+ Theory end Method Inthe Sociology of Eduction
Questions for Reflection and Discuss
to make educational research similar to medical or pharmaceutical sesearch? :
st asesent ofthe role nf school in
from factonalist and conic theories? Can
2 you give ome conten
ms oreduve povertyand to
7) Hv does Ray Rist analyze the dasstoom processes that resul.
dint nea How ss tae sea
yr, theories? ae
in the maintenance of social
nb conict and interactionise
(8) How ac al class diff
ZnS Remecin was esd a call derivation this ta ene who ard
low income children do less well in schoo! because their culture ‘is deficient ved wth
a Bourdieu’s theories of cultural and social capital are examples of cultural deprivation theory?
stare te silartis and differences between Bourdieu’sand Bernstein tex :? What, :
: a ‘similarities and differences between Bourdieu’ and Coleman’ theories? ae a
i
‘Theory and Research in the Sociology of Education!
, ALAN &.SADOVNIK
The sociology of education has mizeored the lager theoretical debates in the discipline of eocogy
From is roots a de asia sociology of Katt Mara, Max Weber, and mle Durkhelm othe con
temporsy inuences of symbolic ntracionism, posteadernism, and ential theory sociology of
‘cation esearch hasbeen influenced bys number of diferent Uioraicl perspective, This chapter
providss an overview of the major theotetisal perspectives inthe sociology of education —funetion
ibm, confit theory and symbolic neraconism—as well asconterporary theoretical approaches: the
‘ne theory of Bas Bernstein th altura captal theory of Pere Boarieu the stalus-competti
‘theory of Randall Collins, the isttioal theory of Joba Meyet, and postmosdera critical dear
Functional Theory
Functions sociologists begin with picture ofsocity tha etressesthe interdependence ofthe social
sates these researchers cen examine how wellpartsare integrated with each oer Functions
‘ew society as wklnd of machine in which one parvarticulates with anther f produce the dynamic
energy nequied to make society work. Mest importantly, tional, emphasies the process
‘hat maintota social oderby tesing consensus nd agreement, Although fenctionlist understand
that ange i inevkable, they underscore te evlutionary nature of change, Paste, although they
acknowledge that conflict betseen groups exists, functionalist argue that, without «common bosd
to unite groups, society would disintegrate, Ths, fuctionalists examine the scial processes neces
‘ary tothe establishment and maintenance of socal ord.
Functloaalist tories of school and society ace thes origins tothe French sociologist ile
Dunia (1858-1917) genera sociological theory tits center, Durkheim sociology (194. 1954)
vas concerned with theffects ofthe decline of tadional tus and community daring the tan
tion om tedtional to modern societies. Durkiinls analysis fhe dferences between mexacal
‘and organic solidarity in The Division of Labor (1947) and his concept of anomie in Sui (1931)
examined the nee for societies o crate ritual and institations to provice for social cohesion and
meaning, Like Ferdinand Tenmiess (1957) analysis of Gemeinschit and Gevellscha, Dusen
rovided a sociological analysis ofthe effects of modernity on commun,
For Durkheim, the processes of industialization, urbanization, and modzralgaton fed # the
{reakown of traditional uals and methods of social cuntal, which in tra led w the breakown,
of social solidarity end coesion In Suicide (1951), be demonstrate enspcally how theloeaown,
‘in tradiéenal community sesuled inthe dein of collective cynscience athe rte of individual
lin. Such a breakdown lead to what Duskheim called anomie, the condion of normlsssess in
individuals and soe.
‘As the bond hat connected individuals to each othe and to society became unblnged, oder
soieis faced disintegration from within. Duseim, however, was aot «restionay he dd aot
3 4+ Alan R Sodom
belo tha the sohaion soi distortion wa taro he past iia rs fla
contra elation, Rath eed th moder suit had del eo oa
tat make these hierarchies sem jus and inevitable. Ths, Weber examined ats cultures well
a lass pos, Status san important sociological concept because alerts ust hat people
dente group by wat they consume aad with whom they soca, Weber alr recognised that
plc and misty power coud be exerclied by the State, without det reference fo the wishes of
the dominant classes, Moreover, Weber haan ate and cilia awareness of bow buCeaacracy Was
becoming the domiaaat type of athort nthe modesn state and how barearaic ways thinking
‘wre bout 0 shape eduction reforms, Weber made the dition between the “specials” and
the ultivared man” What should be the goal of educatioa: waning iid fr emplayment or
foe thinking? Or are these tw goals compatiet
‘The Weberianappeusch to siudyng te elation between school and soe bas develope ito
‘compelling and informatie taditon of socalogical research. Reseazchars this tdiion tend to
‘lze school ozganzations and procestes fom te pont of view of satus competition sn orga
puzatinal constraints. Ono ofthe first America sociologists f education to use these concept wis
‘Wilad Waller. ta hs book The Sally of aching (1968), Waller portays sole a utocracies
‘na state of penous equim” Without continuous wiglace, sols woul enapt ito anstehy
because students are essentially forced to goto school agains their will To Walle’ mind rational
models cal oxganization only dsgulse the betens tension that pervades the schooling process,
‘ler perspectives shared by many contemporary kot theorists whn se schools at oppeestive
sad demeaning snd porteay sta! non-compliance with school rules at a orn of resistance)
‘Coatemaporary coast theory ndlades« number af important apprcache, First, amo earch
‘vation that has emesge from the Weberianscuol of thought i presented by Randall olin
(1978), Hebeteves chat educational expansion sbest explained bats group Suge He ares that
educational credentials suchas alee diplomas, are primarily status sybul rather han indiestore
ofecual achievement Teese of zedentialio”indicetes aot hat sos sbecoming more exper
bu that edussion i increasingly uted by dominant groups Yo secuce more advantageous places
Jeena sn wes rem al ee are
Saar eis ae Sega CT Beso the oko be Statord
soliton Nee an biselabrtors Maer argos thal he expansion oan wore
fs buen dc ato fanclub tht demas but ae fo the wri
nous tens and the democrats Bl heaton devopmet is eqaenent a
4c wei, Eke Colin, Meyer sees hat sich exon is a oot mt of democracy. Dat
‘ahr of th ble that ecatanelexpnson sneer. Though compara hist eed
“suns nals Meyer and hicoleapes (Meyer ad Row, 1977, 197; Meyer Rae and
Soya. 192: Rube, [980 demon tht ecto expan ein preceded abort
eran nt tht ection! expan git yet a a ceremny ater
thin acta pret
“eda varton of conic herrea the “a acl eda foung 197%)
‘gun in rane and Bgl cing the 98 Unllke most Warssts wi en to empire te
sSinomic srl oft aur reprodacon Gorsargulta choles
‘eect he interes of atl and oc lithe "new solos of duce” eet
linkme an nso proses no comprehen theory cel and soi Pier Burden,
(0931-2002 examined ho cla eal pura frms ear schas know of mas
2, ad erste) peo by fis seo (1877) The cones of "cul eap
‘portant bests sgt tne ndertanding the ennision of nese ought 8 + Ala Sadornik
sscogiz thatthe extra characters find an groups re significant indicts fst
su as postion There isa growing by of err that suggests schools pss on to graduates
nl idesttisthatlter enhanoor binder hits ances. or carla graduate
peop chou tas eductionalandsocial advantages over macy publicschool radutesta terms
ofaccepiaceto ete olgesand occupational mobi, Tisadvantage hs very ited with what
rep soolstulenisiear schoo and txt del oda eth the power oft schol eepttons
foraacating mombersfehe upperclsBowrdesteoris xen toe workot oe txts wo
have angued pesuniely tht human clfre cannot be udertoodas a cated a se contained
sj of study but must examined as par of lange socaland cult rau To undertnd
the impact of calture gn the lives of indivi and groups we mast understand the meanings that
sre atinbutedt cla experience by those who patipae in them (Manabi 1936)
Another socal reproduction thors Bai Bernsen (1924-2000) sythszed macro and
sociological approcies, primarily using a condit perspective (19904). He argued thatthe
structural aspects ofthe educational syste and the teractions aspects ofthe system set cach
otheran must be viewed holistically He examined how speech patens rect stents social se
backgrounds and how stsdens from working-ans backgrounds ate al a disadvantage nthe school
sting because scholsare sentally das oxganiationd Berstin coined alas anaes
ih st iteractiona ana, which ink langage with educaBoaal proces and outcomes Be.
asten demonstrated empirical hove school pocetes the co vel res in he te
of sia tenfcation a the mcr level ater in the chapter, the Work of Benustein, Bole
Collins wil be examined in More detail
IntersctionistThooey!
In genera, interactions heoves about the elation of school and society ate ertiquss and exes
sions of the functionalist and confict perspectives. The cultgue arises fom the observation that
functionalist and conic thosie are very abetat and emphasize stewctue and prin at asoceta
(anacro-sosiologcal fee of analysis Although thlslevel ofatsysis lps sto understand edcston
the “big picture” macro-scilogictlcheories bardlyppowe us with 29 sterpetable snap. sh
\
of hat al he ng an every Jel What do shales ad techs stalh do che?
Injection theories ttm to make the omiasauplacestan”by turing 0a thes beads cetyl
taken-or grant Behaviors and interaction been dents and studs tnd etme students
and teachers. Is exactly wat most people Joao: question hi most peblemats othe tet,
Loti. Fr example, the process by which teens ar eld “pte” o “learaing dae
from an inceractonst point of view important to aa esau cach puoceses catty mis ean
‘any implicit asumptions about earning and children. By examining tbe men selogl or
intratonlaspecs school if, we ate less ikl to crete theories tat loi ad logue
but without meaning content
Inertionistheory sits orgs in che sci prychokgy ofthe cry tenet cents
its Geonge Herbert Men (1869-191) and Chases Horton Coole (1864-1929) Nea and Coney
sarsined he ways in ish the Slides thee ongung vv interac,
This choolof thought known asym nteractonsm wed the sal seealy cnr in
ssn to social forces and tracts aid ois of ong negtaon of eangs Ts
Whe socal sigan stive product of human agency rather thn & dees proct oso
struct. This noe exten perspective, with 8s rigs in the schoo! of php kat so
dhenomenalagy (Giddens, 1875) sss what he soli Petes Bergeeand Thoma ake,
63) eal the social onstruction of ely
“Theory and Resarch nthe Soctlogy of Euston + 9
Tnveractionist theory is usualy combined with funcionelism and/or confi theory to produce
.mure comprehensive theory af ele Oe of the most influent ineractonist theorists was the
{Canadian-born sociologist Erving Glas whose work examine the micre cocology of everyday
Uifeand che functions of interaction ATUL in holding society together. ened aan apthvopoloist,
‘nthe functionals ation of Ene Durkheim and A, R. Radlife-rown, Guinan was interested
now everpay taken-fr granted patterns of interactions seve ta hal society together. Goffe’
brand ofinterastonism was ston ee viewed cial inerstion pters a ital tt aerved
‘pina society thtough an invisible micro-soeial order. Although Goffman didnot ecly stody
writhing on meta Bospitas in Asytons (29612), on the labeling of so-caled devant
gna (1963), and of patterns of intepersona! behavior in The Presentation of Safin
tar (1961b), Behavior ix Public Places (19630), and tration Rival
schist.
tase tn
Bruyday Life (1959), 2a
(1967) ave provided 2 rich pesy of conocps for sociologists of education, partial theo
‘heuse oflbeling hear, which hasbeen applied io Ube tu of eacher expectations (Perse 1877),
sie groping and ecking (Ons, 1985) and the study of souls sta ass (Cookson
sited 5
Ray Rist has provided some o #2 pnt portant asghtson the waysin which choo procenes
fect educa achievement 9 (197, 1973, 197B. research at the everyday processes of
Schooling i an inert choo! reviled an understanding of how school practices, sich as iabel-
ingand sity groping contbute othe ceprodaction of eductionl and social inequslie In bis
clas evay, “On understanding the proves of schooling: the contributions of ibling theory”
(1977), Rist argued that interactions as provided important understandings ofthe way in which
the everyday workings ofechoos incuding eacher and staeat interactions) abeling and nguitic
scours are atthe rot of urea educational outcomes. Drawing upon hbeling dor orginally
‘hey approach athe sociology of deviance, Rs demonstated how teacher expectations of stunts
Based on catgores suchas ace clas, ethnicity. and gender aot aden perceptions oftherssves
sed thes achiovment In another classic ey, “Studoat oa cls and teacher expectations thes
Foti popleey a phe eucatio (197) Rist epore findings om his thaographicsuh
2S€ Louis deientay school consisting of primary Atican-American suds. Ris demonstated
few Aca America teacher bling often has on the iron social clas Dukgronds
rested in low-income studens being paced in lowerabity reading groups and nl clas st
ents higher bility group, adept of bility. These fabs bere “ie seatenc” that had
profoundly negative eects onthe achievement ofthe low-iacome stan, who retained in low
bility groups throughout tele carer. Rist concludes that the inerctonl processes af the school
resulted in edactiona inegualty toring the lager structures of saci He concluded that “the
sen of public edu nT perpetuales what Ws iealogically commited o—eradsting
lass bres which es in inequity othe soca and econom f of be ctency” (Rist. 19706
*459)-Combine wit th findings oo theory, i fntersiois approach provides empiri
«al docamentaion of how schools repradu neal
Contemporary Approaches inthe Sociology of Education
at ey ast erste Cmtbuton eo Uesaning Bain
Gaiety thee ned describe the theo nd empl pject oie ish slg
teres, Tis apoach concerned wihbow emacoled Gov pla nd commie
ests anata cleo he nay in hich rope und stnso
‘ean (cde). For eae ns eral was onc cently mpertatanc oor
Shlsoclogs ioe wrk nace eration ofsolopssofeduaion ndings Prom 10 + Alan R Sadie
is ety works on language. commsnication code, nd schooling to ister works on curculam
analpedagogy caching method) Heastsntlerptd to produces thary suai aod etvcmee
cote (nage) ond th effet on socal reproduction. Altwugh ecto fn op
rch, Bernsen sociology drew on the esental theme oretations i e eld Durkee
tan, Webra Maris and iteractnistand provided the possbty oan perature
“Bernt early wrkon code hear wa igh conttoversal bce it cutee oi cr
ferencesin ngage that ome bcd ade theey Notes he wok ed roc pestons
about the relationships among the soil division of abe amy a the school nd pened
tow thes rans afi dlrenee ning ating soe aes, Fs nes work L909)
‘ese the dicuk poet conning HaEs powe a Jas teaboas othe no odecalonet
proses the school Whereas class eprodcton torts suchas Bowles a Gis are
an overt determin: view of shou ewig exusun a excise infvnced by themes
without dverbing or expuning wha gos on isco, Berens wockpromaed vo conan
sects instttonal, interactional, and inteapeyhi evel of scolocaltalaIn deing
resent an opportunity opts he csc theoretical wars ofthe seine hee,
‘Webern, ant Darla
The concep of ode central tw Bras src sclology, From the out ofits ue ins
work on language (eric ad eaborted cod), the term fers to seat pine whith
undetlies varus mesige systems especialy curl ad pedagogWAtunson, 198 p26)
"erste ety workonanguge (1955, 56, 196Lab examined the reins betwoss pbc
Janguage autor, and shared meanings (Dana 1985, pp 46-147) By 1982 Bernt separ
{2 develop code tvory through the intoduction othe concept ected and elabortd ces
(496260) In Clas Codey and Con Vlas 1 (1973), Berne seco toner
‘was developed ito seca theory examining the raionships betwen socal ies ealeanting
reproduction of meaning system
For ecntein, here wore sxial cas lifereces in the emumunicationcales of working-class and
ie cltschidren dferences tha ret he ls and power dans ia hesoll dive eto
fey and schools. sed upon empl esech,Rerscin distinguished Deween te rote
cae othe woyking ths andthe aborted code ofthe mide dans Rested codes we conten,
dependent and pacts wheres aborted code te conta ndependem sn wanes
For example when keto tl story describing a sete of ptnes waking hy toed any
pronouns and thirties coulTbe understood only by looking tthe peter Middle cowboys or
{he other hand genera desertion chin nouns and the stores could he undessoer enon
‘hehe of the plctures (Bers, 1970), Aldwuagh Berea exc ee Dei. 1995) pend
oth scaling ory ered an exams of ef ey alent we ceing
that working clas language was deficient) Bernstein consistently recta the Interprets lace
Bests, 196, pp 147-150, Reraten ped that ese ces area dion ate
toll related th soc son of abo whereby conten dope ingune nsececere
nthe contest of prodtion, Likewise, dhe elaborated cou oe ie ds econ, seine
hangs netted by hangs i he dvs flab and, aa ren, by the mile dosh oot
‘toni production nthe than producti. Tha scool requrean dburstecode oreo
secu workngaschliten ae dada the donsnantccofedolng wn doboeee
For Bernstein dference becomes debs the entest fae paver sas
tn the hind and fourth voles of Clas, Cds, an Corl and i Pea, Smbie Control
son lint (197, 990,196), Bers developed code theory from ke seecguton noe to
‘xamine the conection between commrniction codes and curiculen and teaching ethos In
thisrespct, code theryberame concerned with the process of stn sd en tcp ree iy
soci eprodution, Bernssn anavaed the sgn ferences between dienes ores of
“Thooryand Reseach in the Sociology of Edition + 11
educational transmission and suggested thal pills ferences in cutticulum and peda are
rated t ineualites ofeducaional achievement between working-class and mile-clas eens
Sehools that serve mie-las students have diferent curscul and teaching methods from schools
thet nerve working-class students, and thee diferencesrevul in educational inequality Through 3
‘ful and logical consideration of the inner workings ofthe doutinat frit of educational practice,
Bernstein contibuted toa greater understanding ofhow the schools especialy in the United King
dom and United tates) reproduce what they ate deolgicaly committed to eradicating: soial-lass
advantages choolingatsocety Bertin analysis Fhe ssi cas sumptions of pedgpoe,
isthe foundation for king micro-eductional processes to the macitsociolopal levels
stati strasrcund das and poner elions
Despite the crticiis that Bernstelis work is sometimes complex and dificult it is undeniable
shat repesentd one the mt sie ed power ain sigacnt es
in he scloy of elven, Oves 8 yous ago, Bersln bya wits eget rere
I: bw find way to prea the wate of woking dtetona paca (G96
SH, Tlan as hoe Bernal werk provide apenas of he aso bee
‘yan and lnc an ofhow chosing produc scl nly
ular Capita and Syobol: Vetence: The Contributions of Pierre Bourdiou
sk Bernstein, Pierre Boutdi@ Bourdieu and Paseron, 1977; Bound, 1973, 1977, 1984 attempted
to test empirically a theory of society, clture, and education thet syatheszes Durkhcim and Marx
(Snare, 1997), As the director af the Cente de Socologe Européenne in Pats, Bourse, with is
research coleagucs provided a theoretical and empirical understanding feature and satiation,
As Colin (Callas and Malas, 1993, p.258) notes, for Bourdieu
Gulture itself, is an econory--. . Stratification in the cultural economy and in the material y
‘ono at eircdly elt Fr Rourde, cares areal of power srg lated
0s the eal of polities.
there oer the mean of lence at charac
Thus oars cna onc a aan SIE
Aovslsard Passer Reproon Eat SO an Calne
bow schooling is par of syBle proces sTelturl and socal reptodscton Symbol lence
seth aap owe ings ano np tht eine by concealing the
ver mone bic are the as offre” (Coli sod Makawaky 193, p. 29). Tis pe of
owe found aot ona schooling but els ia othe educational reals ning ach aes 3
{hdd eating museums and sia and art lststions.Aliboggh schools appear ob eat
tations, Thee
slang.
Swhich were developedin
yarewsed 0 understand
liam in the sociology of Durkin an th anthropology of Livi
Strauss, Bourdis,ike Beretcin, provided more of conic, neo Ni
states that cultural capital produces socal classes and dat schling eproduces cultural capital
‘oevealy among social clases, Schooling corzesponds tothe dominant iteress of scletysa+ esa
"wper- and mide-das forms efcultual capital become codified ke schools cueiewurs Unik
Finctoalits, Rourdion ana Rerysein viewed these patterae ae
agicerment bt athe tas denainai,
Miu was not without is ic According te Collin (Calis and Makows; 1993, p. 264: 12 + Alan BSadovaie
Bourdieu theory is completely closed. totally cynical totally pessimist, Weare eternally
loomed eo stratication ... We cannot ge outset skins; we can only change places inside
“This views. a Clin suggests, lst pot out the intense organizational and societal cons hat
offen result in some reshaping af sil staicstion (p. 265). Nevertheless, Collis (Collins and
Makowsky, 1993) includes Bourdieu as among the most infaetial Furopean sociologist ofthe late
weno century
derstanding Ungual Educational Outcomes: The Contebutions of James Coleman
James Cera contsibatosto th sociology feat isle thee npr hort
ca nd ply dimensions, Colecian Spent st of cazer tons opine Universi andthe
Univers Chicago ad was besowa aris iportan wock Ely of aetna Opprtaty
(Coleman et, 1966), Complete forte Waited Sates peach and Dae on atta aay
solange cs sets, the Coleman Report argued that schol aed factors sch x cho dn,
‘sources nd teacher qual expat le ofthe eencs twee lack an whan low
scone and more flu seats. Rather, Golan ound thal estral cttsch as pete
corny an fl hat stanton socio-economic toad repel
onedactionalacleverent Chiesa sugested that gen thee itr low-income Back cents
si bent rom aly itegra school setings. his esodin he enrovesal otc in the
1960 an 1970 ofshoo busing ores ration witch fale olen oppeston By 975
Coleran argued hat basing ad a white ight och suburb nt bug a lh
poston a oan ansuecessfel attempt y some members ofthe Ameri elo Aaociaton
{orevoke his membership. Nevctees, a 1981, be besos President
By the 1980s Coleman change ls postion on the ers of schol on student achieve fa
‘wo portant (Coleman, Her and Rig, 1982, Caera anal Holle, 987), colaman ape
{sss nga scandent Cato fahren anti
Nuon serons controling for student background and vosio-ecnonsk status Tisarguent beat
the foundation fr what mastered the Caobe School ef wich nfuencel school howe and
*ovcher proponents inthe omg jes Colmar concusions were cise on methodlgal
nd poly rounds, wth etic arguing hat he and hs couthors dd not adequately con oe
fudybuckground varies, lection bis sold wih parental ces o send tha hen
opiate schools and the fit hat priate soos, alike pul school eld wx stents oe
‘cidenicand behavioral esos Desitethee cress begun th ali and tesco
| i MC), OOP ownage Sw anf lg fae Lan Cali Ma