VOL. XI, NO. 3, APRIL 1965 EDITOR: JAN HAHN Circulation: Priscilla Cummings Published quarterly and distributed to the Associates, to Marine libraries and universities around the world, to other educational institutions, to. major city public- libraries and to other organizations and publications. Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 59-34518 HENRY B. BIGELOW Founder Chairman NOEL B. MCLEAN Chairman, Board of Trustees PAUL M. FYE President and Director COLUMBUS O'D. ISELIN H. 8. Bigelow Oceanographer BOSTWICK H. KETCHUM Associate Director for Biology and Chemistry The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole, Massachusetts VOL. XI, No. 3, April 1965 s Roroe Aves have been looking at seabirds for many centuries but rarely have bothered to identify and record the observed birds. Chief H. Backus, for 25 years Chief Engineer on the R.V. 'Atlantis' did keep voluminous records which proved to be of great value to the knowledge and geographical distribution of seabirds. Now, The Smithsonian Institution has named Mr. M. Palmieri, third mate on the 'Atlantis IF as Honorary Research Collaborator in the Division of Birds. It was stated that the Smithsonian had been favorably impressed by Mr. Palmieri's competence in identifying seabirds. Oceanography from space? VOL. XI, No. 3, April 1965 ELL, that will be a new twist. Having been used to probe the ocean with instruments lowered from shipboard or, more recently, by acoustical means also, the oceanographer has set his sights into the heavens. A meeting was held at Woods Hole last August with the support of the National Aeronautical Space Administration Office of Space Science and Application. A group of 150 oceanographers reviewed the capabilities of satellite sensors and to consider what areas of oceanographic endeavor might be advanced by these means. It was generally agreed by several panels that a most important use of satel- lites would be in gathering and transmitting information telemetered by various sensors located at the sea surface. These would include drifting and fixed instrument buoys, ships, shore stations, tags attached to migrating animals, markers on ice and drifting bergs. Information on tides, storm surges, waves, swell, and precise levelling of the sea surface were but among the many aspects of the ocean which may be studied by the use of the sensing capabilities of satellites. The Proceedings of the Meetings are being printed by the Institution as Report No. 65-10 and will be available for distribution by the end of May. The meetings were chaired by Dr. G. C. Ewing of our staff (no relation to Maurice) who was recently awarded the Commemorative Medal, Prince Albert ler of Monaco. A Major Discovery by PAUL M. FYE OINCE Dr. Swallow's article (page 3) was set in type, we received additional information obtained by the 'Atlantis IF in February en route to the Indian Ocean. Mr. A. R. Miller is chief scientist on the Institution's third major cruise as a part of the International Indian Ocean Expedition. Exciting results The results of this visit are even more exciting than before. By now these areas in the middle of the Red Sea are so interesting scientifically that they are being referred to as the Atlantis and Discovery Deeps for two of the research ships that have participated in these investigations. The German ship 'Meteor' with Dr. G. Dietrich, Chief Scientist, is now on her way to the Red Sea with a Woods Hole scientist and some special coring equipment* for further investiga- tions. At the Atlantis Deep, accurate mea- surements of temperature showed the amazingly high value of 55.9C. The salinity was found, as reported previously, to be about ten times the concentration of normal sea water (320 parts per thou- sand). Incidentally, this is comparable with the water of the Dead Sea and con- siderably saltier than that of Great Salt Lake. The Discovery Deep only a few miles away shows the same salinity but a temperature of only 44.6C. The water in both holes is unusually acid Atlantis Deep showed a pH of 5.5 and Discovery Deep a pH of 6.2, compared to about pH 8 for mean ocean water. Both deeps are anaerobic judged by the absence of free oxygen and the presence of heavy metals in their fully reduced stage. *See: "The Free Corer", Oceanus, Vol. XI, No. 2., Dec. '64. The most interesting information just brought back from the 'Atlantis II' was obtained by sediment cores from the bottom and the sides of these deeps. The material when first brought to the surface is tarry black in appearance and is principally composed of iron oxides (magnetic), Anhydrite (CaSO 4 ), and amorphous silica (SiO 2 n H 2 O). The x-ray patterns also show small amounts of Sphalerite (ZnS). Samples of water from the lower regions of these deeps have a chemical content which is equally informative. Namely, whereas sodium, calcium, potas- sium, and chloride are about ten times the concentration of ordinary sea water; the magnesium, sulfate and bicarbonate contents are significantly lower than in ocean water. The most important anomaly is the enrichment in iron, manganese, and silica which are a few hundred to a few thousand times the concentration found in the open ocean. Basic questions Basic questions are raised concerning (1) the origin of these hot brines, (2) the high concentration of iron, manganese and silica in the aqueous phase, and (3) the chemical relationship between the hot waters apd the deposition of silica, an- hydrite, and heavy metals. Surely this is a major scientific discovery which has resulted from distinguished cooperation among laboratories of several nations. No doubt we will want to return to study this brew of interesting chemicals in the near future. April 1, 1965 SUEZ CANAL Hot Salty Water by J. C. SWALLOW EGYPT WE E were expecting something unusual on 'Discovery' station 5580, on September 11, 1964. It was near 21 North in the middle of the Red Sea, very close to the place where both the 'Atlantis' in 1958 and 'Atlantis IT in 1963 had ^H , found abnormally hot salty water near the MECCA bottom. We had anchored a radar buoy, 1 briefly surveyed the area, found two small holes I about 2200 meters deep, and were putting 1 down a closely-spaced cast of water bottles I into one of them. Approaching the bot- I torn, the one-second pinger on the wire below the bottles had gone out of step SUDAN and then re-synchronized itself with the echo-sounder a sure sign (with that particular pinger) that it had gone through a sudden change of tempera- 1 ture. But even then we found it 1 hard to believe the thermometers 1 when the bottles came up. All 1 quite normal, around 22C, to within 200 meters of the bottom, ETHIOPIA ADEN Hof salty water then 26C, then both thermometers off- scale (over 35 C), then again both protected thermometers off-scale but the unprotected showing 58C. And so on. We did a second dip using only 60 unprotected thermometers on the deeper bottles the only means we had of measuring the high temperature of the bottom water, which we found after cor- rection to be about 44.3C. Far in excess of the 25.8C found previously, and which itself had seemed abnormally high. High Salinity Then the salinity turned out to be equally surprising. When water was being drawn from bottles that had been near the bottom it seemed to run out more slowly than usual, and any that got spilt on deck immediately dried' up leaving a thick white patch of crystals. The salinometer naturally refused to balance when offered a sample of the bottom water undiluted; it had to be broken down to one-eighth concentration (by volume) before the salinometer would come on scale at all. So it looked as if the "salinity" was about 320 parts per thousand, but, of course, the dilution should properly be calculated by weight instead of by volume. When that was done, the "salinity" turned out to be "only" 271 parts per thousand.* We brought back a few liters of this unusual liquid, and further analyses are going on; it is still too early to say how so much salt came to be there, but the most likely process seems to be solution of a salt deposit in the sea floor. One can always think afterwards of things that ought to have been done. We did not take any sediment samples, and we did not collect any water from the other deep hole only 3 miles to the north. And even though we knew that we ought to look out for stratification in the hot salty water, our sampling depths were too widely spaced in the interesting transition zone. However, a separate but somewhat confusing bit of evidence has turned up about stratification. *The average surface salinity in the Red Sea is about 38-40 parts per thousand, while the bottom salinity is generally about 40.5 parts per thousand. DR. SWALLOW is at the National Insti- tute of Oceanography in Great Britain. Inventor of the Swallow Float, he was awarded the Bigelow Medal in 1962 (See: "Oceanus", Vol. IX, No. 1). Reflecting Layers When the new German R/V 'Meteor' re-occupied that station, about two months after the 'Discovery', Professor G. Die- trich noticed that the boundary between the normal deep Red Sea water and the hot salty water showed up as a reflecting layer on the echo-sounder. On looking at our own sounding records, to follow up his observation, we found nothing at all in the small basin where we took our samples, but could see three separate reflecting horizons at about the right depth in the other basin, three miles to the north. So, perhaps there is hot salty water in both holes, and in the northern one the changes of density are abrupt enough to give clear reflections with 10 kc/s sound (or perhaps the reflectors are particles sitting on the interfaces?) so that the water in that hole must be stratified. And then it seems possible that this may be a natural example of a kind of convection described recently by Messrs. Turner and Stommel, which occurs when water with a stable salinity gradient is heated from below. Doubtless the 'Meteor's' observations will make the situation much clearer, and by now 'Atlantis II' will have been there again. Already that particular spot in the Red Sea seems to have become a kind of unofficial international reference station. Quite apart from the curiosity of the water, it makes a useful exercise in putting bottles close to the bottom, and an exercise in navigation. References: 1. Neumann, A. C, and Densmore, C. D., 1959, Woods Hole Oceanographic Insti- tution, unpublished manuscript, Ref. 60-2. 2. Miller, A. R., 1964, Nature, London. 203, 590-591. 3. Swallow, J. C., and Crease, J., 1964, Nature, London. 205, 4967, 165-166. 4. Turner, J. S., and Stommel, H., 1964, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 52, 1. 49-53. -.- Bathygram (sounding record) of the northern hole in the Red Sea shows three deep reflecting layers in the northern basin, at the boundary between the normal deep water and the hot salty water beneath. Depths in fathoms.. The fuzz/ness in the bottom contour is typical in areas of rough topography and is due to side echoes. This still is one of the limitations in deep echo sounding. See: "Oceanus goes to the bottom of the sea", Oceanus, Vol. V, Nos. 1 and 2. Jhe bathygram of the southern basin in which the 'Discovery' made her observations did not show reflecting horizons at the boundary of the hot salty water. ' \ '' ' /J|l =T r . - ! y ^ ... - - Missing ingredients found In which great inventiveness is shown to analyze hot salty water in the Red Sea. C. D. DENSMORE T, HOUGH a research vessel may rep- resent a floating machine shop, ship chandlery and electronics supply house, inevitably there comes a time of reckon- ing when something is not to be had. Now, 'Atlantis IF bulges with compli- cated glassware and millipore filters and polysyllabic chemicals for routine analy- sis of sea water; unfortunately, the hot brine in the Red Sea holes has nothing routine about it, and there is still some doubt as to its even being sea water. All the test instruments went madly off scale when introduced to this potent fluid until eventually salinity and other determina- tions were made with ten to one dilutions. When R. Pocklington and E. Degens set about a qualitative analysis of this peculiar water they found the laboratory sadly wanting in certain essentials: no H 2 S, no Pb NO 3 , no magnesium standard. The only conventional chemicals availa- ble: some hydrochloric acid, ammonia and nitric acid. As so often before, necessity mothered invention, with the aid of memory of first year chemistry courses, sulphur was produced (amidst horrid smells) from thiosulphate darkroom hypo and hy- drochloric acid. This in turn was fused with aluminum foil from the galley to give A1 2 S 3 , and the addition of water delivered the H 2 S that was wanted. Lead was no problem; the decks were littered with hydro-weights. A few shav- ings, nitric acid, and presto! Pb NO 3 . A. C. Neumann and C. D. Densmore (beard) in Egypt during the 1958 'Atlantis' cruise when the hot salty spot was reported. Doc Willis' sickbay provided hydrogen peroxide, and later Epsom salts to be used as the magnesium standard in the flame photometer. Foot powder was con- sidered for a borax bead test, but rejected as having too many additives. When an acid solution of the core sample proved to contain both ferrous and ferric iron the need arose of testing for ferrous-ferric oxide, or magnetite. The little magnetic clips from the notice board didn't quite have the steam, but a fine magnet was acquired by pulling apart a loudspeaker. But-alas- the sedi- ment was magnetic. The galley also graciously provided (while its back was turned) a large stain- less steel cauldron in which Red Sea surface water was boiled down for com- parison to the consistency of the 2,000 meter brine. In Aden, by the kindness of the Governor, the chemistry laboratory of El Bayoomi College was opened to the ship, and a more formal series of analysis was performed by the Englishman, the Ger- man and an Arab technician. All in all, it was a pretty demonstration of what can be done by resourceful people goaded by curiousity. Bombay, 1, March 1965. Atlantis Stn 5639 AUantis-U Sin 4-2 echo -sounder here 21 20 V In the middle of /fie Red Sea extremely warm and salty water has been found in recent years. The insert shows the locality where ob- servations have been made. The depth contours are in meters (corrected for the speed of sound in sea water). Stars indicate where the 'Atlantis' (in 1958), the 'Atlantis II' (in 1963), and 'Discovery' (in 1964) found hot salty water. Not shown are the observations made by the 'Atlantis' in February, 1965. Laboratory experiment of convec- tion by Turner and Stommel shows layers occuring when water with a stable salinity gradient is heated from below. Three layers are out- lined with fluorescence mixed from below, while four more are made visible with aluminum powder mixed into the water at the begin- ning of the experiment. (See text page 4). 7 YAKUTAT \ * FLIP ft HONOLULU V CANCER IUTUILA \ PALMYRA EQUATOR TROPIC OF CAPRICORN CAPE PALLISER NEW ZEALAND ANTARCTIC CIRCLE Wave observation stations along a great circle between New Zealand and Alaska were set up to test theoretical predictions. Waves across Pacific by W. H. MUNK An expedition to study how waves lose their energy In the last fifteen years or so the theory of forecasting ocean waves has been put on a scientific basis by H. U. Sverdrup and W. H. Munk. This knowledge is of great practical importance and is particularly valuable in the Pacific Ocean where many coasts and harbors are exposed to seas and swells and where sufficient meteorological observations are not available. years ago wave records taken off La Jolla showed the arrival of ocean swell from a storm in the Indian Ocean half way around the world. The waves entered the Pacific along a great circle between New Zealand and Antarctica. We had been anxious to study the propa- gation of these waves in detail by occupying stations along a great circle route. In the last few years Hasselmann and Phillips have made considerable progress in theoretical studies concerning certain unsolved features in ocean waves known as nonlinear interactions. As a first ap- proximation two or more different sets of waves can pass through one another without any effect. But to a higher approximation one cannot ignore the slight interaction between the wave systems. Our expedition was designed to put these theoretical predictions to a test. Pacific waves We selected six stations along a great circle extending from New Zealand to Alaska in line with waves known to emerge from severe storms south of New Zealand, and reasonably in line with waves coming from the Indian Ocean through the "Tasman Sea Window". The distance between the extreme stations was 40,000 typical ocean wave lengths and over such distances the weak interactions can have a large cumulative effect. Originally we had planned to occupy a somewhat more romantic route to the east, and I had expected to occupy the station on the remote island of Niue, where women are known to murder their husbands for eating too much. But while I was on sabbatical leave in England, my associate F. Snodgrass, who is more practically inclined than I am, chose the present route. F. Peterson took Cape Palliser, New Zealand. I took the station at Tutuila, Samoa; the uninhabited equa- torial island of Palmyra was occupied by G. Groves. Hasselmann observed at Honolulu; Northrop was aboard FLIP and G. Miller (then a graduate student) went to Yakutat, Alaska. FLIP was constructed and is being oper- ated through the Office of Naval Research. She forms a stable platform moving only a few inches up and down in a heavy sea. At right the "ship" with tanks flooded in operating condition. The signal flying on the "mast" or is it the bowsprit?, indicates an oceanographic vessel on station. Below: FLIP, as rarely shown, in towing position. FLIP, a naval research ship conceived by F. Spiess, was stationed to bridge the gap between Hawaii and Alaska lest the dislike of coral for cold water enter as a factor in making wave theories. This 300 foot long spar buoy is carefully tuned to heave at 27 seconds, a period longer than the energetic ocean waves. Accordingly, it is a very stable platform, moving up and down by only a few inches in a heavy sea. We placed one sensitive pressure recorder just beneath the waterline, and another at the bottom end of FLIP. Heaving motion leads to equal pressure fluctuations at the two instruments and is canceled by subtrac- tion. Wave motion is not, because it has a larger effect at the upper instrument. In this way we could separate FLIP'S motion from wave motion and record swell to a precision comparable with that obtained on island stations. MARINE PHYSICAL LABORATORY. SAN DIEGO The author and his family in their fate in the village of Vailoa To/ on the southwest coast of Tutuila, American Samoa. The work was cruelly hard. In the background the heavy swell is rolling in from a New Zealand storm. An offshore cable-connected pressure transducer transmitted the wave signals to a combination galley-laboratory. Initially we had intended to persuade the U.S. Coast Guard to supply logistic air support for Palmyra, but this turned out not to be feasible. We had to rely on expensive, private charter. After two charter trips during which the pilot lost his way, the appropriate Navy command in Honolulu decided that it would be cheaper to provide some air transporta- tion than to man a rescue operation. At all stations the Vibrotron pressure transducer was used as the primary instrument. It was placed on the sea bottom at 10 fathoms, and connected to shore by electric cable. This transducer converts pressure fluctuations into fluctuat- ing voltages of variable frequency, and this frequency is punched out digitally on paper tape (the precision was 0.1 mm of water pressure). I originally had mis- givings about using transistorized digital equipment at our remote sites (Palmyra and Tutuila had to depend on generators), but Mr. Snodgrass persuaded me of his choice, and it turned out to be the right one. For all stations combined we collected about 100,000 numbers per day for 100 days. The digital paper tapes were air mailed back to La Jolla where Mr. Arden used previously prepared computing programs to check observa- tions for errors, make corrections, and make a spectral analysis. The resultant spectra were air mailed to Honolulu for examination by K. Hasselmann and F. Snodgrass in time for making changes and repairs as the expedition went on. The routine analysis was essentially finished a week after the expedition ended. High speed electronic computers have made possible an old dream to carry out the reduction of oceanic observations in "real time". Results What have we learned from these measurements? The experimental obser- vations are nicely summarized in a series of contour charts (one for each station) showing the intensity of the waves as affected by frequency and time (like speech spectrograms). Following severe storms in the southern oceans the intensity at each station is found to rise sharply starting in the south and ending two weeks later in the north. At each station the "signal" commences at 30 millicycles (33 second period) and terminates a few days later at 80 millicycles (12.5 seconds). The low frequencies come in first because they are faster. This is called "disper- sion". The duration of an event increases from typically two days at New Zealand 11 Pacific waves or Samoa to seven days at Alaska, with the increase being accounted for by the dispersive stretching of the wave train. The speed with which each frequency advances toward the north is in accord- ance with the theoretical velocity. If the position of Palmyra had not been prev- iously known, we could have inferred it from the waves to within a few degrees of latitude. Further, there is enough continuity in the field of wave intensity in time and space that adequate predic- tions of surfing conditioning at Honolulu could have been made on the basis of the measurements at Tutuila some days in advance. (From what I know of the surfing profession, I do not suggest this as a lucrative enterprise.) So far we have simply confirmed that wave energy spreads in accordance with classical laws and that there is continuity over large distances and times. Now what about the effects of non-linear inter- action? Here the results are less satis- factory. Each event behaves differently from the others, and generalizations are hard to come by. One cannot speak of a law of attenuation on ocean swell. Details depend on the precise location of the storm relative to island groups and on the mutual interference between waves from a given storm and possibly waves from separate storms. It is useful to distinguish between the near zone of the wave decay, which is of the order of a storm diameter, and the far zone. In the near zone the decay of frequencies above 70 millicycles is high, of the order of 1 db per degree latitude (factor of 10 in 1000 km). As a result, the high frequencies leaving the storm are soon lost, and the over-all wave energy greatly reduced. Subsequent at- tenuation in the far zone is remarkably small, less than 0.1 db per degree. It turns out that certain wave frequencies interact with one another in such a way DR. MUNK is Associate Director of the Geophysics Institute of the University of California, San Diego. He is well known for his theoretical work in physical oceanography as well as for his excellent sense of humor. as to reduce the swell and increase the energy of the very short waves which is then lost into whitecaps. To estimate the rate at which this process goes on, Hasselmann has computed the "collision cross sections'" (a term borrowed from atomic physics) between the various wave trains. The theoretical attenuation involves the collision cross sections as well as the distribution of wave energy in frequency in direction. Numerical results were obtained on a computer and these are not far off from what was observed. The computed attenuation drops off sharply with the decrease in wave energy and with the sorting of the wave trains due to dispersion. This explains why the observed decay of waves falls off so rapidly with distance from the storm. Use satellites? 1 am left with the impression that field studies of non-linear process will be hard to come by. It is the nature of non-linearity that everything depends on everything else. As a result, experimental shortcuts may not be profitable. In our case the shortcut consisted of measuring along a line (the great circle) the one- dimensional (non-directional) spectrum of ocean waves. What is really required is the measurement of the two-dimentional (di- rectional) spectrum over a two-dimensional grid. But no one has any practical ideas on how to do this, although I suggest some thought be given to making large area observations from earth-orbiting satellites. The wave studies reported here were sup- ported by the Office of Naval Research. 12 Atlantis II Circumnavigation (UROPEAN oceanographers long were fond of making great expeditions, going around the world and taking several years to do so. Then the scientists retired to their laboratories and desks and spent many more years bringing out great tomes which provided the foundation of our knowledge. Starting with the famous 'Challenger' Expedition, 1873-76, the long voyage was made by other famous vessels: the 'Gazelle', the 'Dana 1 , the 'Galathea', the Swedish 'Albatross' and the 'Vityaz'. The 'Vema', we believe, was the first American research vessel to round the globe, although the 'Carnegie' may have been halfway when she blew up in the Pacific. (This was written in Aruba where the local librarian had never heard of oceanography, he knows now!) From Woods Hole we preferred to take on one ocean at a time, the relatively 'simple' comparatively small North Atlantic. Al- though since 1947 when the 'Atlantis' made a six months cruise to the Mediter- ranean our ships have ranged farther and farther away. In late January, the 'Atlantis 11' (Cap- tain E. H. Hiller), departed on a global cruise, partly to continue with our pro- gram for the International Indian Ocean Expedition" and partly on a co-operative study with Japanese oceanographers to investigate the Kuroshio, the Japan or Black Current. Sea-ships being somewhat slower than space-ships the 'Atlantis IT will not return to Woods Hole until some- time next November. Mr. A. R. Miller is chief scientist during the first part of the program, while Dr. H. Stommel will be in charge of the Kuroshio studies. We have arranged to receive informa- tion from the scientific party and only hope that this will appear. It is notoriously difficult to make people write during a cruise, one is either at work, asleep, at the table or at play and preciously little of the latter. "See: Indian Ocean Issue, Oceanus, Vol. X, No. 3, March 1964. 13 Although the 'Michael Lomonosov' is the Russians' showpiece, they also use many smaller ships. The three-masted schooner 'Zarya' (below) has worked extensively in the Pacific Ocean. The 'Ocecmograph' and the 'Aisberg', each of obouf 450 fons and fhus slightly larger than our 'Atlantis', recently made hydrographic and meteorological observations in the northeastern North Atlantic. The three months' cruise was in connection with the proposed building of a hydro-electric station which will use tidal energy in the Strait connecting the White Sea and the Barents Sea in the Arctic. u z (ft LJ a: a. U) o > o z 14 U. S. Oceanographers Visit the Soviet Union by CAPT. T. K. TREADWELL, JR., USN J_ HE Navy has always been interested in oceanography, particularly in its applied forms. Only within the last generation, however, have the needs been clearly identified, and a systematic set of pro- grams carried out to meet them. Given full answers to the fundamental problems in oceanography, the effectiveness of naval operations could be increased several-fold. Since oceanography is such a potent force, it obviously is of considerable interest to know how our competitors are doing. Thus, during last September and October a group of six United States oceanographers were able to spend a month visiting a variety of Soviet oceano- graphic institutions, as one of the State Department's technical exchange pro- grams. The party consisted of Drs. K. Bryan, U. S. Weather Bureau; L. K. Coachman, Un. of Washington; R. S. Dietz, U. S. C. & G. S.; F. Favorite, Bu. Commercial Fisheries, G. F. Squires, Smithsonian Institution; and Capt. T. K. Treadwell, U. S. N. Many of the places visited were located in Moscow. Side trips were made to Leningrad and Murmansk in the north, and to Sevastopol and Gelendzhik in the south. The more important institutes visited were the Institute of Oceanology, State Oceanographic Institute, Moscow State University, and the All Union Insti- tute of Fisheries and Oceanography, and World Data Center "B" in Moscow, as well as the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute in Leningrad and Marine Hydro- physical Institute in Sevastopol. Based on this tour, which was limited to scientific, non-military subjects, several things seem clear. In overall size, the Soviet effort is probably the equal of any in the world. As in the United States, it is spread across many agencies, following different courses. Although the Soviets have two major coordinating committees (similar to our own Interagency Commit- tee on Oceanography), it does not appear that their coordination is any more effec- tive than ours, and most likely less. On the 15 Soviet visit other hand, much firmer direction can be exercised in the USSR, if and when it is considered necessary. Evidently the number of personnel engaged in the marine sciences is larger than here. Further, their production of trained oceanographers is substantially higher than that of the United States. There is the added advantage of being able to detail personnel where needed, rather than rely on inefficient persuasion. Those scientists contacted seemed to be content, and technically well-qualified. It does not appear, however, that man for man (or man for woman, since they have a far higher percentage of women scien- tists than we do) they are the equivalent of the U.S. scientists. Soviet oceanographic ships have re- ceived considerable commendation, and certainly much of it is merited. The only one visited ('Lomonosov') seemed to be well designed for multi-purpose cruises, although much more crowded than those of the western world. The actual numbers of ships are almost impossible to compare. The Soviets have a far larger ship-of- opportunity program in operation, and these are hard to identify and evaluate. It would seem that the two capabilities are, in balance, not significantly different in non-military fields. Shore facilities The shore facilities of the Soviet oceanographic institutions are surely the worst part of their program. Research centers are rusticated into ill-suited palaces of the last century, or stuck into Downfown branch of the Institute of Oceanology in Moscow, housing instrumentation, geology and chemistry sections. the basements of apartment houses. Crowding was the rule; lighting, heating, and general office support equipment were ancient. Instrumentation Instrumentation seemed to be adequate and rugged, although very few innova- tions were noted. Foreign sources formerly provided much technical equip- ment, and a lot of it still is seen from East Germany, Poland, Britain and the Scandinavian countries. Examples of quantity production by Soviet factories are increasingly seen, although these are frequently "Chinese Copies" of foreign items. Automation was almost unheard of. The routine collection and processing of data is certainly a strong point of the Soviet program, although it is being carried out by brute force by large numbers of people. Only one computer was seen, and one electric desk calcula- tor; the standard mathematical tool is the abacus. It was further noted that limited runs of publications and periodicals made them hard to obtain, even in the Soviet Union, and almost impossible to find abroad. World Data Center "ET, the focal point of international data ex- change, was a disappointment; it only had a few shelves of publications avail- able, and no "data" in the U.S. sense of the word. 16 The research programs were somewhat disappointing; they showed few lines of work worth pursuing. In their applied programs, however, every effort is being made to get something useful for their money, and in many areas, such as ice prediction, fisheries, engineering applica- tions, and coastal control, they are doing very well. Practical work In summary, the Soviet oceanographic program is massive, and slanted toward practical applications. It is being carried out by large numbers of people, led by top-flight scientists, under the disadvan- tages of commonplace equipment and poor working conditions. Significant advances have been made in the last twenty years, and the trend will doubtless continue. Comparison of the Soviet and United States efforts is difficult, since they are basically unlike. The Soviets stress appli- cations, and give research a back seat; we pour the bulk of our resources into research, and all too often pay only lip-service to useful products. At the present moment, it would seem that Russia is getting as much or more for their money than we are, in the form of practi- cal applications. They seem to lack a strong program of fundamental research which is clearly necessary to provide the basis for achievements a decade or genera- tion in the future. The short-sightedness in this regard will sap their strength, surely and soon. It would be equally shortsighted of the United States to neglect those phases of its own effort which are lagging, such as education, shipbuilding, and the develop- ment of practical applications. This visit provided the opportunity to see a part of the Soviet program. Perhaps even more important than that is the opportunity to see the United States program in a new context, so that we can correct our weaknesses and take advantage of our strengths. Reprinted with permission from Naval Oceanographic Newsletter, of the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office Washington, D.C., Nov. 1964, Vol. Ill No. 3. u. For Amateur Oceanographers NDERWATER sounds made by shrimps, fishes, large and small whales and other marine life have, for years, fascinated scientists and the public alike. To listen to such sounds has required expensive and complicated apparatus which put listening out of the reach of students or amateur scientists. One might try to stick one's head underwater but this is both uncomfortable and unrewarding since our ears are built to receive sound waves in air. Now, Mr. W. A. Watkins, research associate on our staff, has published instructions for a cheap, easily assembled underwater sound system which can be made from parts costing about one dollar! See: Watkins, W. A., "Science in Action", Natural History Magazine, American Museum of Natural History, New York, December 1964, pp 57-59. H Attention- Associates! .ERE is something we missed and perhaps many of our Associates missed also. In our last Annual Report Dr. Paul M. Fye, our Director, stated: "During the past year (1963) the Associates contributed more than $100,000 to the Institution; this was slightly more than one-fifth of the private funds available to us. The amount is particularly significant when it is realized that this sum is roughly equivalent to what might be expected in income from an additional endowment of two million dollars. The need for increased endowment has not lessened, but the Associates' Program has been of great assistance in filling a portion of this need." 17 SUMMER JUN-JUL AUG Direction ot currants Inferred drift as indicated on the monthly plates and substantiated by tha drift bottle recoveries Interpolations and extrapolations 200-meter bathymetry - State and provincial boundaries International boundary . k r a NEW ATLAS in (0 o> H uJ U o O I Q. < DC. O o UJ Z < y or UJ J.HE drift bottle studies, so amusingly reported by Mr. Bumpus on the following pages, led to the publication of a beautiful Atlas, printed in color: Bumpus, D. F. and Lauzier, L. M. 1965. Surface circulation on the continental shelf off eastern North America be- tween Newfoundland and Florida. Folio 7, Serial Atlas of the Marine Environ- ment. American Geographical Society, N.Y., N.Y. Looseleaf $5.00. Paper- back $8.00. The atlas is of importance not only to scientists, but also to yachtsmen, parti- cularly those who race, to fishermen, to those interested in waste disposal and shore pollution, and to other engineers involved in shore programs. The monthly and seasonal charts may also be useful in settling some fierce arguments which rage periodically between those who claim that the eggs of inshore lobsters drift offshore or that the offshore lobster eggs drift inshore. The work resulted from drift bottle data obtained between 1948 and 1962. It is interesting to note that of the 156,276 bottles released, 16,668 or 10.7% were recovered along the Atlantic Seaboard, while 356 (or 2% of all recovered) were found overseas. Although most of the bottles appear to have been found within a few hours or at least a few days after stranding, one bottle, released by Dr. H. B. Bigelow, was found 29 years later! WINTER DEC JAN -FES Direction of currents - - inferred dnft as indicated on the monthly pfates and substantiated by the drift bottle recoveries -*---- Interpolations and extrapolations 200-meter bathymetry - State and provincial boundaries - International boundary 18 / /"I . ' - ~ \ ;-r / ^, ' A ^ \ \ /* V M N \ v M v \ "-A N r It is remarkable to note the large number of organizations involved in the studies. The research was supported by funds from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commis- sion, the National Institutes of Health, the Fisheries Research Board of Canada and the International Passamaquoddy Fisheries Board. Drift bottles were released and logged by personnel of: the Bureau of Commer- cial Fisheries at Woods Hole, Boothbay Harbor, Me., Brunswick, Ga., and Sandy Hook, N. Y., The Texas Tower Weather Observers of the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. Coast Guard Lightships, and International Ice Patrol Unit, the U.S. Weather Bureau, Boston, Mass., the Virginia Institute of Marine Science and, of course, our Insti- tution. The publication of the Folio was sup- ported by the Civic Fund, E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company, the Lincoln Ells- worth Foundation, the Moses Taylor Foundation, the Pan-American Petroleum Foundation, and the U.S. Steel Founda- tion. The Atlas Project (of which this is Folio 7), also receives support from the National Science Foundation and the National Research Council of Canada. Finally, the work would not have been possible without the co-operation of the many people who returned the cards from the bottles. > I I 19 Brea j ^* & STROBOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPH. BY H E. EDGERTON, M EXPOSURE: ONE MICROSECOND BOTTLED OCEANOGRAPHY by D. F. BUMPUS "I'm just an old beer bo///e Drifting on the foam Whoever finds this bottle Will find the beer all gone." N OTES of all sorts have been "mailed" at sea by mariners, ship wrecked sailors, evangelists, lonely young in hearts seek- ing pen pals, passengers on ocean liners and amateur oceanographers. Professional oceanographers along the east coast of the United States and Canada have been sending postcards to themselves in increasing numbers in bottles! With the publishing at long last of the atlas on the "Surface Circulation on the Continental Shelf off Eastern North America between Newfoundland and Florida" :|: by this writer and L. Lauzier of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada Biological Station at St. Andrews, New Brunswick, it is timely to report some of the interesting comments which this "bottle post" has elicited. "Correspondence oceanography" and "mail order oceanography" have been a couple of the sobriquets applied to this not very novel method of obtaining data on surface currents. 150,000 serially numbered, postal permit postcards in- serted in pop bottles, ballasted with a teaspoon of dry sand and tightly corked, have been released over the continental shelf by ships, ferry boats, lightships, Texas Towers, aircraft, and even two blimps during the period 1948 through 1962. 16,000 of these postcards (about 11%) have been returned. The finders received a 50 cents rewards. From the data on when and where the bottles were released and when and where they were recovered, the net direction and speed of the surface drift have been diagrammed. 21 The fishermen and beachcombers, in- cluding children, who recovered these bottles have exhibited uncommon interest in this type of oceanographic research, since they felt that they were participating in the work. Consequently many wished to know when and where the bottle they found was released. Many folks waived the reward. The enjoyment of "finding the bottle" or contributing to science seemed to be ample reward. Fishermen, in particular, realized that the informa- tion acquired through these studies will ultimately be of benefit to them or will contribute data on currents necessary to a further understanding of the life history of fish stocks, which may lead to wiser management of the fishery. Grasping To some, the reward offered was para- mount. One impecunious young lady wrote: "I found one of your bottles used for the studying of ocean currents Everybody says my findings are worth much more but if 50<- is all you can afford that's o-kay with me. Please hurry in sending it to me since my parents (cheap skates) give me an allow- ance so small that I'm continually borrowing from my younger sister. From the reward I will receive only 46^ since I owe 4<- to my sister for the stamp." On the same theme but with a Scot's burr: "As the enclosed reply card is only for posting in the USA I am sending you this letter, but no doubt you will refund the postage. The bottle was washed ashore on the Atlantic side of North Uist in the Outer Hebrides. 50 cents is prom- ised to the sender of the enclosed card, but a small amount of cents is of nae much use here. The Bank will charge I/ to cash them, and as the bank is 1 6 miles fra here, it twa hae to be posted, and they would send the change back in a registered envelope costing a I/- so Bottles MR. BUMPLJS, Senior Scientist on our staff, has been with the Institution since 1937. He is interested in the circulation over the Continental Shelf. there would nae be much left. So I would prefer the equivalent of 50 cents in English currency." We sent him four "bob". We have had only one obvious hold- up. This letter was sent to us from Vero Beach. "I have one of your bottles. I collect things of this sort as I find them. I also collect $2.00 bills. That is what it will take to get the number off this bottle, and where found, etc." We considered sending her letter to a Vero Beach news- paper "but decided the kinder approach was simply to ignore her. Scepticism Some individuals were a little skeptical and wished to know if the offer was really "on the level". One graduate student voyaging on the 'Chain' in the N. E. Atlantic undertook a drift bottle study of his own. He obtained some beer bottles in Bermuda and prepared bottle papers on the ship's mimeograph. In consequence, the following appeared in an Argyllshire newspaper: "Hoax Messages Beach- combers have found several bottles washed in by the tide containing type- written messages requesting that the latitude and longitude of where they were found should be sent to the Oceano- graphic Institute, Massachusetts, U.S.A. As the messages do not bear any official stamp it is believed that they have been thrown into the sea as a hoax". In addition to the requested informa- tion: date, location of finding, and name and address of finder; details of family history are often provided by elderly beachcombers. In contrast, one 17-year old, hoping to accelerate her history, sent us her vital statistics: 5'3", 106 #, 34"- 24"-35" and her phone number. Many bottle finders request pamphlets, charts or answers to specific questions. The "Readers Guide to Oceanography" 22 has been our handiest and most efficient answer to these requests. Hopefully some of the younger inquirers will develop a consuming interest in our science. One author of children's books has written a delightful little book on oceanography for small fry. "In the deep blue sea."** But it was a little difficult to straighten out a couple of Rollins College geology majors who wanted to know if we were employing our bottles in an attempt to demonstrate the theory that the Pacific flows periodically under the Atlantic. One youngster was most generous. She sent us a fossil shark's tooth from her collection. Other kids have sent in speci- mens for identification. Some delightful "Indian beads" turned out to be worm tubes. Removing the card from the bottle without destroying the card seems to have been a problem for some. One individual broke the bottle on the incinerator door, losing bottle, card and all into the flames, could not recall the number, but still claimed the reward. Another explained the hole in the postcard. "My husband broke the bottle by shooting it with his forty-five." Old friends Several finders wished to be remem- bered to various members of the staff. One of my old prep school friends found a bottle as did the son of another. Small world! One of our Institution trustees has found bottles on two different occasions. As mentioned in a previous issue the daughter of one of our former crew members has helped to add to our knowl- edge of net drift. One correspondent, Claude A. More- house of Beaver Harbour, N.B., was moved to write a poem about his contact with oceanography which sort of sums up the whole story: *Bumpus, D. F. and Lauzier, L. M. 1965. Surface circulation on the continental shelf off eastern North America between New- foundland and Florida. Folio 7, Serial Atlas of the Marine Environment. American Geographical Society, N.Y., N.Y. Looseleaf $5.00. Paperback $8.00. ** Morgan, Elizabeth 1962 In the deep blue sea. Prentice Hall. REWARD V 79555 REMOVE CARD FROM BOTTLE, PLEASE FILL IN INFORMATION AS INDICATED, AND SEND BY MAIL Where found (name of beach or place on shore, near what Coast Guard station. Lighthouse, or other prominent reference point) When found, date Your Name (print) Your Home Address (print) Your return will assist the addressee in a study of coast.il circulation. Fifty cents plus location and date of release will be sent to finder on return of this card While strolling along the shore, one day, A bottle I espied: It looked as though it had just drifted in, And had been left by the outgoing tide; So I gave it a kick as we're wont to do- Just to pass the time away- Right then some printing caught my eye And here's what the words did say. BREAK THIS BOTTLE- I couldn't believe my eyes. . . BREAK THIS BOTTLE- It sure was a big surprise; Inside I found a card that said- It sure was my lucky day "Dear finder please return this card To the Oceanographic Survey." I've heard some tales of bottles found With messages inside, Which had drifted for many, and many a league On the ocean's rolling tide; And some told tales of Happiness, And some of a loss at sea; But this Oceanographic Bottle I found Was sure a new wrinkle on me. It seems there's a new idea, to wrest The secrets of the sea, And how much the ocean tides affect The lives of you and me; So Canada, and United States Are working together each day, And sort of combining their efforts, in An Oceanographic Survey. So if you're ever down this way In our lovely countryside Be sure to take a stroll, one day, By the Ocean's Rolling Tide; And Maybe . . who knows . . what you will find It might be a pirate's hoard. . . Or a bottle from Woods Hole, Mass. And you'll get 50 cents reward. 23 Recent Publications "Economic Benefits from Oceanographic Research" National Academy of Sciences National Research Council Publication No. 1228; 50 pp., paper: $2.00, 1964 "JJUT what is it good for?" How often have we not heard this question? The easiest answer: "To increase man's knowledge", is not always satisfactory to the questioner. Now, the NAS-NRC has prepared an attractively covered booklet explaining how blank dollars invested in research will return X-times blank dollars in contribution to the economy of the country. The principal applications of oceanographic research, their potential benefits, and their costs are ably pre- sented, while a framework is suggested for the use of others who may wish to esti- mate the returns from national investments in oceanography. Specific benefits are projected for fisheries, marine products, ocean shipping, long-range weather fore- casting, sewage disposal and recreation. We suggest that this publication should be read not only by industrial executives, lawmakers and others interested in the Gross National Product but also by oceanographers who may be surprised at how much their work is evaluated. Sears, M. (Ed.) "Progress in Oceanog- raphy", Vol. 2., A Pergamon Press Book, The Macmillan Co., N.Y., 1964. WE E stated recently that Prof. Wiist continued to produce prolifically, and he has done it again! This volume contains a most valuable paper on the major deep- sea expeditions and research vessels from 1873 to 1960 and is a most interesting contribution to the history of oceanogra- phy. Now one does no longer have to search in a dozen different places. As is his wont, Dr. WUst again makes the plea that it is the duty of oceanographers to complete the analysis and interpretation of the tremendous amount of new data and publish the results. The vertical distribution of zooplank- ton, the distribution of phosphorous and oxygen in the Atlantic Ocean, as ob- served during the IGY, and a survey of marine bottom samplers complete the long papers published in this volume. An International Directory of Oceanographers Edited by R. C. VETTER National Academy of Sciences National Research Council; 273 pp., paper: $2.00, Washington, D. C., 1964, 4th edition T. HE fourth edition of this most useful directory was prepared by R. C. Vetter as part of the activities of the Committee on Oceanography of the NAS-NRC. Although the editor warned that the list cannot be used for statistical purposes, it is interesting to note that 750 oceanog- raphers from 48 countries were listed in the first edition (1950), while 2,563 oceanographers from 93 countries are mentioned in the fourth edition. The compiler, no doubt, had a difficult task to decide whom to list, and was dependent upon the recommendation of others. Perhaps someone ought to decide when one is rated as an oceanographer. A breakdown of our Staff Members shows: Staff Members Department of Applied Oceanography 14 Department of Biology 26 Department of Chemistry and Geology 1 3 Co-operating scientists (U.S.G.S.) 7 Department of Geophysics 15 Department of Physical Oceanography 18 Department of Theoretical Oceanography and Meteorology 12 Non-residential research staff 33 Scientific visiting committee 14 Administrators 13 Listed Approx. Total 165 2 14 8 3 4 7 5 23 8 1 75 14% 54% 61% 43% 27% 39% 42% 70% 57% 8% 45% The above is not meant as criticism of the Directory but only as an observation. The printing of this laudable labor of love and the distribution to those listed was made possible by a grant from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. J.H. LEYDEN PRESS. INC PLYMOUTH. MASS 24 } i/ii! iiiiiiiii iii 1 I LIBRARY UH 17ZK a Associates' News Annual Dinners J. HE Annual Associates' dinners will take place on May 3 at Boston, May 5 at New York and May 12 at Wilmington, Delaware. Principal speaker at the New York meeting will be Mr. Gordon Lill, Director of Project Mohole of the National Science Foundation, who will discuss the program to drill a hole through the crust of the earth. An article on this subject written by Mr. Lill will be published in the July issue of "Oceanus". Mr. William Bascom, President of Ocean Science and Engineering Co., Inc. will discuss "Resources of the Ocean", and show a most interesting film on ocean diamond mining off South Africa in which his company is involved. Mr. Bascom also was engaged in Project Mohole and we recommend his book "A Hole in the Bottom of the Sea", Doubleday, New York, 1961. LHE ASSOCIATES of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution are a group of individuals, corporations and other organizations who, because of their love for the sea and interest in science and education, support and encourage the research and related activities of the Institution. Membership dues in the Associates are as follows: Member $50 Contributing Member $100 Club Membership $100 Patron $500 Life Member $1,000 Corporate Member $1,000 Sustaining Corporate Member $5,000 or more. All contributions and dues are tax deductible to the extent provided by law. HOMER H. EWING, President RONALD A. VEEDER, Executive Assistant EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE CHARLES F. ADAMS PAUL HAMMOND WINSLOW CARLTON NOEL B. McLEAN W. VAN ALAN CLARK HENRY S. MORGAN PRINCE S. CROWELL GERARD SWOPE, JR. F. HAROLD DANIELS THOMAS J. WATSON, JR. JOHN A. GIFFORD JAMES H. WICKERSHAM Contents VOL. XI, No. 3, April 1965 Articles A MAJOR DISCOVERY 2 by P. M. Fye HOT SALTY WATER 3 by J. C. SWQ//OW MISSING INGREDIENTS FOUND 6 by C. D. Densmore WAVES ACROSS THE PACIFIC 9 by W. H. Munk VISIT TO THE SOVIET UNION 15 fay 7. K. TVeadwe//, Jr. BOTTLED OCEANOGRAPHY 21 Jby D. F. Bumpus Features OCEANOGRAPHY FROM SPACE 1 UNDERWATER LISTENING 17 ATLANTIS IT CIRCUMNAVIGATION 13 NEW ATLAS 18 RECENT PUBLICATIONS 23 ASSOCIATES' NEWS INSIDE BACK COVER Published by the WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION WOODS HOLE, MASSACHUSETTS