VOL. VII. NO. 4 



JUNE, 1961 




EDITOR: JAN HAHN 



Published periodically and distributed to the 



Associates of the Woods Hole Oceano- 



graphic Institution and others 



interested in Oceanography 



HENRY B. BIGELOW 



Chairman of the Board of Trusted 



RAYMOND STEVENS 



President of the Corporation 



PAUL M. FYE 



Director 



COLUMBUS O'D. ISELIN 



H. B. Bigelo-ic Oceanographer 



BOSTWICK H. KETCHUM 



Senior Oceanographer 



The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole, Massachusetts 



T 



JL HE heaving line is in the air; in a few seconds R.V. 'Chain' will be 

 tethered once again to the Institution dock, ending a cruise of three and 

 a half months to the Equator and West Africa. 



Perhaps the most significant achievements of the cruise were the 

 mapping of a powerful eastbound counter current beneath the westbound 

 surface current at the Equator, similar to the Cromwell current in the 

 Pacific, and the location of a cut in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (at 1 15' South 

 and 13 50' West) through which bottom water formed in the Antarctic 

 was flowing into the northeast Atlantic basin. Many other observations 

 were made in several branches of ocean science, enough to keep the 

 scientists on the beach for months as they work up data and grind out 

 papers. 



But not the 'Chain'. Within an hour after she was tied up the labs 

 were being stripped of gear from the African cruise and new equipment 

 was going aboard for the next one. 



The fine cover photo is by Bob Allen. 




VOL. VII, NO. 4, JUNE 1961 



Editorial 



.HE men who drilled the test Moholes in the Pacific this spring have 

 pointed up one of the essential realities of science. With their drill bits 

 reaching into the Earth's crust, their pipeline suspended in two miles of 

 shifting water masses and their ship buffeted by wind and waves, they 

 were constantly aware of the interdependence of the elements of earth, air 

 and water of which the planet is made. At the same time the variety of 

 investigators involved in the project geologists, geophysicists, bio- 

 chemists, bacteriologists, meteorologists and others demonstrated the 

 interdependence of the disciplines and the fundamental unity of science. 



Despite the increasing and oft-belabored specialization and diversity 

 of modern times the so-called "knowing more and more about less and 

 less" ventures like the Mohole, the IGY and the space probes have 

 served in recent years to make scientists and laymen alike aware that 

 scientific endeavor is not fragmented; that every observation is part of the 

 puzzle and must be considered in the light of others if it is to contribute 

 to the quest for understanding. 



Oceanographers have understood this for a long time, perhaps since 

 the first seagoing biologist grudgingly helped his geologist shipmate to 

 haul a bottom sample aboard - - and found it teeming with interesting life. 

 As you will read further on, Dr. Henry Bryant Bigelow recognized the 

 overlapping of the disciplines when he brought together an assortment of 

 specialists in the early days of the Institution. Countless occasions have 

 demonstrated how the physical oceanographer leans on the chemist, the 

 biologist on the marine meteorologist, the geologist on all the others and 

 vice versa and back and forth. This constant crisscrossing of disciplines is 

 one reason why oceanography down through the years has posed such a 

 challenge and proved so fascinating. 



R.W. 



JAN HAHN, the editor of OCEANUS. 

 has been at sea this spring aboard the 

 R.V. 'Chain' on her long cruise to the 

 Romanche Trench. This issue was edited 

 at Woods Hole during his absence. 




Atmospheric Electricity 



and fhe Oceans 



BY DUNCAN C BLANCHARD 



"If it is really Jupiter and the other gods who rock the flash- 

 ing frame of heaven with this appalling din and hurl their fire 



wherever they have a mind, why -do the throwers waste 



their strength on deserts? Are they getting their hand in and 

 exercising their arms?" 



.ND so spoke Lucretius, that great skeptic of 

 two thousand years ago, whose curiosity and 

 musings about atmospheric phenomena began to 

 remove the vagaries of atmospheric electricity 

 from the capricious behavior of the gods and to 

 place them in the realm of cause-and-effect 

 relationship. During the following centuries, how- 

 ever, the Lucretian brand of skepticism subsided 

 and lay dormant. Little work of any significance 

 was accomplished in atmospheric electricity until 

 Benjamin Franklin, with his classic kite experi- 

 ment, showed that the electricity of the atmos- 

 phere was the same as that which could be 

 produced in the laboratory. From that time on- 

 ward laboratory and field studies have been 

 carried out by numerous investigators. 



By the end of the last century it was known 

 that the atmosphere, at least in regions of fair 

 weather, carried a net positive charge. The indi- 

 vidual charges were found to be carried by some 

 of the air molecules, by smoke particles (both 

 natural and man-made), and by various forms of 

 airborne soil particles, among other things. The 

 sum total of these charges, distributed mainly 

 throughout the lowest 10,000 feet of the atmos- 

 phere, causes the electric potential to increase by 

 about 50 volts for every foot in elevation above 

 the surface of the earth. Thus, while one may not 

 walk around with "his head in the clouds", he 

 most definitely has his head in air that is norm- 

 ally at a potential of about 300 volts greater than 

 that of the ground on which he walks. (The rate 

 at which this potential changes with height de- 

 fines what is commonly called the electric field). 




f 



This atmospheric potential continues 

 to increase with altitude, though 

 somewhat more slowly, and attains 

 the astonishingly high value of about 

 300,000 volts at an altitude of about 

 20,000 feet. If, at this point, you are 

 wondering why you don't electrocute 

 yourself the first time you walk 

 out-of-doors, I hasten to add that the 

 electrical current, as in most (but 

 not all) problems involving electro- 

 statics, is completely negligible in 

 regard to harm to mankind. The cur- 

 rent that flows from atmosphere to 



ground is far less than one million 

 millionth of an ampere per square 

 centimeter and is only about 1,400 

 amperes for the entire earth. Such 

 currents nevertheless have great sig- 

 nificance in certain geophysical 

 problems. 



Sometime after the discovery that 

 the atmosphere was positively 

 charged, it was realized that this 

 charge was continually leaking off 

 to the ground. The rate at which this 

 occurred was such that the atmos- 




phere should almost completely dis- 

 charge itself within 30 minutes. But 

 in the course of over 50 years of 

 observations the atmospheric charge 

 had shown no sufficient change. In- 

 vestigators were thus forced to the 

 conclusion that somehow, somewhere 

 on the face of the earth (or, perhaps, 

 in outer space) there existed a re- 

 charging mechanism, or "battery", 

 by which the atmosphere was con- 

 tinually being recharged. What was 

 the "battery" and how was it re- 

 charged? This was the tantalizing 

 puzzle that faced workers in atmos- 

 pheric electricity at the turn of the 

 century. 



One of the first hints of a solution 

 came in 1924 when data obtained at 

 sea by the research ship 'Carnegie' 

 revealed that the strength of the 

 surface electric field underwent a 

 diurnal variation which reached a 

 maximum at about six P.M. Green- 

 wich time, regardless of position on 

 the ocean. In other words, over the 

 entire ocean area of the world the 

 strength of the electric field waxed 

 or waned simultaneously. Here was 

 a strong clue that the recharging of 

 the atmosphere was done in a man- 

 ner that made itself known almost 

 instantly anywhere on the face of 

 the earth. A possible mechanism to 

 explain this, based on an earlier sug- 

 gestion by the English physicist, 

 C. T. R. Wilson, was that the earth's 

 thunderstorms were somehow pump- 

 ing a positive electric current "upward 

 into the high reaches of the atmos- 

 phere where it could rapidly spread 

 horizontally and subsequently return 

 to the earth in the vast areas where 

 fair weather occurs. If this idea were 

 true, then one should find that the 

 number of thunderstorms over the 

 face of the globe should reach a maxi- 

 mum at about 6 Greenwich time. The 

 meager data on thunderstorm activ- 

 ity were examined and, surprisingly 

 enough, it was found that such a 

 maximum appeared to exist. From 

 this and other studies it was con- 

 cluded that thunderstorms most 

 likely constitute the main "battery" 

 that continually recharges the atmos- 

 phere. 



Role of the Oceans 



Where, then, do the oceans fit into 

 the picture of the exchange of elec- 



DR. BLANCHARD, a research associate 

 in meteorology on our staff, came here 

 in 1951 after working in atmospheric 

 physics at General Electric with the late 

 Dr. Irving Langmuir. In 1956 he was 

 awarded an Associates' Fellowship and 

 went to M.I.T., where he received his 

 Ph. D. degree last January for the work 

 described in this article. 



tricity between the atmosphere and 

 the earth? We know, of course, that 

 the vast expanse of the oceans, cover- 

 ing some 70 per cent of the surface 

 of the earth, receives much of the 

 electric current that flows down from 

 the atmosphere. But our question is, 

 ''Do the oceans in some manner pro- 

 duce an electric current that flows 

 up into the atmosphere to add to or 

 deplete that which is presumed to 

 originate in thunderstorms?" An 

 answer to this question is not easy 

 to come by. Measurements of the 

 electric charge in the atmosphere 

 over the oceans only lead to the fur- 

 ther question, "How much of this 

 charge, if any, really came from the 

 oceans and how much came from 

 thunderstorms or other sources?" It 

 is hard to see how such measure- 

 ments can ever answer this question 

 so I suggest that we narrow our 

 sights and look at that thin film of 

 water that we call the surface of the 

 sea, for it is here that any oceanic 

 charge production must have its 

 origin. 



If you have ever watched the sea 

 surface when the winds were light, 

 you realize that it's a relatively tran- 

 quil place, disturbed only by small 

 waves and by the undulations of the 

 minute ripples from the cats-paws 

 that move so swiftly across the sur- 

 face. Though constantly changing in 

 shape the water surface is not broken 

 and no sea water spray can be ejec- 

 ted into the atmosphere. If any 

 charges are rising from the sea under 

 these conditions, they must be at- 

 tached to the numerous water mole- 

 cules that are continually moving 

 from sea to atmosphere. While this 

 hypothesis has been advanced by a 

 number of people during the past 100 

 years, there are numerous other in- 

 vestigators who have failed to con- 

 firm it, either by experiment or 

 theory. The prevailing opinion today 

 is that any net charge flow from a 




water surface must be carried by 

 small drops of water that are some- 

 how torn or ejected fom this surface. 

 And so we are led to look for some 

 mechanism that can eject a great 

 number of sea water drops from the 

 sea surface. 



This mechanism can be found in 

 the bubbles that form in prodigious 

 numbers whenever a wave breaks at 

 sea. The air bubbles rise to the sea 

 surface, break and eject minute drops 

 of sea water at high speeds to heights 

 up to 18 centimeters above the sea. Air 

 turbulence may then carry many of 

 these drops upward several hundreds 

 of feet. The discovery that these 

 drops carry an electric charge was 

 purely accidental. One day, while we 

 were observing the smoke-like haze 

 of droplets that always forms in the 

 air just over a sea water surface 

 where myriads of bubbles are break- 

 ing, one of us happened to pull his 

 comb from his pocket and charged it 

 up by passing it once or twice through 

 his hair. When the charged comb was 

 held near the bubbling area the 

 droplets from the breaking bubbles, 

 instead of forming a haze, literally 

 leaped from the sea water and 

 streaked upward some 20 to 30 centi- 

 meters to the charged comb. Surely 

 here was evidence that pointed to 

 tremendous charging on drops "com- 

 ing from the sea. Or so we thought. 

 After the initial excitement had died 

 away, we began to analyze the basic 

 physics of the situation and soon 

 came to the conclusion that the only 

 reason the drops were charged was 

 that the pencil-like jet from the col- 

 lapsing bubble had risen up into the 

 electrical field of the charged comb. 

 This charged the top of the jet by 

 the classical electrostatic induction 

 process, and therefore the drops that 

 formed from the jet were also 

 charged. But we still wondered if by 

 any chance there would be some 

 charge remaining on the drops if all 

 electric fields near the breaking bub- 

 ble were eliminated. A few simple 

 experiments convinced us that this 

 was most certainly true. We had 

 apparently found in the breaking 

 bubble a mechanism whereby the 



Top photos show various stages in the 

 collapse of a bubble and the formation of 

 a jet, a sequence which occurs in about two 

 thousandths of a second. The bottom picture 

 is an oblique view of a jet. 





D 

 OL 

 < 



I 

 U 



z 

 < 



CD 




numerous ions in sea water were 

 somehow being selectively "picked 

 out" and put onto a drop that was 

 then ejected into the overlying at- 

 mosphere. If the sign of the charge 

 on the drop were always the same 

 then we faced the exciting prospect 

 that bubbles in the oceans of the 

 world were continually pumping 

 electric charges, or current, into the 

 atmosphere. 



I was, of course, quite anxious to 

 pursue this problem and so began to 

 devise methods to measure the charge 

 on the drops. A number of techniques 

 were tried; the one found most satis- 

 factory was a modification of the 

 simple but elegant method that 

 Millikan first used in his classic oil 

 drop experiment to determine the 

 charge of the electron. My "Millikan- 

 chamber" consisted essentially of 

 two parallel metal plates, mounted 

 horizontally about a centimeter 

 apart. The bottom plate, which had 

 a hole about 1.5 mm diameter at the 

 center, was electrically grounded; 

 the upper plate was connected to the 

 output of a high voltage D.C. power 

 supply. The plates were positioned 

 above a sea water surface so that the 

 drops from the jets of bursting bub- 

 bles were ejected upward through 

 the hole in the lower plate and into 

 an electric field between the plates. 

 By adjusting the voltage on the up- 

 per plate, the upward force on the 

 charged drop could be made equal to 

 the gravitational force so the drop 

 would remain freely suspended mid- 

 way between the plates. With this 

 experiment, I determined the electric 

 charge on hundreds of drops of many 

 different sizes from both large and 

 small bubbles. 



Found Positive Charge 



Many worthwhile findings came 

 out of these experiments, the most 

 interesting of which was the fact 

 that the charge on the drops was 

 always positive and had a magnitude 

 that increased with age of the bub- 

 ble. The average charge was about 

 2,000 times that carried by the elec- 

 tron. From this it seemed reasonable 

 to conclude that whenever bubbles 

 are formed in the sea by whitecaps 

 they will break at the sea surface 

 and eject positively-charged drops 

 into the atmosphere. Many of these 

 charged drops, being smaller than 



TO DC 

 POWCR 



the average cloud drop, will be car- 

 ried by winds high into the atmos- 

 phere. The total of all the charges on 

 all the drops that are being carried 

 upward from the entire world ocean 

 each second constitutes an electric 

 current. Calculations that I have 

 made indicate that this positive cur- 

 rent has a minimum value of 100 

 amperes, most of which is produced 

 by the oceans of the southern hemis- 

 phere. This latter is hardly surpris- 

 ing when one considers the vast 

 expanse of ocean in the southern 

 hemisphere. The ocean-produced cur- 

 rent is about 10 per cent of the total 

 current that has been found over the 

 oceans. Thus, it appears that the 

 oceans are a modest but far from 

 negligible rival to thunderstorms in 

 the production of the positive elec- 

 tricity found in the atmosphere over 

 the oceans. 



But we have been speaking of the 

 average or mean current production 

 by the world ocean. What might hap- 

 pen when, for example, a thunder- 

 storm occurs at sea? Remember our 

 experiment with the comb. Why 




Sketch at left shows the Millikan 

 chamber in position over the 

 source of bubbles. The dot in the 

 chamber represents a charged drop 

 from a bursting bubble. At right, 

 apparatus is ready for action. The 

 tubing is for circulating water 

 downward to control the rate at 

 which the bubbles rise to the 

 surface. 



wouldn't the strong electric field of 

 the thunderstorm act in the same 

 way as the field of the comb and 

 induce high charges on the drops? 

 The force of the electric field on the 

 drops might cause them to rise from 

 the sea and proceed upward toward 

 the storm. From some experiments 

 and calculations that I have made I 

 see no reason as to why this should 

 not occur, at least in part. In future 

 work it will be of interest to look for 

 this upward stream of charged par- 

 ticles beneath thunderstorms at sea. 

 The current produced should be 

 many times greater than that nor- 

 mally produced per unit area of 

 ocean. 



Can these charged drops play any 

 role in the formation of clouds and 

 rain? Laboratory studies by many 

 people, dating back at least 100 years, 

 indicate that electric charges on 

 drops can profoundly modify the 

 manner in which these drops interact 

 and collide with others. What isn't 

 known very well is how many of 

 these laboratory phenomena are also 

 natural phenomena. In a trip later 

 this year to study clouds and rain on 

 the windward side of the big vol- 

 canic island of Hawaii we hope, 

 among other things, to find out if the 

 charged drops from the sea are play- 

 ing any role in the formation of 

 oceanic rain. 



And last, but possibly most im- 

 portant of all, is the very interesting 

 problem of how the drops get 

 charged in the first place. For the 

 mere splashing of sea water does not 

 produce such highly charged drops, 

 and all of the same polarity, as does 

 the bubble process. There seems to 

 be something special about the 

 bubble-charging mechanism that 

 cannot be explained by present hy- 

 potheses of static charge generation. 

 I do not know the answer, but I 

 have an idea that it may require a 

 laminar shear flow within the rising 

 bubble jet. If such a flow actually 

 occurs it could cause a shearing of 

 the electrical double layer that must 

 surround the bubble. 



The prediction of an electric cur- 

 rent flowing from ocean to atmos* 

 phere is but one of the interesting 

 findings that have been uncovered in 

 our investigations of the transfer of 

 matter between the ocean and the 

 atmosphere. The thin film of ocean 

 through which all air-ocean transfer 

 processes must occur is indeed a cur- 

 ious and complicated place. It has 

 properties which differ from those of 

 botn the rest of the ocean and the 

 atmosphere. Consequently, it is not 

 surprising that we are so relatively 

 ignorant of the chemistry and physics 

 of the transfer of particulate matter 

 from sea to atmosphere. 




Associates 



Go 



Underwater 



Captain Cousteau in Wilmington 



WO of the world's foremost 

 undersea explorers have spoken this 

 spring at meetings of the Associates 

 of the Woods Hole Oceanographic 

 Institution. On April 18 Capt. 

 Jacques- Yves Cousteau, director of 

 the Oceanographic Museum in Mon- 

 aco, addressed a meeting sponsored 

 by the Associates of the Wilmington, 

 Del. area at the Du Pont Country 

 Club. On May 18 the Associates met 

 at the American Museum of Natural 

 History in New York to hear Jacques 

 Piccard, pioneer of the bathyscaphe 

 'Trieste'. 



Captain Cousteau showed films of 

 his two-man "diving saucer" and its 

 60-foot inflatable mother ship 'Amphi- 

 trite'. He described the latter as a 

 big step toward his goal of airborne 

 Oceanographic vessels which can be 

 collapsed and stowed on cargo planes 

 for speedy delivery anywhere in the 

 world. 



Another of Captain Cousteau's 

 aims is to enable men to spend more 

 and more time underwater, to go 

 ever deeper and to make more obser- 

 vations first-hand than is now 

 possible. 



Cousteau (with pipe) and diving saucer during 'Calypso' visit to Woods Hole in 1959. 



OL 



DD 



i .-a 



8 




Jacques Piccard and his biographer, Alida Malkus. 



Captain Cousteau was introduced 

 by Dr. Paul M. Fye, director of the 

 Institution. Homer Ewing of Wil- 

 mington, one of our trustees, was 

 chairman for the evening. 



M. Piccard showed movies of an 

 early stratospheric balloon ascent by 

 his father, Auguste Piccard, and 

 films of the construction of the 

 'Trieste' and some of its dives. Not- 

 ing that he was frequently praised 

 for courage in diving to great depths, 

 he commented: 



"Actually, we were always afraid - 

 but it was before the dive while we 

 were planning the ship. We worked 

 for years with caution and care so 

 that we don't need courage when we 

 dive." 



He described his plans for a meso- 

 scaphe a mid-depth vehicle. Its 

 primary advantages over the bathy- 



Dr. Selman Waksman talks 



with Mr. and Mrs. J. Sevvard 



Johnson at the New York 



dinner 



scaphe would be much greater inde- 

 pendence of a mother ship, many 

 more windows and a bigger scientific 

 payload. Such vehicles are being 

 developed in many countries and will 

 soon be a real oceanographic neces- 

 sity, he added. 



He was introduced by Alida 

 Malkus, who has recently completed 

 a biography of the Piccards - - "Ad- 

 mirals of the Abyss" for the 

 Encyclopedia Britannica Press, and 

 who is, moreover, the mother of 

 Willem and the mother-in-law of 

 Joanne Malkus of the Institution 

 staff. Noel B. McLean, president of 

 the Associates, was chairman. Dr. 

 Fye presented Mrs. Malkus. 




Fellowships, 1961 



J.WO Associates' Fellowships have been renewed, to Bruce Warren, who 

 is studying physical oceanography at M.I.T., and to Norman S. Neidell, 

 who is studying in the department of physics at the Imperial College of 

 Science and Technology in England. 



In addition, the Institution has awarded 23 summer fellowships for 

 1961. Nine of the fellows will participate in a course in geophysical fluid 

 dynamics to be given at the Institution under the direction of Dr. George 

 Veronis on a National Science Foundation grant. The nine are: 



Ivar Dugstad, research associate and Ph.D. degree candidate at the 

 Institute of Theoretical Meteorology, University of Oslo. 



Lionel Walter MacMillan, Ph.D. degree candidate in the department 

 of physics, Institute of Oceanography, University of British Columbia. 



Dr. Derek W. Moore, lecturer in the department of mathematics, 

 University of Bristol, England. 



Martin T. Mork, research associate and candidate for master's degree 

 at the Oceanographic Institute, University of Oslo. 



S. Nagarajan, graduate student in the department of physics, N.Y.U. 



Pearn Peter Niiler, first-year graduate student, Cambridge University. 



Dennis H. Peregrine, studying fluid dynamics at Cambridge. 



Steven I. Rosencrans, graduate student in mathematics at M.I.T. 



Fred C. Shure, candidate for the Ph.D. degree in the department of 

 physics, University of Michigan. 



The other fellowship winners: 



Mario R. Capecchi, a senior majoring in chemistry at Antioch College, 

 will work with Dr. Max Blumer. . 



Robert John Collier, second-year graduate student in the department 

 of biology at Harvard University, will work with Dr. John Ryther. 



Walter Eckhart, first-year graduate student at the Medical Research 

 Council Unit for Molecular Biology at Cavendish Laboratory, England. 



John Eric Edinger, candidate for master's degree in sanitary engineer- 

 ing at Johns Hopkins University, will work with Dr. B. H. Ketchum. 



Santanu Kumar Ghose, candidate for the Ph.D. degree in geology at 

 Florida State University, will work with Dr. John Zeigler. 



Philip Gossett, a junior majoring in physics at Amherst College, will 

 work with Dr. Arnold Arons. 



James R. Greaves, a first-year student in the department of physics 

 at the University of Minnesota, will work with Mr. Andrew Bunker. 



Kurt Hecht, candidate for the master's degree in the department of 

 geology at Brown University, will work with Dr. John Graham. 



Bertil Hille, a junior majoring in zoology at Yale University, will work 

 with Dr. John Kanwisher. 



Eric L. Mills, first-year graduate student in the department of zoology 

 at Yale, will work with Dr. Howard Sanders. 



Donald C. Rhoads, first-year graduate student in the department of 

 geology at the University of Iowa, will work with Dr. Rudolf Scheltema. 



Robert S. Rhodes, candidate for the Ph.D. degree in the department 

 of physics at Stamford University, will work with Dr. Earl Hays. 



Ira Rubinoft, candidate for the Ph.D. degree at the Biological Labora- 

 tories at Harvard, will work with Dr. Richard Backus. 



Charles G. Wing, a senior majoring in physics at Bowdoin College, 

 will work with Mr. William G. Metcalf. 



10 




** 



31 





3^ 



Above: The Blake Building the only 



Institution building without a water view. 



Below: The new hangar was designed to 



fit the Helio-Courier. 



GROWTH 



T. 



HE face of the Institution is 

 changing rapidly. In the past nine 

 months we have seen, among other 

 things, the completion of the Blake 

 Building behind the Barn, a seaplane 

 hangar on Dyer's Dock, a new flag- 

 pole in front of the main building 

 and the beginnings of an addition to 

 the machine shop in back of the 

 Laboratory of Oceanography. 



The aerial view on the next two 

 pages shows some of these new fea- 

 tures and also two pieces of property 

 acquired this year by the Institution: 

 the former Daley Drug Store on the 

 north side of Main Street across Eel 

 Pond channel and the former 

 Lowey's Spa at the corner of Main 

 Street and Luscombe Avenue, (ex- 

 treme right of picture). 








WOODCOCI 



Melt patterns (and some footprints) can be seen in the snow on Flax Pond, Quisset. 



Ice in Buzzards Bay shows at top of picture. 



A February Storm -- and Limnology 



H 



BY ALFRED H. WOODCOCK 



,AVE you ever wondered about 

 how the frozen surfaces of lakes and 

 ponds adjust to the weight of newly 

 fallen snow? Place an ice cube in 

 water, add weight to the top and you 

 will note that the ice sinks by an 

 amount proportionate to the weight 

 added. A continuous shore-to-shore 

 ice sheet on a lake is not free to sink 

 in this way, however, when a heavy 

 blanket of snow falls on it. What 

 actually happens? 



A fortunate sequence of 1961 win- 

 ter weather on Cape Cod offered a 

 fine chance to answer this question. 

 Sustained cold in January had 

 formed a thick layer of ice over Flax 

 Pond in Quisset. On Friday, Feb. 3, 

 the water level in reference to the 

 ice was measured by drilling a hole. 



The height to which the water rose 

 was about right for the nine-inch 

 thick ice. 



Heavy snow fell on Saturday, cov- 

 ering the pond with almost a foot of 

 undrifted snow. A visit to the pond 

 on Sunday revealed that the original 

 ice cover underlying the heavy snow 

 was apparently unchanged. A new 

 hole drilled in the ice produced a 

 dramatic difference, however, for 

 when the augur bit was withdrawn 

 the pond water spurted up in a little 

 fountain and began to diffuse out- 

 ward through the surrounding snow. 

 A glass tube placed vertically over 

 the hole showed that the under-ice 

 pressure was enough to force water 

 up inside the tube almost three 

 inches above the Friday level. 



14 






MR. WOODCOCK is perhaps the only 

 Cape Codder who considered last win- 

 ter's deep-freeze fortunate. He is an 

 oceanographer on our staff and one of 

 the few 30-year men at the Institution. 



Tools of the trade. 



This and other holes were tightly 

 plugged with corks in the hope of 

 making later measurements. How- 

 ever, the under-ice pressures pro- 

 duced leaks around the corks and at 

 natural openings, so that on Monday 

 water was welling up in several large 

 round holes, reducing the lower part 

 of the surrounding snow cover to 

 slush and forming the curious radial 

 melt patterns shown in the photo- 

 graphs. (We were able to get the 

 aerial photo thanks to Bill Gallagher, 

 whose plane had skis, and to Ted 

 Spencer, research associate in me- 

 teorology, who helped shovel the 

 drifts away from the hangar door.) 



Several days were required to 

 establish a pressure equilibrium 



under the ice. Even after the holes 

 froze over at the top, water contin- 

 ued to flow out between the old and 

 new ice, diffusing laterally through 

 the snow. The flow was readily visi- 

 ble because of plankton and other 

 matter suspended in the upwelling 

 water. 



These melt centers and patterns 

 have sometimes been mistakenly 

 thought to mark places where there 

 were "springs" in the lake, or where 

 convection cells under the ice had 

 produced melting. It will take more 

 study --and more cold Cape winters 

 - to determine the reason for the 

 odd radial patterns formed by the 

 lateral spread of the upwelling 

 water. 



y. 



o 

 o 



u 



Q 

 O 

 O 



15 




A Medal 



for 



Dr. Bigelow 



D 



'R. HENRY BRYANT BIGELOW received the oceanographic medal 

 named in his honor at a quiet luncheon ceremony at the Harvard Faculty 

 Club on March 16. About 35 guests were present, including members of 

 Dr. Bigelow's family and some of his associates from the early days of the 

 Institution and from the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 



The medal was established by the board of trustees of the Institution 

 ]ast year, to be accompanied by a cash prize of $2,500. It was announced 

 on Bigelow Day - - August 10, 1960 - - but the medal was not presented 

 then because the trustees wanted the artist to have a chance to see the 

 Bigelow profile in the flesh before recapturing it in clay, and that couldn't 

 be done ahead of time without spoiling the surprise. 



At the March luncheon Dr. Fye made up for the delay by presenting 

 two medals - - the gold one which really counts and a bronze replica for 

 display. A second bronze copy is on view in the director's office at Woods 

 Hole. 



When the recipient of the medal got the floor he characteristically 

 used the occasion to deliver a few salty opinions. It was all very nice, he 

 commented, to give the first medal to Henry Bryant Bigelow, but the 

 second winner should be selected with great care because that would 

 determine the stature of the award. A really first-rate scientist should be 

 picked, he said, to set a high standard by which the medal could be judged 

 in the scientific community. 



"We feel, sir," Dr. Fye responded, "that we have already set that 

 standard with our first selection.'' 



An affectionate appraisal of Dr. Bigelow's impact upon ocean- 

 ography was given last August by Dr. Archibald G. Huntsman, 

 former director of the Atlantic Biological Station in St. Andrews, 

 N. B., and Dr. Alfred C. Redfield, senior oceanographer (emeritus) 

 at the Institution. Excerpts from their talks are printed on the 

 following pages. 



16 




Dr. Huntsman: 



Ti 



HE important thing about Dr. 

 Bigelow is the effect he has had on 

 different individuals, the way in 

 which he has stimulated them. That 

 effect has been enormous. I think 

 perhaps it is well shown in a way in 

 which many of you have experienced 

 it in his conduct of a meeting. 

 Like all of us, he has his own peculiar 

 personality, but his is more peculiar 

 than that of anyone else I know, a 

 queer combination of lively humor 

 and deadly seriousness. His way with 

 a meeting is inimitable ... he has a 

 sure grasp of the situation and he is 

 very definite in striking right 

 through to the pertinent points, and 

 for that reason you have continued 

 him in such a capacity, as chairman 

 of the board of trustees, even after 

 his retirement. 



He had his vision of the ocean a long 

 time ago. I would like to be able to 

 tell you how that arose, if it could 

 be told. I've known him for 45 years 



and he had it before that time. He 

 was a biologist and his vision was 

 naturally that of a biologist. 



He saw a job that no one was do- 

 ing. There were marine biologists in 

 the MBL here who had been working 

 for a long time; to him it seemed 

 rather odd that none of them seemed 

 to be studying the ocean. He felt that 

 there should be some people who 

 were prepared to go out and find out 

 what is actually happening in the 

 ocean and that, I think, is the .clear 

 part of his vision. 



Suppose we try to come to grips 

 with what the ocean is, and its life. 

 The earth is a spherical solid envel- 

 oped by gas, with a thin intermediate 

 layer, which is incomplete, of liquid. 

 This liquid is the ocean, and plants 

 and animals are able to live only in 

 this layer or where water from this 

 layer sufficiently penetrates the gas 

 and the solids. The sea is in our blood 

 not figuratively, but literally, be- 



COURTESY FISHERIES RESEARCH BOARD OF CANADA 



Drs. Huntsman (left) and Bigelow (right) at a meeting of the North American Council 

 on Fishery Investigations at the Atlantic Biological Station in St. Andrews, N. B., in 

 September 1933. Between them are Dr. J. Playfair McMurrich, chairman of the Biological 

 Board of Canada and Dr. Harold Thompson, director of the Newfoundland Fishery 

 Research Commission. 



17 




Claude Ronne's well-known pho- 

 tograph of 'Atlantis' was used for 

 the reverse side of the medal. 



cause our blood has often been com- 

 pared with the sea; we have our own 

 internal sea. 



Church, a biologist at Oxford Uni- 

 versity, claimed in fact that the sea 

 is really alive. Why? Because one of 

 our basic characteristics of life is the 

 changes that take place electro- 

 chemical changes in the transfer of 

 ions from one molecule to another 



- and he said the salts in the sea are 

 truly separated into ions for these 

 very important chemical changes, so 

 that in a very real sense the sea and 

 life are connected. 



Bigelow couldn't conceive of ocean- 

 ography as something separate from 

 the life in the ocean, from life itself. 

 And who should investigate it? 

 There is no reason why physicists 

 shouldn't deal with animals and 

 plants; these organisms have their 

 own physics, but it's such complex 

 physics that the physicists with their 

 high ideals of accuracy throw up 

 their hands. They can't do anything 

 with it. You heard Dr. Iselin this 

 morning telling how he himself as a 

 physicist kept out in the middle of 

 the ocean, keeping away from the 

 coastal water because it got too 

 complex. 



That typifies it: If you have high 

 ideals as a physicist you may be in- 

 capable of studying the complexities 



with which biologists perforce have 

 to deal. And the' ocean is outstand- 

 ingly important for biology, so 

 Bigelow, as a biologist, was the man 

 to begin its study. 



To me the really important aspect 

 of Bigelow's influence on others is 

 his own word 'exciting'. It is getting 

 excited over odd facts that don't fit 

 into your picture. Quite recently he 

 was somewhat complaining because 

 so many of the exciting facts ob- 

 tained by fishery biologists were bur- 

 ied in mimeograph reports and 

 nothing was being done about it. 



It is things like that, keeping up 

 the excitation, keeping up the feeling 

 that there is something, as Kipling 

 wrote it, something "lost beyond the 

 ranges, lost and waiting for you 

 go. . ." 



Dr. Bigelow has that spirit of dis- 

 covery, of feeling there is something 

 important to be found out and getting 

 after it - - and when he goes after it 

 you know it isn't just a passing 

 whim. He goes after it with vigor 

 and does the thorough job that typi- 

 fies him. Therefore, Dr. Bigelow as 

 a biologist tried to bring in every- 

 thing. In all our study of the ocean 

 I know of no one else who so fully 

 deserves recognition for what he has 

 done for oceanography. 



18 




LOW ,\ 



Photos are about '/* actual size. The 



sculptor was Gilroy Roberts of 



Upper Darby, Pa. 



Dr. Redfield: 



I can't remember very much about 

 Dr. Bigelow prior to the founding of 

 the Institution. We both lived in the 

 same suburb of Boston and used to 

 commute there together. My recol- 

 lection of that period is that Henry 

 would disappear, and then he would 

 be on the train again, and I would 

 say, "Henry, where have you been?" 



He always said, "I've been to sea." 

 I would say, "did you have a good 

 trip?" "No," he would say, "I was 

 seasick all the time." And I'm quite 

 sure that he probably was seasick 

 most of the time and it was his forti- 

 tude which bore him through while 

 he produced his great works about 

 the Gulf of Maine. 



Now I've thought about time and 

 I've discovered the obvious fact that 

 it only goes in one direction - - it is 

 rather unique, I think, in not being 

 reversible. But the human mind has 

 a capability of going in both direc- 

 tions: We can look ahead with great 

 uncertainty and we can look back- 

 ward with great unreliability, be- 

 cause even if we find a written 

 record we are quite sure that some- 

 thing is concealed. 



It occurred to me then, looking 

 back over the development of the 



Institution, that it is very much like 

 looking through a telescope back- 

 wards things get smaller and 

 smaller with unusual rapidity. That 

 is certainly true of our budgets and 

 of personnel; it is not quite so true 

 of scientific output. Then somehow 

 you look into the right end of the 

 telescope when you begin to think of 

 the personalities - - really very out- 

 standing figures who were here 

 in those days 



Take, for example, the staff here in 

 1933. We had, of course, Dr. Bigelow 

 as director. In physical oceanography 

 we had Iselin and Seiwell, both in 

 their late twenties. They were the 

 only two full-time scientific em- 

 ployees, I think, that we had. I think 

 that for the very obvious reason that 

 there weren't physical oceanogra- 

 phers teaching around the country 

 that could be gotten part time. In all 

 events, those were the two that 

 stayed here and kept the 'Atlantis' 

 operating through the winter in 

 Woods Hole. 



Captain Soule was here, much as 

 he is now through his connection 

 with the Coast Guard. Sir Hubert 

 Wilkins was a research associate but 

 he never actually worked in the 

 Institution. In marine bacteriology 

 there was Waksman, with Charlie 



19 




Renn as his assistant; Miss Cornelia 

 Carey was a research associate com- 

 ing here from her job in New York. 



In chemistry it was Norris Rake- 

 straw and whatever students he 

 might bring over from Brown during 

 the summer time. In meteorology 

 there was Dr. Rossby. Athelstan 

 Spilhaus came very shortly after 

 that time. In geology, Henry Stetson; 

 in biology myself and George Clarke. 

 Those were all the people that were 

 listed as working in 1933. 



Now I think it is a great tribute to 

 you, Dr. Bigelow, that you were able 

 to gather this group; that you knew 

 enough to think of it and to persuade 

 these people to come, because only a 

 few had been to sea. You and Iselin 

 and Seiwell were brought up on the 

 ocean, in oceanography; Soule of 



course, also. Waksman, no; Renn, no; 

 Carey, no; Rakestraw I think had 

 worked one or two summers on 

 some sea water problem. Dr. Rossby 

 was then professor of meteorology 

 at M.I.T., Henry Stetson was a geolo- 

 gist inclined toward the sea and I 

 had worked on some problems in 

 marine organisms. I was interested 

 in the problems, not the marine 

 organisms, except that here was an 

 open field which I liked. I also liked 

 to go sailing but I had never been to 

 sea in a ship. 



I think the genius was that you 

 were able to see that you should 

 have people like Rossby working in 

 meteorology and Waksman in marine 

 bacteriology. You saw a relation 

 which they didn't see, and you 

 brought them here. 



20 




THE BIGELOW MEDAL was awarded 

 for the first time with the following 

 citation: 



"The Henry Bryant Bigelow Medal, 

 established by the trustees of the 

 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 

 in honor of Henry Bryant Bigelow, to 

 be awarded to those making significant 

 inquiries into the phenomena of the sea. 



"Bestowed in the first instance upon 

 Henry Bryant Bigelow in recognition 

 of his monograph from his collections 

 on the 'Albatross' expedition to the 

 eastern tropical Pacific, his comprehen- 

 sive investigations of the biology and 

 physical oceanography of the New 

 England waters and, especially, in grati- 

 tude for his leadership in the develop- 

 ment of the marine sciences in the 

 United States." 



Out of this group of people there 

 grew in ten years to be a nucleus 

 with which we did our job during 

 the war. Someone was asking how 

 many people Dr. Bigelow had influ- 

 enced. That I cannot answer with 

 great precision but I have recently 

 been concerned with a committee 

 studying the problem of the educa- 

 tion of oceanographers. We do it in 

 two ways in this country. There have 

 grown up and are increasing depart- 

 ments of oceanography, like these in 

 California, Texas, and Washington. 

 And then there are places like this 

 that lure unwitting physicists, math- 

 ematicians, engineers and what not 

 into the field and make oceanogra- 

 phers out of them. So far as I can 

 judge about half the oceanographers 

 now practicing in the United States 

 of which there are about 1,500 - 

 have come in through our channel; 

 I should say that a very large portion 

 of those have come in through us. So I 

 think it is fair to say five or six hun- 

 dred oceanographers owe something 

 to what is a rather unique educa- 

 tional system which Dr. Bigelow set 

 up and which we, I hope, are still 

 going to carry on. 



There are two things which I re- 

 member as being noteworthy about 

 life at this laboratory at that time. 

 One was Dr. Bigelow's daily visits 



with only a dozen laboratories to 

 go to he was able to make the rounds 

 almost daily, stimulating us in one 

 way or another and always slyly say- 

 -ing, "Get to sea, get to sea!" To 

 carry that out the 'Atlantis' was at 

 the dock all summer, going out on 

 one-week cruises. I had to take that 

 boat for one week and darn well 

 think up something worthwhile to 

 do with it. It was the same with each 

 of us, so that everybody in the Insti- 

 tution got a very close and equal 

 look at the ocean. There are many 

 people at the Institution today who 

 have not had this very stimulating 

 experience of going to sea, of seeing 

 what it looks like and getting into 

 close contact with this very great, 

 strange and unknown thing. It was a 

 privilege for us to have been brought 

 up under that system, and I hope 

 very much that we will be able to 

 find ways of increasing that type of 

 educational activity among our 

 people. 



The president and the chairman of the board. 




Whale Ashore 



INSTITUTION scientists went 

 whaling in the city dump in New- 

 port, Rhode Island, on March 15. 

 Their quarry was the carcass of 

 a rare beaked whale, Ziphius 

 cavirostris, which they brought back 

 to Woods Hole in a pickup truck. 



The whale, an adult male about 

 19 feet long, came ashore on Easton's 

 Beach, Newport, on Monday the 13th. 

 Local police and firemen tried to tow 

 it to sea with the aid of skin-divers 

 and an amphibious vehicle, but the 

 animal kept returning to the beach so 

 they finally killed it and loaded it on 

 a flatbed truck for disposal at the 

 dump. 



The Woods Hole whalers, who had 

 flown down in the Helio-Courier 

 when they got word of the stranding, 

 appealed on Tuesday to Newport's 

 city manager, George A. Bisson. Mr. 

 Bisson, who had also heard from a 

 Dartmouth College biologist, agreed 

 to postpone the interment in the 



interests of science. While the whale 

 was on the flatbed it was weighed 

 on a truck scale - - 5,580 pounds. 



Richard H. Backus, William E. 

 Schevill and Robert G. Weeks per- 

 formed the dissection. The heart and 

 lungs went to Dartmouth, the head 

 went into the deep-freeze at Sam 

 Cahoon's fish market on the steam- 

 ship landing and the bones went 

 over the side of the Institution dock 

 in cages to be picked clean by the 

 Woods Hole fish. 



With the Ships 



PRANK j. MATHER in, who re- 

 ported on his spectacular tuna catch 

 of last fall in the March issue of 

 OCEANUS, has gone off on another 

 long-lining cruise in 'Crawford,' this 

 time to Florida and Caribbean 

 waters. On the way south he took 

 time to make a set at Hydrographer 

 Canyon, where he caught 185 blue- 

 fins last November. The April take: 

 14 sharks, eight lancetfish and as 

 expected no tuna. 'Crawford' is 

 due back at Woods Hole on June 8. 



After a spell in the shipyard at the 

 end of her long Mediterranean 

 cruise, 'Atlantis' went on a round 

 trip to Bermuda waters with Dr. 

 Howard Sanders, who has received a 

 grant from the National Science 

 Foundation to extend his studies of 

 bottom-dwelling animals from the 



shallows of Cape Cod to the ocean 

 depths. Later this month she will 

 leave with Thomas R. Stetson to con- 

 tinue our examination of the Blake 

 Plateau structures. 



'Chain' is setting a line of anchored 

 instrumented buoys between Gay 

 Head and Bermuda for Dr. William 

 S. Richardson. In mid-June Dr. J. B. 

 Hersey will take her south for a 

 detailed examination of the north 

 wall of the Puerto Rico Trench with 

 microbathymetry, color stereo pho- 

 tography, coring, dredging and 

 acoustical examination of the sub- 

 surface layers. In mid-August 'Chain' 

 will leave for a five-month cruise to 

 the eastern Mediterranean where 

 scientists from several European 

 nations will work with ours in hy- 

 drography and all aspects of sub- 

 marine geophysics. 



22 




Currents and Tides 



'Aries' is no longer a research ves- 

 sel. She was sold early this spring to 

 the Man Johnson Co. Ltd. of Panama, 

 one of the holdings of Mr. John 

 Theodoracopulos, a Greek shipowner. 

 Mr. Theodoracopulos has taken 

 'Aries' to Greece, where she will be 

 used as a yacht. 



The 93-foot ketch was built for 

 Mr. R. J. Reynolds of Sapelo Island, 

 Georgia, who turned her over to the 

 Institution in 1959. During most of 

 her service for Woods Hole 'Aries' 

 was used out of Bermuda in a study 

 of deep ocean currents under the 

 direction of Dr. John C. Swallow of 

 the National Institute of Oceanogra- 

 phy in England. The work was 

 described by Mrs. Swallow in the 

 March issue of OCEANUS. 



Bids for construction of the Insti- 

 tution's new research vessel will be 

 opened at Woods Hole on June 15. 

 The ship is expected to be ready to 

 go to sea and do scientific work by 

 late spring of 1963. 



The new vessel - - still unnamed - 

 will be the first wholly new addition 

 to the Woods Hole fleet since 

 'Atlantis' was built in 1931. She will 

 be 195 feet on the waterline, of 

 welded steel construction and with 

 twin-screw steam-powered propul- 

 sion. There will be accommodations 

 for 25 scientists and a crew of 28. 



The design agent has been Bethle- 

 hem Steel Company's Shipbuilding 

 Division in Quincy, Mass. M. Rosen- 

 blatt & Son of New York City is the 

 design associate. Jonathan Leiby, 

 naval architect, and Richard S. 

 Edwards, marine superintendent, 

 have headed the Institution's design 

 committee. 



Construction and design are being 

 paid for by a grant from the National 

 Science Foundation. 



Henry M. Stommel, physical ocean- 

 ographer on our staff and professor 

 of oceanography at Harvard Uni- 

 versity, has been elected to member- 

 ship in the National Academy of 

 Sciences. 



Mr. Stommel is noted for his 

 theoretical studies of the dynamic 

 ciruclation of the oceans. He is the 

 author of "The Gulf Stream," pub- 

 lished in 1958, and is working on an 

 atlas of the deep oceans. 



He came to Woods Hole in 1944 

 from Yale University, where he had 

 taught mathematics and astronomy 

 after graduation. He was professor of 

 oceanography at the Massachusetts 

 Institute of Technology before he 

 accepted his present post at Harvard 

 last year. 



Dr. Benjamin H. Alton of Woods 

 Hole, a member of the executive 

 committee of the Associates since 

 1952, died at his home on April 19. 



Harry Alfandre, New York, who 

 had been a life member of the As- 

 sociates since 1955, died on March 6. 



Noel B. McLean, president of the 

 Associates of the Woods Hole Ocean- 

 ographic Institution, and Mrs. 

 McLean have recently joined the 

 ranks of life members of the Associ- 

 ates. 



23 




Sportsmen who take part in the 

 Institution's gamefish tagging pro- 

 gram will be able from now on to 

 signal their cooperation with a red- 

 and-white flag, to be flown whenever 

 a fish is tagged and released. 



The flags will be distributed to 

 participants along with the tags by 

 Frank J. Mather III, research associ- 

 ate in oceanography, who is in 

 charge of the tagging program. An- 

 other new development is the intro- 

 duction of zippered plastic bags to 

 keep the tags and data cards dry 

 aboard ship. 



The American Association for the 

 Advancement of Science has pub- 

 lished a volume containing the in- 

 vited lectures presented at the 

 International Oceanographic Con- 

 gress held in New York in September, 

 1959. 



Entitled simply "Oceanography," 

 the book is listed as Publication No. 

 67 of the A.A.A.S. It contains 30. 

 papers dealing with a variety of sub- 

 jects under five general headings: 

 History of the Oceans, Population of 

 the Sea, The Deep Sea, Boundaries, 

 and Cycles of Organic and Inorganic 

 Substances in the Ocean. 



The book was edited by Dr. Mary 

 Sears of this Institution with the 

 assistance of Miss Ruth C. Christman 

 of the A.A.A.S. Dr. Sears, a plankto- 

 nologist on our research staff and 

 clerk of the Institution corporation, 

 also served as chairman of the com- 

 mitee on arrangements for the Inter- 

 national Oceanographic Congress. Dr. 

 Roger Revelle of the Scripps Insti- 

 tution of Oceanography wrote the 

 introduction. 



U) 



z 

 z 



D 



24 




M ,?, L , ?'. LIBRARY 



17ZS B 



Associates 



of the 



Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 



(A private, non-profit, research organization) 



HE ASSOCIATES of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution are a group 

 of individuals, corporations and other organizations who, because of their love 

 for the sea and interest in science and education, support and encourage the 

 research and related activities of the Institution. 



Membership dues in the Associates are as follows: 



Member $50 



Contributing Member $100 



Patron $500 



Life Member $1,000 



Corporate Member $1,000 



Sustaining Corporate Member $5,000 or more. 



All contributions and dues are tax deductible to the extent provided by law. 



NOEL B. McLEAN, President 



JOHN A. GIFFORD, Secretary 



RONALD A. VEEDER, Executive Assistant 



EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 



CHARLES F. ADAMS PAUL HAMMOND 



WINSLOW CARLTON NOEL B. McLEAN 



RACHEL L. CARSON HENRY S. MORGAN 



W. VAN ALAN CLARK MALCOLM S. PARK 



PRINCE S. CROWELL GERARD SWOPE. JR. 



F. HAROLD DANIELS THOMAS J. WATSON, JR. 



JOHN A. GIFFORD JAMES H. WICKERSHAM 




Contents 



Articles 



ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY AND THE OCEANS 2 



by Duncan C. 8/anchard 



A FEBRUARY STORM 14 



by Alfred H. Woodcock 



Features 



ASSOCIATES GO UNDERWATER 8 



FELLOWSHIPS. 1961 1O 



GROWTH 11 



A MEDAL FOR DR. BIGELOW 16 



WHALE ASHORE 22 



WITH THE SHIPS 22 



CURRENTS AND TIDES 23 



Published by the 



WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION 



WOODS HOLE, MASSACHUSETTS