suspect. Austrian officers were often deployed to the Balkans, and some studies suggest they were more likely to engage in war crimes. For example, Redulic was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. However, none came close to the atrocities committed by Croatian fascists, including Slavko Kvaternik. The Italians were less brutal, but not very competent. The partisan commanders are also covered, including the Chetnik leader Mihailovic, who inexplicably has been the subject of revisionist histories that seek to play down his collaboration. Finally, there is Tito, who was eventually backed by the Allies because his units actually fought the Axis occupation forces.

The next chapter covers the opposing forces. The Germans increasingly made use of local troops or White Russians to avoid taking combat units from active fronts. Ethnic Germans were preferred in units such as the SS Prince Eugene Division. They also recruited Muslim troops into the SS Handschar Division, on the basis that anyone who gave them a gun to resist Croatian attacks was acceptable. The Italians also deployed second-line units, who generally performed poorly. The Croatian Ustaše units effectively drove recruits to the partisans with their atrocities, much to the horror of German commanders who regularly complained to Berlin. To little effect. The Partisan structure had to be flexible, but by the end of the war had grown into something approaching a conventional army. The author has made a very good attempt at an order of battle. I have lots of books on this subject, and this is no easy task.

The opposing plans and campaigns cover the primary anti-partisan operations. This is where the Campaign series is strongest, with lovely, clear maps and colour plates. The use of French armour was a particular feature. The detailed maps over two pages help the reader to understand the rugged terrain. I have driven through large parts of Bosnia, and you are immediately drawn to the challenges of fighting up and down river valleys. The island campaigns in the Adriatic were particularly challenging for the Germans, who had limited naval forces. The campaigns concluded with the Red Army arriving in the Balkans, joining with the partisans to liberate the country. This was also a civil war, and many collaborationists died in mass executions.

While partisan operations played a limited strategic role in the war, they did tie down significant numbers of Axis troops, as even the avowedly anti-communist Churchill recognised based on ULTRA intercepts. On that basis, the author is unjustifiably dismissive of their contribution in his conclusion. There are few neutrals in this debate! However, this remains an excellent military history of the campaigns.

Partisans around the campfire from my 28mm collection

Partisan Warfare in Greece 1941-44

 A new Osprey on a Balkan theme is a no-brainer for me. This is a rare, little-explored corner of the Second World War, as well, by Phoebus Atanassiou.

A brief introduction sets the scene following the Greek campaign and the occupation of Greece by German, Italian and Bulgarian troops. Germany's primary interest was less about Greece itself, but instead defending the Romanian oilfields from the Allied bombing. The Axis Powers divided Greece into three occupation zones. Germany controlled the most strategically important areas; Bulgaria occupied (and annexed) eastern Macedonia, western Thrace and the islands of Thassos and Samothraki; and Italy took over the remainder of the Greek mainland, eastern Crete (Lasithi prefecture), and the south Aegean Sea and Ionian Sea islands.

Despite the best efforts of the Allies, there wasn't a unified resistance in Greece. Two broad coalitions dominated partisan warfare in Greece. ELAS was the military arm of EAM, a KKE-dominated loose coalition of pre-war left-wing political parties, all but uprooted in by the repressive regime of Ioannis Metaxas. It moved to the left during the war, dominated by the Communist Party. On the right stood EDES (later renamed EOEA), the brainchild of a group of Athens-based Republican-minded political and military figures. It moved away from liberal politics and became pro-monarchist. Britain supported the monarchist government in exile, but recognised that ELAS was the most effective force on the ground. Both sides fought each other as well as the Axis.

The author describes how both groups were organised. They were much closer to the Yugoslav model than resistance groups in France, with military structures and permanent units. Weapons and uniforms were sourced from the former Greek army stocks, supplemented by Allied air drops, and whatever could be captured from Axis depots. The Italian surrender in 1943 was very helpful in this regard. However, ammunition was always limited. An interesting development was ELAS's small naval fleet, which makes Cruel Seas scenarios possible. Overall, ELAS had around 67,000 men under arms. EDES was much smaller, growing to around 5,000 by the summer of 1943, and 12,000 in 1944. EDES had an effective truce with the Germans in 1943-44. The Allied military mission in Greece fielded no more than 400 men.

The occupation forces are also covered. The success of Allied diversionary operations meant that larger German forces were kept in Greece than needed - 100,000 in 1944. However, other than a core of veterans, they were typically second-line units. The ORBAT is dominated by fortress and jager units, without the usual heavy weapons. The Italian forces were generally poor, and suffered from low morale. Bulgaria annexed their occupation region and enforced the Bulgarisation of the population. Unlike the Italians they actively deported the Jewish population. Bulgaria deployed around 70,000 troops, mostly reservists. The Greek puppet government was allowed to recruit collaborationist units, and nine security battalions were organised by the end of the war.

As you would expect from this series, there are lots of period photographs and colour plates of the main troop types. A very useful addition to the series and plenty of scope for small scale skirmishes on the table-top as well as larger scale anti-partisan sweeps.

Some of my 28mm Bulgarian troops.

The Shetland Bus

My library pick this month was David Howarth's story of the secret wartime missions across the North Sea from Shetland to Norway, known as the Shetland Bus.

The Shetland Bus was a clandestine operation during World War II, involving a secret maritime link between Shetland, Scotland and occupied Norway. The operation was named after the fishing boats that ferried agents, refugees, weapons, and supplies across the North Sea.

This was a British Special Operations Executive (SOE) mission, later carried out by the Norwegian Navy, starting in 1941. The base was initially located in Lunna, but was later relocated to Scalloway to enhance security. There is a museum and memorial there today. The Shetland Bus was vital in smuggling weapons and supplies into Norway to support resistance activities, infiltrating agents and helping Norwegian refugees and resistance members escape to Britain.

They initially used Norwegian fishing boats crewed by civilian volunteers, many of whom were Norwegian fishermen. These boats made long, dangerous crossings, often in winter, and were frequently hunted by German patrols. Later, faster and more secure submarine chasers (American-built and armed) were used. Several were lost, and crews had to merge with the resistance or make the long trek to neutral Sweden.

David Howarth was an RNVR officer and second-in-command of the base when it was established. He wrote the book in 1951, but it has been reprinted many times since. He tells the story in detail, not sparing many of the challenges they faced, internal and external. British officers knew too much about the SOE operations in Norway and were therefore not allowed to go on missions. The Germans would generally, but not always, execute Norwegian crew caught by them. The crews elected their own skippers, not something the Royal Navy would have approved of! 

Air attack was a constant threat, and the need to maintain radio silence meant that information about a mission's progress could not be relayed back to the base. They just had to wait and see if the boat returned. Coastal Command helped with patrols by Sunderland and Catalina aircraft based at Sullum Voe, today the main oil terminal. The operations also included mine laying, using a special hatch in the hull of a fishing boat.

The book caught my eye because, to commemorate VE Day, six of the historic ships that formed part of the Shetland Bus convoys set sail again from Bergen in Norway, replicating the journey back to Shetland. I vaguely remember the old museum as I used to travel to Shetland for work in the 1990s. The new museum, which opened in 2012, looks excellent. On my list for a return visit.

A typical Norwegian fishing boat.

Mussolini's Defeat at Hill 731

 I am on a Greek-Italian War roll. After finishing the new study of the Italian Army in the Balkans, I have been reading John Carr's study of an epic Greek defence of Hill 731 during the Italian Spring offensive of March 1941.

In the Spring of 1941, the Italian leadership needed a victory before the impending German intervention. The plan, devised by General Ugo Cavallero, envisioned a large-scale attack on a narrow, 32 km front in the centre of the Greek positions. The Italian attack aimed to break through the Greek lines, recapture Klisura, and advance towards Leskovik and Ioannina. Key to the Italian effort was a hill known as 731, which stood at the centre of the planned attack. Hill 731 is situated approximately 20 kilometres north of Këlcyrë (Klisura), near the base of Mount Trebeshinë in Southern Albania.

Hill 731 was defended by the 2nd Battalion of the Greek 5th Infantry Regiment, which was ordered to hold its positions at all costs. The Italian attack, observed by Mussolini in person, was launched on 9 March with a heavy artillery barrage and air bombardment, with over 100,000 shells dropped on a 6 km front. Despite repeated assaults by three different Italian divisions, the defenders of Hill 731 held the position. 

Although there is enough context, this is not a broad overview of the offensive. Instead, the book focuses on the small unit fighting on Hill 731. The Italian tactics were not subtle. It was early WW1-style artillery bombardment followed by relentless frontal assaults. If the 'lions led by donkeys' line works anywhere, it is here. The Italians were shocked at how ineffective their artillery was and how good the Greek mountain artillery was in response. The Italians fired 100,000 shells in the opening barrage compared to fewer than 6,000 Greek shells, yet they were more effective. Some Italian attacks were broken up before they got anywhere near the Greek trenches. 

For the Greeks, their Hotchkiss machine guns were important, but so were counterattacks with bayonets and grenades. The defence did not simply sit in their trenches blasting away. The Greek bayonet was twice the length of the standard Italian issue, and they used the Polish WZ.24 hand grenade, which carried a bigger charge.

Italian radio security was appalling, with the Greeks intercepting messages and responding accordingly. Supply was a problem for both sides with the snow and ice, coupled with mud up to the waist on occasions. The Italians tried night attacks, but didn't change their frontal attack tactics. The result was the same as daytime. Casualties are unclear, but the Italians suffered around 5,000, including over 1,000 dead. Greek losses were around 500. Four Italian divisions were rendered useless. 

This excellent study of close combat in WW2 covers an interesting campaign. Sadly for the Greeks, Hitler's invasion outflanked the Albanian positions, and they had to give up Hill 731. 

I have the armies for this campaign in 28mm and 15mm. The Greeks are below. This battle is certainly playable on the tabletop without too many challenges.

The Italian Army in the Balkans

This is a new book by Massimiliano Afiero for Helion on the Italian army in the Balkans. As the title implies, the focus is on the Italian army's operations in the Greek campaign. It doesn't cover the Greeks to any significant degree, and there is probably less than I expected regarding organisation and tactics. However, this is the most detailed account of Italian operations I have read since Mario Cervi's Hollow Legions. I recommend Pier Paolo Battistelli's Osprey Campaign 358 for a broader overview. My article on the campaign Blunder in the Mountains was also published in the SOTCW Journal.

If you think it looks expensive at £35, it is a hardback, printed on photo quality paper for the wealth of photos and colour plates.

The Italian invasion of Greece began on October 28, 1940, when Mussolini's forces attacked Greece from Albania, which Italy had invaded earlier that year. On this day, Greece celebrates Ohi Day (Greek: "Όχι", meaning "No"), commemorating its refusal to surrender or allow Italian forces to enter its country. The Italians encountered strong resistance from the Greek Army. The Greek forces, aided by terrain, repelled the initial Italian attacks. By November 1940, Greek forces, under the command of General Alexander Papagos, mounted a successful counteroffensive. They pushed the Italians back into Albania, capturing significant portions of Italian-held territory. By early 1941, Greek forces had advanced deep into Albania, while Italy struggled to sustain its campaign. This setback for Mussolini was embarrassing and highlighted Italy's military weaknesses. The Italians lost around 20,000 dead, and the Greeks 13,408. 

The book also covers the later stages of the campaign when Hitler came to the rescue with Operation Marita. This started with the invasion of Yugoslavia, and the Italians aided this by attacking from Albania and their outposts on the Dalmatian coast. A particular favourite of mine is the attempted breakout from Zadar (Zara), which we used for a participation game in 2019.  Mussolini had abandoned earlier plans to invade Yugoslavia under pressure from Hitler, another what-if I must return to.

This book covers each campaign stage and how the Italians responded to each setback. Much of the fighting occurred in the mountains during winter, with brutal conditions even for the trained Alpini divisions. The author extensively uses the medal citations to illustrate the troops' bravery. It is a cliche, but these were truly lions led by donkeys. It is profusely illustrated with wartime photos, most of which I haven't seen before. If you are interested in this campaign, you will find this book an invaluable addition to your library.

I have the Italian and Greek armies in 28mm and 15mm and the Yugoslavs in 28mm. I have also visited several of the battlefields in Greece and Albania. Mountain fighting is quite challenging to replicate on the tabletop, but in the larger scales at least, we only need to model the points of contact.

Italian infantry in 28mm.

Arnhem Black Tuesday

 Although the Second World War is one of my favourite periods, I am less interested in the later war and the North West Europe campaign in particular. So, this new book by Al Murray would not have been on my reading list had a pal at the club not lent me his copy and recommended it.

I have visited Arnhem, although my understanding of the battle is probably heavily influenced by the film  A Bridge Too Far. The recent death of the actor Gene Hackman, who played Major General Stanisław Sosabowski, was in my mind as I read the chapter of the Polish Brigade. He played the part brilliantly, accurately reflecting the Pole's scepticism of the operation. I didn't know that there was a plan to parachute the brigade into Warsaw to support the uprising. As it turns out, it probably wouldn't have made any difference, and as the Home Army had grown to 700,000 by this stage of the war, their insertion into Poland would not have been a significant reinforcement.

It was that level of detail and discovering things about the battle I didn't know that I enjoyed most about this book. It takes the reader through each stage of action, largely chronologically, while describing the actions each battalion fought in. It relies heavily on the war diaries of the units concerned, which I know from my own research can be frustrating at times. 

One of the battalions at Arnhem was the 2nd South Staffs. They were in the air landing brigade brought in on gliders. I visited their excellent regimental museum a few weeks ago, and they have a section on Arnhem. 

Sean Connery played the divisional commander Roy Urquhart in the film. I hadn't appreciated that he had no airborne experience, although, as Murray highlights, this was a very difficult battle to control from any divisional HQ. Nonetheless, he needed to communicate who should take over from him more clearly, as getting cut off in such a fast-moving battle without stable front lines in a built-up area could have been anticipated. The division was also a patched-up unit, with no time to build command cohesion. Why Lieutenant General Browning (Dirk Bogarde) had to be there is still a mystery. His tactical Headquarters used 38 gliders, which could have been better used for troops and equipment.

The lack of artillery was a significant issue with the plan, particularly as this was an essential part of British doctrine at this stage of the war. I hadn't appreciated that a battery of 17pdr ATGs was brought in on gliders. Mortar bombs and similar caused 75% of British casualties in WW2, and the Germans made full use of these skills in Arnhem. Medical provision was state of the art with no less than three field surgeries. Supply was less well organised, and the famous film scene of canisters being dropped behind enemy lines happened. There was also a canister of red berets when I suspect more ammunition would have been the troop's priority.

I enjoyed this book more than I expected. It also shows that there is something new to learn from even the best known history.

East African Campaign 1940-41

 This overlooked early WW2 campaign is now getting the Osprey Campaign series treatment in a new book by Pier Paolo Battistelli. 

Mussolini sought to expand the Italian empire in East Africa into his new 'Roman Empire'. In 1936, Italy had already conquered Ethiopia (then known as Abyssinia), and by 1940, Mussolini had ambitions to extend control over British colonies in East Africa, including Kenya, Sudan, and British Somaliland.

Italy launched a series of offensives from Italian East Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland) against British colonies. The British garrison in the region was small, and they were forced to retreat. However, British and Commonwealth forces, under the command of General Sir William Platt, launched counteroffensives, deploying Indian, South, West, and East African troops. At the Battle of Keren (March–April 1941), they defeated Italian troops in Eritrea and pushed into Italian East Africa. 

The campaign extended to Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland. The British pressured Italian forces through a combination of military action, guerrilla warfare by Ethiopian resistance fighters, and strategic support from the Royal Air Force. By the end of 1941, Italian East Africa fell to the British. Ethiopia was liberated in May 1941, with Emperor Haile Selassie returning to the throne after being exiled by the Italians in 1936.

The book uses the standard Campaign format. The opposing commanders get potted biographies. The British included Orde Windgate, and there is a classic photo of him riding into Addis Ababa on a white horse. A very modern publicity-aware general. The Duke of Aosta commanded Italian forces. He was a member of the Italian royal family and was educated in England. The actual field commander was Army General Claudio Trezzani.

The chapter on the opposing forces clarifies that 'British' forces meant Africans and Indians. They included exotic units, such as the Sudan Defence Force on camels. The larger units included Indian Army divisions supported by Matilda tanks. The number of Italian troops was huge, although they also relied on colonial units. 5,540 officers, 5,891 non-commissioned officers, 56,510 Italian other ranks and 180,427 colonial non-commissioned officers and other ranks, for a grand total of 255,950, growing to nearly 300,000. They also had 24 medium and 39 light tanks. Poor organisation was one of the main shortcomings affecting the Italian forces. These were widely dispersed in a series of units and sub-units, often created without apparent logic, undermined by limited transportation.

A less determined commander than Wavell might have chosen to defend what he could, but he started preparing to attack in North and East Africa when Britain faced the threat of invasion. Moving the 4th Indian Division from North to East Africa was a bold decision, although some have argued that this weakened the British offensive in North Africa. However, he also had to consider the growing nervousness in Kenya, Rhodesia, and South Africa about a possible Italian invasion. 

The various stages of the campaign are described in detail, accompanied by excellent maps and colour plates of key actions. British losses amounted to 1,154 battle casualties and 74,550 sick and injured, including some 20,000 cases of dysentery and malaria. By the end of the campaign, only about 80,000 Italian forces—colonial troops included—were left out of the 300,000 or so available in June 1940.

As usual with this series, there is a chapter on the battlefields today. While the battlefields may be untouched, I suspect tourism will be limited, given contemporary conflicts in the region.

I could run this campaign with my 10mm Desert War models, although it needs the exotic units to get the authentic flavour. 

Swiss Army of WW2.

 Last September, I reviewed Jim Ring's book, Hitler's War in the Alps, which started me down the rabbit hole of Switzerland and WW2. I have previous on this sort of wargaming distraction, not to mention a book on another neutral, Turkey.

The Swiss published a German invasion plan in 1933, but more needed to be done to modernise the Swiss Army and their defence plan. In 1938, in the aftermath of Anchluss, the Swiss declared that it was 'Switzerland's secular mission in Europe to guard the passage of the Alps in the interests of all.' 

General Guisan reorganised their defences and, in May 1940, mobilised 700,000 men, almost one in five of the Swiss population. He controversially decided to screen the border and fall back to the Alpine Redoubt. This meant abandoning the major cities, but the idea was more of a deterrence as the Axis would be blocked from the main communication routes like the Simplon Tunnel. The army was equipped to fight WW1, although the terrain and the size of the military would have made it a challenging prospect for the invaders.

On 12 August 1940, Captain von Menges revised his plan and submitted it to Halder. He allocated 11 divisions (150,000 men) for the attack, adjusting the Axis of the attack following a reconnaissance along the border. Operation Sea Lion and Operation Barbarossa put the plan on the back burner.

So, a modest wargaming 15mm project was born. The first challenge was figures, as the Swiss army wore a distinctive helmet. No manufacturer did it, although a scalpel to the Dutch helmet might work. Then I came across these 3D prints by Eskice Miniatures.  Postage from France was prohibitive, but I found a UK supplier, although his illness meant the delivery was delayed a long time. It's not a massive problem, as I am not short of projects! The prints are well-sculpted and relatively clean. They don't come with the bases in the sales picture, so use a strong super glue. We will see how robust they are after handling on the wargame table.

I went for the early war grey uniform and black helmet, as that was the period most likely for invasion. This Swiss militaria site was helpful, and a museum in Switzerland has a range of uniform types.

Equipment was less of a problem as the Swiss didn't have a massive armaments industry and bought it overseas. I found some support weapons in my spares box and got the German 20mm AA and a mountain howitzer from Butlers. The main light tank was the Panzer 39, manufactured in Czechoslovakia. It was similar to the Pkw 38t, close enough in 15mm. The air force had bought modern fighters, including the Me 109 and the MS 450.

That gives me eight infantry bases, with an HMG and mortar as support weapons, AA, light artillery, and a tank. That should be plenty for defending part of the Alps against German mountain troops using Blitzkrieg Commander rules. We will see!

Fighters over the Aegean

 The Dodecanese campaign has been the subject of many books, but they tend to focus on the land and naval aspects. The air war is often brushed over with the comment that attempting to hold islands without adequate cover was folly. It was, but that doesn't mean there wasn't an air warfare component. Brian Cull examines the air war across the Aegean in the second half of the war.

The region saw intense aerial engagements between the Allies and Axis forces. These operations were characterised by bombing raids, naval support missions, reconnaissance, and dogfights over islands, the sea, and mainland targets. 

After the failure of the Dodecanese campaign, The RAF and USAAF conducted bombing raids targeting German airfields, supply depots, and shipping lanes to weaken the Axis hold in the region. Long-range aircraft, such as B-24 Liberators and B-25 Mitchells, operated from air bases in Egypt, Cyprus, and later southern Italy. Fighter cover, including Spitfires, Beaufighters, and Hurricanes, was crucial in protecting bombers and supporting ground troops during operations. 

German air superiority during the early part of the campaign was mainly due to the proximity of their airbases and the rapid response of their forces. They utilised a variety of aircraft, including Messerschmitt Bf 109s, and the Stuka still had a role to play in this theatre. The Arado seaplane is another aircraft that came into its own here, and the Ju-52 transport workhorse of the Luftwaffe was crucial in supplying the islands. The Allies eventually achieved air and naval superiority in the Aegean, but the campaign demonstrated the challenges of coordinating joint operations in a geographically complex area.

The author works his way through the various phases, starting with Churchill's obsession, or as Brooke put it, 'He has worked himself into a frenzy of excitement about the Greek islands. He refuses to listen to any arguments or to see the dangers. The whole thing is sheer madness.' The Beaufighter doesn't get many plaudits, but in this region, its range and versatility made it a useful aircraft. They devastated German naval supply craft, forcing the Luftwaffe to fly in Ju-52s at night. Quite a few interned in Turkey, who kept the planes and returned the crews. Several squadrons were based in Cyprus, another WW2 base rarely mentioned, and more were in the Libyan airfields.

252 Squadron Beaufighter (Martin Čížek)

Once Operation Dragoon had finished, seven small carriers were redeployed to the Aegean, unleashing Seafires, Hellcats, and Wildcats on targets in the islands and mainland Greece. The author also outlines Luftwaffe operations, and there is an interesting chapter on the challenges they faced in reconnaissance operations. Radar coverage and RAF night fighters were crucial in protecting the various deception operations prepared across the Middle East.

I am not a huge fan of air warfare books from a readability perspective. Planes take off, shoot down the enemy, and return, which can be tedious. However, the author breaks up this narrative with lots of first-hand accounts. The rarely covered aircraft types are a big plus as well. This book is currently on special offer at the Naval and Military Press. For £3.99, you can't go far wrong.

I definitely need some Beaufighters and Arados for my Blood Red Skies games.

Croatia Under Ante Pavelic

 This book has been sitting in my reading pile for a while. A book I should read, but anything to do with the Ustaše is bound to be a grim read. Robert McCormick's book looks at the Ustaše leader from an American policy perspective.

Ante Pavelić (1889–1959) was a Croatian fascist politician and military leader, best known as the leader of the Ustaše, a far-right ultranationalist organisation. Founded in the 1930s, the Ustaše advocated for Croatian independence but promoted an ideology of extreme nationalism, anti-Serb sentiment, and fascism. Pavelić led this movement, aligning with Axis powers during the war. He was the Poglavnik (leader) of the NDH from 1941 to 1945. Under his leadership, the Ustaše carried out a campaign of genocide, ethnic cleansing, and forced conversions targeting Serbs, Jews, and Roma, leading to the deaths of hundreds of thousands.

After the Axis defeat in 1945, Pavelić fled Europe with assistance from Vatican-linked networks (known as 'ratlines'). He lived in exile in Argentina, Spain, and other countries, avoiding prosecution for war crimes. In 1957, Pavelić survived an assassination attempt, probably by a Yugoslav agent in Argentina, but suffered severe injuries. He died in 1959 in Spain, likely from complications related to the attack.

The author takes us through this history, focusing on how the USA perceived him. He was largely ignored in the 1930s as the US left the Balkans to the British. However, they noticed his supporters were organised among Croatian migrants in the USA. Before the war, the Ustaše was a fringe organisation with minimal support in Croatia. His involvement in the assassination of King Aleksandar put a spotlight on the organisation in the USA, which included local groups called Domobrans (defenders) and a newspaper. 140,559 Croatians were living in the US and 52,208 Serbians. Most of these migrants just wanted to get on with their new lives, but a small minority raised funds for the Ustaše in the homeland. 

Hitler and Mussolini (who had protected him in exile) picked him to lead the puppet state. His programme of ethnic cleansing appealed to Hitler in particular. The British and others were astonished when Pope Pius XII received him, although the USA took little interest. That lack of interest only changed marginally when reports of the mass murder of between 330,000 and 390,000 Serbians came in, along with the establishment of concentration camps. Jasenovac was the third largest concentration camp in Europe, only one of five in Croatia. Ironically, German generals in the Balkans were more concerned about this genocide as it drove recruits into the partisans. 

The FBI took more interest in domestic Ustaše during the war but couldn't make any legal cases against their leadership stick. In Croatia, the NDH lost its limited public support and concentrated its resources around Zagreb. The destruction of the Croatian 369th Regiment at Stalingrad further underlined Pavelic's unpopularity. When Croatia was liberated by the partisans and the Russians, Pavelic fled to Austria, then to Italy, before taking a ship to Argentina and the Peron regime. Both the US and British authorities made little effort to catch him despite the Moscow Declaration of 1943 on war criminals. The Cold War was now influencing policy towards Yugoslavia; war criminals became a secondary objective.

The USA does not come out of this book very well. They did little to investigate war crimes when they happened and failed to arrest him after the war. This has implications for the present day when some Croatian nationalists commemorate him, arguing that he can't have been that bad as the US didn't arrest him.

Painting a Ustaše unit would be a step too far for me. But I built a Croatian Air Force Me109 kit with distinctive markings.

Bouncer's Blenheim

 This WW2 fiction is part of a series based on Gus Beaumont, an RAF pilot who flies a remarkable (probably a bit too impressive) array of aircraft in conventional operations and clandestine flights for SOE. I was attracted to this book because it involves operations in the Mediterranean during the early war period, including Greece.

Our hero was drawn into clandestine operations by the nascent SOE. He was to fly with 421 Flight, whose task was to give early warning of bomber raids and provide cover for the intelligence gained from ULTRA. There was such a flight, although established by Air Chief Marshal Hugh Dowding, for just this purpose. However, the book gets slightly silly when Gus, a Pilot Officer, is told about ULTRA. Needless to say, this intelligence was kept secret, and a Pilot Officer certainly wouldn't need to know. Particularly one embarking on dangerous drops over occupied France for SOE!

Gus is then sent to Greece and flies Blenheim's in the bombing of Italian ports in Albania. 

I saw this Bleheim at RAF Cosford a few weeks ago.

He is tasked with crash-landing near Corfu to join the Greek resistance and ascertain their political leanings. While that was a concern of SOE in 1944, after Churchill's Percentages Agreement with Stalin, it is hard to imagine this being a priority in 1941. SOE worked with Royalist and Communist resistance forces during the Italian and German occupation. It is certainly not important enough to deliberately crash a scarce bomber and endanger the crew.

He escapes Corfu by capturing an Italian plane and flying it to Crete, narrowly avoiding being shot down by Gladiators. He then has stints in Palestine (meeting Jewish underground forces) and, finally, Malta.

It is not a bad story, with the action moving quickly and reasonably well written. However, the history is a bit irritating in places and probably not good enough for me to finish the series.

Yugoslavia and Greece 1940-41

 This new Osprey by Basilio Di Martino and Pier Paolo Battistelli looks at the Axis air assault in the Balkans in the early stages of the Second World War. Christopher Shores's very detailed book on this subject, published by Grubb Street in 1987, is available, but there is certainly room for a more concise and readable book on the subject.  

There were two, arguably three, air campaigns involved: the Italian invasion of Greece and the later German attack on Yugoslavia and Greece. The Axis air forces operated mainly at the tactical level to support ground operations, although the Italian medium bombers were ill-suited to these operations in challenging conditions.

The authors start by assessing the capabilities of the Axis air forces. The Regia Aeronautica fielded around 300 aircraft for the Greek campaign at the limit of the logistical support available from Albanian airfields. The Luftwaffe was better equipped with 500 aircraft, although the late addition of an attack on Yugoslavia required a rapid change of plan.

The defenders were considerably weaker. The Hellenic Air Force had around 150 operational aircraft, including obsolete types. Airfields were often poor, and spare parts were scarce for such a diverse range of aircraft. The Yugoslav Air Force was numerically strong and quite well equipped with some 460 frontline aircraft, 340 of which were operational in the fighter and bomber units. These were mostly modern types, although the same could not be said for ground support aircraft. The need to deploy in dispersed airstrips made communications challenging. The RAF had the aircraft to take on the Italians and Germans, but they were also limited to the available airfields in Greece.

The next chapter examines the campaign objectives. The Italians suffered from changing objectives as the land campaign faltered, and like all the air forces, they were hampered by bad weather. The Hellenic Air Force focused on air defence, while the RAF bombed the Albanian ports. The book then details the actual campaign, supported by excellent maps and complete orders of battle. There are several colour plates to keep the modellers happy, even if my efforts at painting Italian camouflage leave much to be desired. I have a soft spot for the Gladiator and the CR-42, even though building kits with all those struts is a nightmare. I was at the RAF Museum on Friday admiring their Gladiator.

In the later air battles over Athens, the few remaining Greek aircraft and the RAF fought valiantly against overwhelming odds. There is a fine colour plate of the available Hurricanes of both No.33 and No.80 Squadrons led by Squadron Leader Pattle, the South African air ace. However, many Hurricanes were destroyed on the ground due to the absence of early warning systems. After the RAF was neutralised, the Luftwaffe began an anti-shipping campaign. Overall figures show that 97 vessels definitely sunk from April 20 to 30, plus another 11 probable, totalling some 162,000 tons.

In the Greek campaign, the role played by the air forces on both sides was limited due to shortcomings in doctrine and tactics, poor logistics, and a lack of effective solutions to air-to-ground co-operation on the Italian side, and a shortage of equipment and, again, poor logistics on the Greek side. It was a long campaign of attrition, and attrition was playing in favour of the Italians, with the Hellenic Air Force becoming less and less relevant. The RAF had some impact in its attacks on Albanian harbours but was otherwise overrun by the German advance. The Germans considered the campaign a success, although they had supply problems and failed to prevent the evacuation of the Allied forces from Greece.

For the wargamer, while the air battles are certainly playable using Blood Red Skies or similar, most gamers will use air power to support land operations. 

My 1/72nd scale Macchi C.200 Saetta

Romania 1944

 This is a new title in the Osprey Campaign series by Grant Harward. While Romania's role as a German ally against the Soviet Union has been well covered, the actions just before and after switching sides in 1944 are less well-known. While they are mentioned in books on the Hungarian campaign, a book in this concise format is very welcome. David Glantz's Red Storm Over the Balkans: The Failed Soviet Invasion of Romania, Spring 1944, is excellent, but not for the faint-hearted!

Grant starts with a concise overview of how Romania entered WW2, reminding us that it wasn't inevitable that they joined the Axis and got little thanks territorially. Romania was essential to the German war effort providing most of the oil for the Nazi war machine. The King also made peace overtures after Italy surrendered in 1943. 

The Soviets arrived in March 1944 while many of the best Romanian troops were still in Crimea, supported by Allied bombing. Even so, the Romanian front saw heavy fighting, and the Soviets had to allocate additional forces and a second offensive to break through. By the end of August, the King led a coup against Marshal Ion Antonescu and quickly declared war on Germany. A German-led counter-coup failed. An excellent little detail in the book is when the King arrested Antonescu and his deputy, both were locked in a large wall safe where King Carol II used to keep his stamp collection. German resistance continued, particularly the 5th Flak division around the vital Ploesti oilfields. 

The Soviets fully secured Romania on 12 September, and the Soviet–Romanian Armistice consisted of 20 articles requiring Romania, among other things, to provide 12 divisions to fight Nazi Germany. Romania’s holy war against ‘Judeo-Bolshevism’ became an ‘anti-fascist crusade’. The action shifted to Transylvania, with all Romanian units allocated to the 2nd Ukrainian Front, which helped defeat a joint Hungarian and German counterattack. These were mainly cobbled-together units of young recruits, other than the Soviet 1st Tudor Vladimirescu Romanian Volunteer Infantry Division, recruited from POWs. This Front eventually overran Hungary, but that is another campaign.

As is usual with the Osprey Campaign format, we get biographies of the principal commanders of the Romanian, German, Soviet, and American 15th Air Force operating from Italy. Then, the opposing forces, including detailed orbats for the defence of Romania in August 1944. The chapter on opposing plans reminds us that USAAF bombers also operated from Soviet airfields. The Soviet naval landings on the Black Sea coast are another interesting aspect of this campaign. The campaigns are all explained with excellent maps and illustrated with action colour plates by Johnny Shumate. There isn't much on the Romanian forces because another Osprey on the Romanian Army in WW2 provides that detail.

The former battlefield of the second Iaşi–Chişinău offensive today stretches across three countries: Romania, the Republic of Moldova, and Ukraine. The chapter on the battlefields today provides a valuable starter for the visitor, including Bucharest and Transylvania. I haven't been there for years, and I should return.

For the wargamer, Romanian WW2 troops are available in most scales. I have them in 15mm, and the Great Escape Games range in 28mm is good. They come in mixed packs with helmets and caps, the latter of which I pinched for my WW2 Turks.

Battle of the Alps 1940

 Reading Jim Ring's book Hitler's War in the Alps prompted me to discover more about the Italian invasion of France in 1940. For that, I have read Marek Sobski's excellent Battle of the Alps 1940. 

The Italian Invasion of France in 1940 started on 10 June 1940, when Mussolini declared war on France and the United Kingdom. Mussolini's decision to join the war was influenced by Germany's rapid successes in its Blitzkrieg campaign through France, and he hoped to secure territorial gains for Italy. However, Italy’s military was not well-prepared for war. 32 divisions were mobilised for the invasion, although most were poorly equipped and inexperienced. Marshal Badoglio recorded his reservations about the unpreparedness for war. Mussolini replied, "Mr. Marshal, I only need a few thousand dead to sit at the peace table as a fighting party."

Italy's invasion began with air raids against southern France and the French Riviera. Ground forces stationed in the Alps moved slowly because of rugged terrain, inadequate equipment, and stiff French resistance. Although heavily outnumbered because troops were diverted to the ongoing German invasion in the north, French troops managed to hold back the Italians in the mountainous Alpine region.

Sobski highlights many factors that contributed to the Italian defeat. Even in June, the weather can be pretty bad in the Alps, and unfortunately for the Italians, it was poor that summer. The Alpini regiments were at least adequately equipped, but not all were trained correctly for mountain fighting. So-called 'Mountain Divisions' were just light infantry with no specialist equipment. The Italians later created assault engineers for this task.

The French had extensive fortifications (Little Maginot Line) that blocked the handful of useable invasion routes (five useable roads that the French blocked), and the Italians had insufficient heavy artillery to destroy them. The forts were built into the terrain and were very difficult to hit by bombers from the air. The Germans faced similar problems against the Maginot Line near the Swiss border and failed. They did better using Stukas against the Metaxas Line in Greece, but the much-maligned Maginot Line was an effective defence and was only defeated in May 1940 because it could be outflanked. The French XIV and XV Corps commanders were experienced Alpine officers who knew the defensive positions, and even the reservists serving in the fortress units knew the fortifications they manned perfectly. 

Mussolini got his few thousand dead, but made few territorial gains. Italy gained a small strip of land along the French Riviera, including the town of Menton, but none of the French colonies he coveted. The final chapter covers the skirmishes on the Tunisian/Libyan border, which would make an interesting what-if campaign.

There are many wargaming rabbit holes here, but thankfully, I have most of the troops needed. I am writing this on holiday in Türkiye in 30C temperatures. You have to admire the bravery of the soldiers who fought in blizzards and snow in the Alps that summer. 

Storming the Eagle's Nest

This book by Jim Ring covers Hitler's War in the Alps, although it actually covers all the combatants. I picked this up in a second-hand bookshop, intrigued by the title more than anything else. It was published in 2014 and is available relatively cheaply at present.

There is some introductory padding about WW2. Still, after that, the author takes us through all the conflicts in the Alps during the war, occasionally stretching the geographical boundaries a bit. The early chapters on Mussolini's invasion of France and the German plan to invade Switzerland were the most interesting. 

Mussolini certainly got his 'few thousand dead' as the price of a seat at the armistice table. His armies battered away at the Little Maginot Line the French had constructed on their Alpine border with Italy. The Italian Alpini did their best under challenging conditions, but there was insufficient artillery and accurate air support to make much progress.

The Swiss had published a German plan to invade back in 1933, but more needed to be done to modernise the Swiss Army and their defence plan. On 12 August 1940, Captain von Menges revised his plan and submitted it to Halder. He allocated 11 divisions for the attack, adjusting the Axis of the attack following a reconnaissance along the border. Operation Sea Lion and Operation Barbarossa put the plan on the back burner.

The Swiss appointed General Guisan to reorganise their defences. He controversially decided to screen the border and fall back to the Alpine Redoubt. This meant abandoning the major cities, but the idea was more of a deterrence as the Axis would be blocked from the main communication routes. The army was equipped to fight WW1, although the terrain and the size of the military would have made it a challenging prospect for the invaders.

Other chapters deal with the Holocaust in the Alpine regions and the various resistance forces. These included a small Austrian group and others in Bavaria. After 1943, the Italian partisans established republics in the Italian Alps, and the French created bases, most famously on the Vercours plateau. None of these initiatives lasted long when the Wehrmacht arrived in force. The Yugoslav operations are briefly covered, but I think this is stretching the boundaries a bit.

Hitler's favourite residence at Berchtesgaden (Eagle's Nest) is covered in detail, and the final chapters cover the defences and the mythical redoubt. The Americans largely bought the myth and diverted forces from Berlin to deal with it. 

This is an interesting look at a geographical region that features little in WW2 historiography. However, it is a bit manufactured, as there isn't much of a theme to bind the various sections together other than the challenges of fighting in rugged terrain.

This book might inspire a wargaming rabbit hole or two for me. I am very interested in the Italian attack on France and probably already have the figures for it. However, more reading is required to fully understand the campaign. The German invasion of Switzerland is the sort of what-if that attracts me. I thought wargame figures might be challenging, as the Swiss had a unique helmet design. However, there are some 3D sculpts that look excellent. French postal charges were astronomical, but I have found a UK supplier, so a modest dabble will begin.

 

Turning the Tide

 When you think about the USAAF in WW2, you rarely think about the Mediterranean. However, it was here that many American pilots learned their trade and played a vital, yet often overlooked, role in the campaign. I have therefore been looking forward to this new Osprey book by Thomas Cleaver on the USAAF in North Africa and Sicily. It is a complete-length book, not an Osprey MAA or similar.

The early deployment of USAAF B-24 bombers to Palestine enabled the bombing of the Romanian oilfields. It wasn't a great success, mainly due to poor weather, and four returning aircraft were forced down in Turkey, three near the capital at Ankara and one at Izmir, due to fuel shortage and battle damage. You can see the remains of a later USAAF bomber (fished out of the sea) in an Istanbul museum today (see below). The Turkish Air Force eventually acquired enough US bombers to create their own Squadron.

Operation Torch brought significant USAAF assets to the Mediterranean despite differences between Churchill and the US leadership over his 'soft underbelly' strategy. The USAAF also regarded this theatre as a diversion from building up their strength in Britain for the bombing offensive. However, Roosevelt issued a direct order, and various fighters were deployed, including P-38s and P-40s. Two fighter groups also used the Spitfire in a reverse lend-lease operation. 

The author covers each of the operations in some detail. It is challenging to write operational air war history in a way that keeps the reader's attention. However, pilot memoirs are effective in breaking up the text. American air units arrived just before El Alamein, helping the Western Desert Air Force to victory. For example, the 65th Squadron had its baptism of air combat when it got into a fight with 20 Bf-109s over El Alamein. First Lieutenant Arnold D. Jaquan, in a P-40F, made the Squadron's first claims for one Bf-109 destroyed and a second damaged.

While the book focuses on the USAAF, its opponents are addressed. There is a good chapter on the Italian Air Force's shortcomings and the regular deployments of high-quality Luftwaffe units. The Vichy aircraft are not ignored.

There is an interesting discussion about the deployment of air support. The US Field manual held that air support must be subordinated to ground force needs. A headquarters memo issued in October 1942, stating a policy that aircraft should not be “frittered away” on unimportant targets but rather “reserved for concentration in overwhelming attack upon important objectives,” had not solved the problem. At Kasserine, there was a shift from tank-busting missions to more effective missions against airfields, infantry concentrations, and soft-skinned vehicles. Eisenhower eventually embraced the new philosophy, partly because he had lost confidence in Fredendall, who had been the leading proponent of tying the air forces to specific ground forces.

The USAAF learned to walk and then to run in the Mediterranean. The success of Operation Overlord would not have been possible without the lessons learned in battle over the North African desert and Sicily during the 12 months when the tide turned in World War II.

Slightly outside the timescale of this book, the use of US airpower in this theatre was also the cause of a major bust-up between Churchill and Eisenhower. This was over the deployment of long-range P38 fighters to support Churchill's folly, the Dodecanese adventure. It is a pity he stopped at Sicily, as it would have been interesting to get his take on this controversy. 

No P-38s but here is the opposition for Blood Red Skies