. Dain lo Be BAD s: Alice Echols Foreword by Ellen Willis| | Varieties of Radical Femini Redstockings, Cell 16, The Feminists, __New York Radical Feminists m— ‘The ral feminist groups discussed inthis chapter aprec that tender, not clssor race, Was the primary contradiction and thar a other forms of soci domination originated wut mc Supremacy.! Radical feminists” commitment to 9 independane and autonomous women’s moventent and ther convicron me Imale dominance wan not a mere by-proxct of capt poe them at odds with easly sociasttcminists? Nor ahd edge feminists fee! much of an athnuty with eral feminists wheee ct for to eliminate ex discrimination inthe workplace they sop ported, but whose assimilation goal of bringing women ieee ‘mainstream they opposed. To radical feminnts, NOW's nag focus on formal equality with men not only ignored the fon damental problem —womea's subordination win the ree. {sumed that equalty in an unjust society was worth fighing fon However, as this chapter suggests, radial eminim wa any ig, ‘but monolithic, While Redstockings. The Feminine, News goat aglal Feminists, and Cell 16 were al rae! feminne proops they were divided on crical questions. By late 196, these fea merged diferent, and sometimes widely divergent, seca nt rade femiaivm, Redstockings ‘When len Wits and shulamith Firestone founded Redsockings tn February 1969 4 was wth the imention of exablnting-care‘Varieties of Radical Feminism lc radical eminis group, as opposed toa group ke NYRW] "at had radial feministsin along ith other people They cn stoned Redtockings as 4 “very milant, very public group, ‘one which would he commited fo action aswell ato convetous ‘erasing They chose the name Redwockings ‘tt ore sn wey who were waste ca As Will remembers it, “it was Shulleund | who decidédon the ‘tou, Shalie and I who made up the name, and we who invited ‘other people Hesides Wills and Firestone, the cathe mens bets of Redstockings included Kathi Sarah, rene Pest, Pa Mainara, Barbara Mehihot, Pam Kearon, Linda Feldman, Shea roman, and Harbara Kaminsky. Carol Hanisch dio onthe stoup because she moved to Gainesville, Florida to engine ‘women for the Southern Conference Educational Fund (SCE) and to work in Gainesville Women’s Liberation wth he nde tlh Brown and Carol Gaeina. Sarachildattendesevera eat Redstockngs” mectngs, Dut it Match she moved to Gainesville fora month to work ona consciousness tasing handbook” How ver, when Sarachikl retuned in Apri she became one of the sr0up's Key members" Kos Banani, Babaes Leon, and Als ates Shulman joined ltr that spring oF its rst actin, Redsiockings decided to addess the sue of horton. By the ate ‘Gos sentiment within the medial profession nd fay-planning organizations was shifting in favor orton, {and in some cases repeal) of abortion laws. Beglaning wih Colorado in 1967, anumber of states started o reform these ws Unfortunately, these so-called eform bills were lite beter thon the laws they replace. The new laws di make therapestic abo, ‘ion teal, but “punitive therapeutic abortion commtiees por ‘women through intense and often moralng inquiries to deer mine whether their abonton request was, tly. jstfied om ‘eat grounds.” For instance, Calfomia and Coloado no only fequired wetten consent rom two doctorsand the hospital coms iit, but made the procedure more expensive BY mandating that it be done on an inpatient basis Restrictions suchas these forced poor women whi “lucked the personal connections to Bate doctors and the funds necessity to obtain te hapa abortion to we bickalley abortions” Seeing the lee berating effects of abortion seform, taal emnts ke Ce Cle, founder of New Yorkers lr Abortion aw Repeal tended "uot be regulates meted ott sertng momen hburte sof rks dese wo rote “ater aa oe "ape is ised one carne sbotion i 2 woman's et and tha noone cae so and compel her w Bear cen spas ae {ndced, as Wilis pots out, when feminists began vo pst forthe [pea of abonion laws, “our ft uet was the tee SStaround sping has over how skk or por cx maigavens Pregnant woman had to be to deserve enema fie duty. New York was among the sats considering tefrming ts bor tion aw, When twas announced thar ee state mould he hota leistatve hearings on abortion reform on February 19,150 {hat fouricen men and one woman nun had been eres ‘aPen witneses for the hearing, women’s Hcancenee at NOW members lke decide wo pick! the heating Ne about seven women’s Hberatinits resolved to ao mee peat merely picket Determined that those teen witnses octane be the only ones allowed to discuss under wha seat ‘ramen might be permiuedabortiony they deidedtocinsptng hearing" Ater one ofthe winese,audge econ ns abortion be made tg or women who had "done they ot dy by Raving our children, Kathe Sach sad ap sed shouted,“ Alight, now k's eat tram some ra caper cake omen" Aecowdingtoa New York Timesteponce te cea tee members just “sated over their microphones 'arasons 2 what was happening Sarah continued hing antares kegslature to repel all boron laws “insted of wang {ie aking about thee sup seforms "The Wiis see ne and began to testy. Exasperated, one lester peuied wer a Protestors o act ke aes,” ul to no aval ™ Finals tie Amite adjourned and moved wo another soom ta men inetive session. shortly alter the protest, in am interview for the Guardian, Wills explained teas posed cing poe ma dno a he Inspired by the suecess ofthis action, the newly formed Res stockings decided to hold their owa hearings on abortion, Ab ‘hough many women refused to testy about their abortions for fear of possible epercussons, Peslki and Kaminsky managed 0 line up twelve speakers forthe March 2 speak” Mehrbot ‘cal hat meer of Redtorkings we kis andre oc Ings tothe event. tn an efor to ‘canton the spurious personal Poliialeisuincton, the asumprion that abortion was somehow hot politcal the women decided to talk about themselves eather than talk in theoretical terms. Writing shorly thereat, Wills maintained tat they hadben correct total in persona stm for icevokeld] stong eeactons «empathy, anger, pain” from ‘the 300 oF so people who ate. So succesful was the speak ‘out that its onguniees hoped that the Wea of speak-outs would «atch on and become the equivalent, forthe women’s move ment, ofthe Vietnam teactsins "In fact, thle speal-out i sited others to speak ou on the sue As part of ther campaign ‘overturn abortion laws, Freach feminists enlisted the support of numberof prominent Hench women including de Beatvou) ‘who risked fines and imprisonment by publely declaring, have Inearly Ape Sella Cronan proposed that for heir next action the yroup hanya banner which would vead "Liberty for Women: Repeal all Abortion Laws” rom the Statue of Liberty However ‘Cronan and hier ales encountered techaical problems in con structing the banner, and oppostion to the action when Sarid returned tothe group Sarichldarguesthat the action was pooty conceived and thatthe group's energy would be better spent ‘itinga manifesto." When the group voted in mine 4 ut lle the ation, the discussion reportedly "broke down into great The Statue of Liberty acon became a point of comention be ‘use member disagreed about the importance of conseionmes ‘ising. Not everyone in the group. was as commited oy onsciousnessrasing a8 Surachid, Peslikin, and Malnard Cer, lainly, Mehor, Keaton, Cronan, and Linda Feldman who vcotually left Redbiochings to join The Feministe tel tae Redstockings 2s the name imple, wa strongly influenced by the let: Although the group rejected Maris theoriing othe ‘woman question,” it appropriated Marxist methodology kag «for to construct theory of women's uppresnon, For nee, Festone argued that in developing. an analyus, of mae supremacy, feminists could Ms‘The pro-woman faction, the dominant faction in Redstacking, arcuate what Wiis has described a5" hind of co Mace Imateriais,” which put them at ads with many oer radical Feminists” According to the pro-woman line. women's behavior ‘asthe result of mmediate external conliions ind not. oe many ‘thee feminist argued, the result of thee conaltoning, Or the ‘words of thei manifesto, “women’s submission lee the ese of brainwashing, stupor mental liess ut of contin ‘ily pressure from men," rejected as fase ll aycholopa explanations of women’s behivior. For instance, whe tray feminists argued thar women marty because they are beat ‘washed inca believing that they mus, pro-woman keminie fed that women marry because remaining single trl dt cul and requis that one work at "boring and sleating i9°¥ Carol Hanisch, one ofthe main proponents ofthe pee ‘woman line, even argued that looking prety and acing donb were survival stateles whieh women should comtne tose un, such time a the "power of unity” coll replace the, Wily ‘ainvains tha the pro-woman tine uote te complicated paycholopea! aus which He pa Soman tin son dn age exe a ust lle se Moreover, ating that there were no personal solutions, bu father, “elements of cessance and atcommention’” tn all choices, Redsockings tried t0 avoid making morlshe judge ‘ments about oer women, especialy now Movement women Indeed, for some Kedstockings the pro-woman lie was ake 4 ‘way t aes the nse of eas. In the sping Of 1970, Bares eva argued to advocate at women “Were themselves” by giving up mat Yo Le0m all the tak of conditioning or brainwashing fat ives women into two groupe—thse who ate “mi tan and tone who at sl "huiesshd, es ect sand preventing us om lg our summon oa Ta about beawasing earesdmtnatn ofthe ewe Cece noe ry 4d brown women fitig othe Iran, orang een an howewve) te to Ivaved in mateo wrceatie eg {o mythalabseicons abou draped poche ot era 2% Leon's statement suggests, Redtockings asomed that thee {common oppresion” united women more tha clas ov rae vided them. ta their manifesto, Redtockings te wo vations «las and race divisions by "efofing] uur bes intense oe the poorest, most brtaly exploited woman,” and by “aepucien lial at economic. racial, educational or status prvieges hora ide us from other women." Hedstockings”shayst suposed that 4 mult lass and multieacial movement could De aeheceed hits, middleclass women would simply reaounce, Meg Privileges and aruistcallyidenuty with womch wh were nen Deviled than they. I was aice fantasy. uta we shall en Sid not materialize Pro-woman feminists not only defended marred women ‘aginst charges of brainwashing. they came that marsage roe resented the best burgan for women pentiow whith ry Somewhat anomalous among radial feminiss, Parca Munaed ‘himed that in consciousness asin sessions became obvious thatthe ent aerate Hse revolten Hy subculture was in sme mays «at wep tack ‘bd fort being an mprovemetk one "walnred nena oS Manna went farther und argued that both men and women “would tke love, securky, companionship, respec ands nae term relatlonship"™ And in 2 1971 speech, Saacld speed ‘most women wouldn't join a movement that alled for ee love" because they know that 'reedom (or womenjor love (or women) In explsining wonen's prelerence on monogamous reationships, Leon stewed “the dingers of cen ‘eal dhease, unwanted pregnancy, or foreible ape thar sansexposes herself coin casual encounters” Not everyone in Re: ochings agreed that sexual idly ws prcterable tee love Wits recalls having had "erable fight” with Sarachid shout "monogamy. While Willis admits tht consciousness ising te ‘ced hat most women favored monogamous relationship she «laims that the group was unable to reach a convensusabott Why fl (aw represen these women's re dese, te acing the dicen he sian othe goal mae Surachild proposed 4a 1969 that women “use matiage 3 the ‘icatorship ofthe protest’ i the family evolution, When ‘ale supremacy i completely eliminated mariage ike he state, wll disappear.“ Indeed, Sirti reportedly declared a on Rednwockingg meeting, “we wont gt off the plantation wot the revolution!" The ony of al thi is that most ofthe women Redstockings didnot teside on “plantations” For instance, Sarahil, despite her protestations about staying onthe "plant, "ion." a never marred. tn fat, Wis claims that mos Of the ‘women in Redsockings “came out of the counterculture and continued to hang out with counterculture men." Wills notes {hat"thete was this rebellion and resentment alas the ives hat ln many ways we were ntact, ving" tut the pro-woman femunists of Redstockings were highly aie of the sexual revolution and fre love they were not ante Sexual inthe way Cell 16 and The Feminists wete Like sour ‘othe adical feminists, they ented the repession of female sexuality and took or granted women's desie for genial sce Pleasure." To feminists who doubted that heterosexuality for Women was either fully chosen or truly pleasuabe, the Re. ‘Mockings" postion smacked of fale consciousness, Indeed, At ‘inson reportedly attended one Redstockings meeting whee she and Wills got into a disgreement over whether women fel needed sexval relationships. Wiis reall at one point in the de bate “ThGrace saying very pattondeingly that [seal deste wa alin my head" Redstockings’ analysis of sexual politics had mote shan alle {© do with their convicuon that hetetonexualty. could be ‘eployed on women's hehall Indeed, in 1968 Sars hild segue ‘We're saying that for most of history sex was, infact, both oor doing and our only posible weapon of se defense apd sell assertion aggression)" Redstockings envisioned momen directly confronting the men in thei lives, much ws the women ‘id in Witham Hinton’s Fanshon, 4 widely read and tulvernea book among feminists and leftists which documents the reve, "onary transformation ofthe Chinese village of Lang Bow © he coe to Wills, the idea behind Redstackangs sion of dives fonfrontation between sexual clases” was that if all women demanded equality and refused to scab" men would be forced to eat women as equals” Hut as Wills notes, ete wes strong “heterosexual presumption” here which ran coun oy Redstocking’ claims that they dd no elevate une lense ony, tl preference over another Sw yan. nd cin xp seed hat In bot ned ad collie supge-and tate oe ed fo sensual eve fom ten was our gsr ce in oe ating the lo ero conten a ea soe qued Lesbians, who were seen 4 withdrawing from the sexual bat ‘eground rather than engaging mea in srugge were inelovunag Redstockings vision of class struggle Between men and ween, In theic manifesto, Redtochings contended that “al mene ‘ot us the ruling cass men whom politicos typically urged "receiv economic, sexual and psycholoieal Benefits toa ale supremacy." Ineo, accordingto their manifesto, "Alloen have oppressed women.” Redstockings cece an institutional aay tof women’s oppression because they felt allowed men oo vide responsiblity for thet olin maintainingmae saprencey ‘Thus, the manesto contended that" isiutions alone do note Pres they are merely tools the oppress" Willa, whe fags [ful with Redstockingsanhinstitutonal aly, copes ‘hed that systems ke te ayo cpa ac a somePS eA TRL A TE Iected a a mysiicaton ans way of ting men off fe hook Tosay for instance that the farly opp women wa vale the fc at out hasband an fathers oppressed ws ‘To Pa Manat, for instance, the problem was not marriage, but rather, he "male supremacy and sex roles within marae" Notall members agreed with this analysis i thee individual wie ‘igs both Wills and Firestone sessed the centrality of nara and the family 19 womens oppression: For example, in The Di. llste of Sex, este called foe the elimination of the fanly steuctre, “the vinculom,” she argued, "through which the py. ‘thology Of power can aways be smuggled." I all men were {ir oppressors, all Nomen were automaticaly assumed Co be theirs, or snes. Thus Redstockings pledged hat hey Would always ake the side of women agains thei oppressors ‘By sprig 1969, only several months alter Redstocklngs found tng atoup members found themselves increasingly divided on ‘ological, structural, and strategie questions, Karon, Mehthot, ronan, and Feldman coastted the minority that pushed for more action and theory, separatism i personal as wells politi lite, and 4-move egatartan group structure. They texented Sarachikt’s attempts to reinstate conscousness ting, an ac ‘vty they fee rested only in more consciousness raising, never ‘action ™ Even betote the disintegration af NYRW, Mehthot had argued that "consciousness talsing has the ability to organize fC aumbers of women, butt organize them for noting. Mehstot and others wanted to organize ations in order to make Weir ideas public and to test-themselves. To. Keaton ‘consciousness raising seemed dangerously static, Ing in cmon prices feminism. We want to change and Femold ourches Taking sb out pesonal probleme ot coh An in what seems ceerence to Saracild, Kearon pointed a that ismotForany well educated woman to declare that edu. Sons unnecessary or undestable 1 esse foe ll women be policy educated This faction aso opposed the pro-woman line which they a ued underesimated women's revolutionary potenti and thus “kept [women} ftom moving cut. Tem going on the “offensive tn pateuar they object va Redux postion ‘on marrage and ex. Keaton cette the asunption that to ‘atural for men and women to be dependent on eich ute "she excorlted the pro-woman line faction for eing concerned with ensuring male fidelity “instead of encouraing women ta break ‘ff thei etationships wih men." Accoading to Wiis ‘hese love separatn ws etween women wh uk foe gamed hat beng with ch man desea hone whan they fk were foo malconened t= HY MEN why For this minority faction, the goal was to wean women fam de balan relationships with men, not to encore thes en f1ge thet lovers or husbands in battle They are that hetero Sexuality inhibited female saidanty and’ encouraged female dependence. And, tke Atkinson, Keaton chided. pro-wentan feminists for being so concerned with sex Ses comdered a neces of Me (Wo says so Well Sind from ws ever sented he vey Pagano ce ds device enigma and prope hymen io herp meen For Kearon and her allies, heterosexual desire was nothing more ‘han ama fabeicationdesignedto keep women enslaved to mes Mehhot, Kearon, Feldman, and Cronan also opposed what they felt was the ineitartan structure of Restocking The at ‘ued thatthe sroup automatically asuied tha those women ‘ith sis, such as writing oF public speaking. should he the s10up's spokeswomen. Thishectme anise almost aunty ‘when Wills and Firestone were extensively quoted ins seria o {Guardian arcs on women sibeeation * Some womer fel tat they should not have Went themselvesas Redtockngn ment hers without rst informing the group tha they weee henge viewed. Others resented thei access to the media Ata Matemeeting, Keaton and others enticed Fitestone and Wiis for Noarding” the ceive work and dominating the meetings The “equality” proponents earned that Atkinson's group, The October 17th Movement ater tobe named The Femi) had adopted the lot system whereby work was divided ito too ‘ategores—creative and routine and was determined by lot father than expertise or family *? By April they had suc ‘ceeded in getting Redstockings to vote ln the lot system In eat June, Sehehot and Kearon faked the sue of clas claiming that those women with skill had not obtained them by aeldent, but by vite of thee clas background. Mehrbof and Keaton were of ‘working- However, by Jly 1969, ks thana yea later, the argument shifted somewhat—sex wasn’t merely energy draining and dangerous for women, was deleteous to the movement ax well Warton argued that women “won't he able to clearly analyze ou postion and we will have a vested terest not making mes too hos tle,” unless women forsake "personal relationship and group sutuations with men." In contrat to Redstacking assumption that women's heterosexual needs would ensure thei commit ‘ment to femunso, Cll 16 argued that women's byponexvality bas essential tothe cause, This Densmore observed that “if a great mis ‘were ue that we needed sex fom men, it wouk Fortune, one that might almost doom out fight, Cell [6 was probably the fst roup to propose tht women ‘withdraw trom men personally as well a polticaly. Although Cell 16 heterosexual separausm helped establish the theoretical foundation for lesbian separatism, the group never advocated ee Danis. For Cell 16, the fundamental problem with homosexual ity was hat "lke heterosexuality it sulle from being sexuality Densmore argued tht nomosexualy was a response to the pe ‘enity of heteroseaualiy, and strongly implied that homosexual ity was “unnatural Dunbar and teghoen advised women 0 Separate “from men who ate not consexnaly working ot ferle eration,” but warned them agains secking fefuge in lesbian {claionsips.“Homosexually,” they argued. nothing mote ‘hana personal solution” When ksbian feminist activ Ris ‘Mae Brown critkized Dunbar in Febeuary 1970 for ignoring the ‘sue ofesblanism, Dunbar reportediy replied, "What I want to dd isget women outof bed: Women can love each vther but they don’t have to sleep together. Dunbar also articulated hat a probably the earliest feminsteeiqve of pornography. which she maintained, "expreses 2 masculine ideology of male power cover females" Like current feminine antepornomraphy 2 Lists, she maintsined that pornography is violence against ‘women, and likened pornogeaphy tothe Iyiching ot blacks. In fact, Dunbar’ excoriation of pornography sound remarkably contemporary. Cell 16'sprotocutural feminism co-existed rather awkwardly with is Marxist analysis. However, ater Dunbar left Cell 16 in «aly 1970, the group moved away fom Marit analysis as they etaborated Dunbar’s notion of "the femule principle” They voted their enerpes 10 atacking "the male concept rather ‘han the family o the state Fr instance, in Apel 1970, Legh denied “the male concept" as the source of all systems domination: Powe, economics dependc jon was geo, mics “oppressed peoples caught inate eras of ase and ‘lus and iefetalburesucrices fet on the preserva of Moreover, Leghorn maintained that hese “male pater of ie chy” were unknown in mautatchal cultures ™” The group als ‘laboraed upon Dunbar's analysis of women asa clasless caste Densmore even asserted that “the unity of woatem exist aleady because she chimed "there are no clases among women ell 16 shift from Marais aught have Ben elated to the So ‘ait Workers Party's (SP) atempred takeover of the gioupsometime after Dunbars departure. According to one acon, "wo of the onginal member of Cel 16 became involved the SWE whi stl involved in the group." Asch arse andthe ‘s10Up decided to disbund amicably eather than allow themselves to be ravaged by factionalim, However the aon SW? members sscovered that the SWP women had tried to appropriate the Mes, ‘malig sts, and some funds fom No More Hun nd Games A {his point the non SWE Women circulated a letter thrughont dhe ‘movement alerting women to the SWP's efforts to “anfiuate feminist groups. Theyre established Cell and resumed publics tion of No More Fun and Games. The group continued to Rin ‘ion uot 1975 Interestingly ater Duabur lett she group, she Became more committed to Marssm. she moved to New Orleans whet she tsied v0 organize southern women into the women's Hocraton ‘movement She formed the Southern Female Rights Union an then the New Orleans Female Workers: Ualon which wis com smite vo buiing 3 "working cass Base for the women’s move: ment." Inmid:1971 Dunbar's group, she Southern Female Rights Union, parroing the standard left ine on the women's move: iment, proclaimed thut the “programmatic demands” OF the ‘women'smovement were essentially white and mide-clss de ‘mands designed to tte’ the ypicalsngle, white andadule cass ‘Woman from the tnbultions which het workings and Tied World ster» cannor escape And in mid 1950, Dunhar even «ame out against legalized abortion, which, she argued, would be Used to flit the genocide of black peop. Se asked ane sence in Berkeley, "What are out individual lives (white women ‘ing from illgilaboruons), computed to the genocide of + ‘hoke people? tn subsequent yeas the mercuttal Dunbar be ‘ame involved in onyanizng fest Appalachian, and then Native {os revaluation of femininity, vilunization of malenes, em Phasis om personal rehabilitation, and belie ina plo ser, hoo Cell 16 waste prototypical cultura mins gop, And, although Dunbur probably came to reyard Cell 1's peespetive 2 clas and race-bound, the seeds of tat analysis Were my Dus ars origina analysis, especialy er equation of feminien ith the female principle The Feminists thos wen et iy she was repre Repubean ih salespeince™ However, Akinson ws oo nee ea las Shc had tead Simone de Besuvow's Te Seon ee 204 ke 0 many other ther women wha eeegae ee Mal viewed herasher protégé indeed, Fidanclametiorecn, {he who pushed Atkinson into NOW's leadership forse ety ‘Atkinson's "Malo Line accent and tyke Blond good tant gull Perfect. «for rang money from those ahd Fold widows we never did unearth hetorclong hose Fricdan discovered that Atkinson was anything ut Se age, Aukinsons tubule retonsip with NOW ba in February 1967, when se atended the nt orimastoo aah New York chapter December 190 ahe wince at Rew York NOW, by the ret an the es eee the NOW chp alhough thee mete lian ca tes theNew York chaptereomtancatiny ance cones ae on’smendertip Katemilen aaoerog amet women who polticized her about forms of oppression and who iteoaed her to the moe ‘ada factions” at Columbia University daring the ske of 196 As lkinon puts my feminism rakaled me on But a Atkinson became more radical she grew dlsuioncd ‘with NOW, andi NOW establishment grew increasingly appre: hensive shout he. From the begining, Aekinson waned the oF ativzation 19 take “unequivocal postions on abortion, marriage, the family" —the very sues which many members {sete anxious that NOW avoid nereasingy, Atkinson staked ou Positions that were on the cuting edge of feminism. For instance, Cindy Cisler contends hat twas Atkinson ‘who fit pointed out the inconsistency of supporting both ther. Peal and she reform of aborusn tas ™ Moreover, Atkinson's Volvement with controversial Gres ike Valerie Solas and abortion advocate Dill Bad made the NOW establlshiment ex lwemely uneasy. Her very public show of support for Vaete Solunas in the aftermath ofthe Wath shoeing infrited many NOW officers who feared that people mig think the organi ‘on actully condoned the act Years later, Fiedan wa il ‘ous about Atknsoa's behavior. No ation ofthe board of New York NOW, of National NOW, no policy ever voted by the mem. hets advocated shooting men in the balls the elimination of men 25 proposed by that SCUM Manifesto" OF course, Atkinson's ‘uirageousness delighted the press who seemed to hang on Bet tevery word. As cul a5 March 1968, 4 New York Times teporet |ubeled Atkinson the movements “haute thinker "= The situation came toaheadon October 17,1968, when Akin som and other “younger dssentng” membets ted vo bring pat. "eipatory democracy to NOW. They proposed that NOW sete «lections and instead choose officers by lt and toate the pot ‘ons frequently 1 equalize power within the organization. How ‘ver, the New York chapter defeated the propose by-laws by "wont margin. Atkinson claimed thatthe speeches given by those opposing the democratization of NOW ‘he feminist overeat 4 whew hetneeh thse wb TAMER 0 have te oppurtunity oe appre, oan thse S10 ee ety er To Aiknson, the lopsided vor demonstrated that NOW wan pat te pobiey reened that iit as New York chats pens ne foarte NOW oicesn wel Inher pee ee Dla that the ehsens ame beyond a doubt ther than the solution, She {0 81 ofthe postions of pone, ons. The it aunt unc pon ein nen ces he an whites and eh dp ae esl power eve ‘women, betwen ach 4uhouh several ter NOW members appuenly had wowed iat they 09 Would eign om tne sept hey bylaws were detest ony tevin 1 te organtton i rok Mut tose two women, tion rm ovement. "numed in hon oe om the et fhe Movement nd our meena sa the October Th Movement hardy pes monn se Askinson hese emarked in Ie Fe aca done Lndcd, within several mons Anon wee founding member let in the woup i Dye ne a oc fom NYRW sured atl mesg 1969, when dsatected hedocting te ithe proposed besides Atkinson Ned the October 17th 1 day both of our depuctre ‘essentially Karp, Nanewe Rainone, Anne Kaldermun, Shela ¢ Kea, Marcia Winslow, and Linds Feldipan the group renamed ase The Femi, Foined by Barbara Mehehor ‘By June 1969, That fl they weee {another matcontent Redstociange Ja the group—with ‘women’s iberaan ‘Moverents for so cal change In January 1969, the roupundestok its fest stion ‘sation a New York Cys Criminal Cour osuproet ie ocal bortions De Nathan Rappaport ano demand the cepa ofall abor tom aws They dot tae their next action ual September 25,1969, when five members stormed ato New Yook Gy’ Mae age License Bureau to charge ts official with faud, They dis touted leaflet tthe action which asked momen: bs yh pe el aia? Do 9 now a ‘onding co te Utd Nato, mariage 8 stvery te pes According 10 Kat water Jane Alpert, they then descended upon ity Hall confront Mayor Lindsay "4s an offic representative fof male society which uses force 40 suppress women Inia ‘monogamous elationships dangecous to thelr navidual iene ties" The one question which eportedly fascinated the media ‘was whether ornocany ofthe demonstrators were marie. Ura bie occ an answer fom the five women, one reporter cover Ing the protest aoted that "Mss. or Ms. Atknson had runs in het stockings"? “Asshouldl be obious rom the foregoing passage, Redstockings and The Feminists devcloped very diferent postions on mar riage. They parted company on many other ses as well (In Seed, she rwo groupseven wre diferendy, as The Feminiss de veloped a style a turgid and abstruse a the Redstockings’ was Straghtorward and accessible) While Redstockings apprope ed Marxist categories and concepts, The Feminist appropiate fuch ofthe style and the rhetoric ofthe new let In fat, The Feminists embraced the very aspects ofthe new lft (oF certain Sseclos Of It) which Redstckings found most deplorable—its els stance toward non Movement people and its vanguardism “Moreover, The Feminist ejected Redstockings view that theory and action should follow from consciousnes rasng. Instead {hey argued that consciousness raising with its "detaling of ee: ‘ons and Teeings” ads "eschew Of judgment 38 moralistic was retarding the movements growth For Reastockings the problem was one of power—aho ha it and who lacked it for The Feminists was a matter of sex oles— ‘who conformed and who retused "” Thus to dsmante the sys ‘em of mle dominance. feminsts would have to, in the words of their manifest, "annihiate” the sex rolesyten. In contest 0 Redsockings' materialism, The Feminists developed highly py. ‘ological analysis of male supremacy. They proposed that hen ‘oppress women “to extend the sigfieance of ther own exis tence asanalteratve to individu self reavity "Whi Red Stockings argued that men oppress women for the mater benefits they received, The Feminists analysts suggewedt that -men oppress women out of some undefined psychologieal need And by contrast to Redstockings who beeved that womets be havior wasthe result of material necesity, The Feminists eleved {twas largely the result of intrnal coercion. In other words ‘women were messed up a wells “memset over” ease they hud internalized their oppression, ‘Thos Atkinson contended that if women wanted to change {heir station they would have to “eradeate their ow deen on," would have to “commit suicide," would in effect ave to Stop acting like women. Indeed, for The Feministe peal ws, ina very real sense, women themselves and the exert to ‘which they collaborated in ther oppression, What this meant ws {hat The Feminists spent most of thei time upbading women for their quiescence and urging women, not men, to shed thet Foe For instance, athe February 1969 disruption ofthe New York legislative hearing on abortion reform Elen Wills recalls having ‘hada "huge argument witha member of [The Feminist] who we yelling atthe committee's femate sectetatics and clerks that they ‘ere eaitors for not walking out on tej an Jonna ‘But © The Feminists, the peo-woman lie’ contention tha all choices represented compromises of ote sort of another was ‘othing more than a cop-out that allowed women to fel alight bout not taking the necessary steps to change themselves" ‘They aegued that radical feminists "must ot ony deal with what women want, we must change women's ideas of themvelves and {in that way change what women want," Hut as we shall see, ‘The Feminists seemed to think thatthe most fective way to axe ‘women to transform themselves was by "seting stands” for ‘what constituted proper feminist behavior ‘uke Redstockings, The Feminists rejected biologie explana tions of gender diferences. They named sien the enemy, Butthy saan ta isthe il le sat mas 2 Mincange neces tose nals wo peel in the ele And arkinson contended tha nun be destoyed, not the individuals Who tate anid female rx he naa we ppt to posses eer a penis Oa vagina oF BAB OF thee gut despite ths explicit social construct rere heir analysis of sexuality, Te Tsai at scion oetrosensaiy with Feminats maintain cena oth palin ‘reminder of men's “class suy in Atkinsoo’s words, yremacy” and yma he Hay ea ate | Jing ivergsd sharply tom Anne rans of msm terest "The Mh Wee Vagia organ.” Rocdtthuted he cour oberation the ctor to men's preference for penetration and ther fear of iy capenable. Most mportant, Koedt dst: emo of hetesoweaty aeerose% SIME rte Femi he two wee cei nin Shion cache Final Rococo we iene Femiise snaned that astbaon ‘would full any sexual needs women might have. For The Feminists the at that physical pleasure can be ateved Doth sexes through autoeroiiism” denionsitatea tha the major fe tion of sex "as a socal at" to reinforce male dominance and female subordination." And w those who argue! tht sexes contac "biological nee," Atkinson replied that was toe Imery only the means to say the sci need ofthe surivl of the species" Nor did The Feminists advocate lesbanismn as a alternative to heterosexuality, Atkinson contend that lesbian Inferior, according to Atkinson, because “sex based on the stiferences between the sexes” {het emphasis} Ninn even Siggested that feminism and lesbians might be oppositional, that esbianism, in facta sex, reactionary, an hat ema ‘srevolutionay.”” As iene Pests notes. thet point “wasnt {© ve up men for women, s was just to give Up" Indeed, The Feminists argued that once male supremacy had heen ‘kfeated, opposite and same-sex “physical teltions wea be an extension of communication between iividle and would not necessanilyhave agenstalemphasis "™ hut ifthe pts sem were one of ideology not biology, a8 Mehthot and Keaton sugested, why would gesalyoriented sea tema spect oven fcr the elimination of male dominance? As Wiis observes he ‘plication tha genital sexuality was meely a function of tate supremacy seemed rooted in the “unconscious, acceptance ofthe} traditional pauarchat assumption hat fost male" But to The Feminist, It way they who fad Broken ftvough the confines of patriarchal thinking, those other feminists who thought female sexual pleasure importa fled to see that men had deceived them into believing it wasn other ‘ord, it was a problem of fase consennaess ‘The Feminist analysis of sexuality, espeetlly their equation of Sexual desire with maleness, owes mone to Valve Solinis than 1 Anne Koedt who was, of cours, briefly 4 part uf the gop‘One finds tite, any, evidence of Kaedt Bere becase she With ‘rew rom the group before antiulated is stance on sexy. The debt to Solana is, by contrast, quite ela nt, Atkinson began hee November 196H atte, "The lasttution of Sex Li tercoure.” waa shoet quotation fom Solunas’s SCUM Mane fest. And i 1974 she characterized Solana's polemic 8 “the most impoctantfemiist statement writen to date inthe English language.” ta Sct, Solanas ad declared For Solanas, Gel 16, nd The Feminists sex was something that ‘women needed to be liberated oan. ti portant to note tha {thas was no the postion eypiclly taken by radial feminists, Rad cal feminists agreed for the most pat that the sexual revolution ‘nad done ule to iberate women. Women may have the night hive sex, but do they have the right to sty "no," they asked? “They maintained that by tansforming sex nto a duty, the sexual ‘evolution had only made women more exploitable. Nor fad ‘ealy challenged the male-centeted bss of ormatie heteosex laliy. Indeed, radia feminists ended t0 ore the ways in which the sexual revolution expanded women's sexi hotzon nd instead focused onthe increased sexual exploitation that a ompanied Bat f mos racial feminists were highly cite of the sexual revolution, they didnot believe tht freedom ly inthe denial of women's sexuality. Rather, they were convinced that the fepression of female desire was cent 4o women's oppres sion, and sexual Hbetation esental 1 women’s beatin, Fire Stone maintained that in a feminist society “humanity could f rally eevee to ts natural polymorphous sexuality all forms of| Sexuality would eallowed andl indulged Boston feminist Ka fen Lindsey warned femunsts agains ejecting casal sex ot of thei rustation with the sexsm ofthe sexual revolution. Kate Millet declared that Women’s ideraton woul bring about "an endo sexual repression "And, ofcourse, thereon abortion leomedso lange in the carly radial feminist agen was that wih ‘ut it there could be no such thing 4s sexual feedom ve sll ‘eteemination for women Much of The Feminiss' theoring has to do with how the ‘movement might develop “standatds" of feminist behavior From the beginning, The Feminists used lotsystem nan eat ‘o.equlize power withia the group. However by the summer of 1968, some members, including Atkinson, were pushing for The Feminists 10 become a disciplined, revoluuonary, vanguard [OUP with strict membership and attendance regulations and ‘even more draconian rules to ensutecyitatianism, They main tuned that the group should take precedence overall else test, ‘members allegance to the cause, they even proposed tha the soup begin meeting for soci! purpones every Saturday night ‘lditlon to the weekly business mecing, Other members 0b lected on the grounds thatthe Saturlay light meeting would ex ude those women who were unable or unwiling to atten, ce pecially those who were involved in primary teltionshipe, OF ‘course, this was in some seme the po, orf they eal part with their husbands or lovers for one night, what kind of Feminists were they? The group had discussed taking 4 break from meetings that summer, particularly because Koedt, Karp, and several others ete leving town during the lst part ot yummer. However, those who wanted The Feministsto become vanguard cae fet thatthe group should forge ahead and consteuct an analysis he ‘cause the movement was constantly accused of lacking One. eed, they believed thatthe group mst exploit the historical mo ent, must “seize the time," in the venacular ofthe day. a they cesented that others had gone on vacation a 39 etic 4 lime. So despite the fact hat lf the membership was absent the _toup drafted most o ts manifesto and passed series of mem bership requirements" The manifesto sated fo thee actty may supersede wr forthe grup oe computonyVavetes of Radiat Feminism ‘The manifesio put a premium on “maintaining dscipine” and ‘ven provided forthe expulsion of refractory members M'smen lie missed moe thun one-quarter of the meetings In any ren ‘onth, she forfeited ter voting privileges "unt! the tind cow secutive meeting of {her renewed attendance." And if this hap ened thre tines ina three-month period, the womats would he ‘expelled fom the group. Moreover, ll tsks were tobe distbuted by foe, Women with ‘wating oF speaking sks were encouraged to withdraw thee ames trom the privileged lt where those tasks were ssid 1 that others could cultivate these skills. Koedt and the ear ‘acatoning members reportedly denounced the tues as sel lie ®* according o one insider, Koedt maintained that the rales ‘would effectively silence those members ike heres who wee Wat beginning o fd thei voices “The Feminists voted in another membership requtement that Sommer whieh sent shockwaves thoughout the New York more ‘int. Contendng thatthe institution of masage washer ‘equitable and thatthe rejection of his istittion Doth inthe, ‘ry and in practic was) a peimaty mack ofthe eae emi sey decreed that ‘Ofalldheir many rales and equirememts, the quota was sutly the ‘most controversial ¢was widely condenined later partsof the ‘Movement, andthe group losta numberof smn vit members when Koes, Kurp, and Rainoneall of whom opposed the Fule—deeided to quit Most aceal feminists felt that the quota wrongly attacked mar: "ed women rather than the institution of matlage. However, one ‘of te members who pushed forthe quota deme that it ary ‘sa tplied tha martied women were ess trustworthy feminisis ie clams shat the quota was adopted to spare mated members Patiipaing in the Marsage License Bureau demonsteation trom Fadicule by the press. Hut if ths were the ease, why did the demonstrators refuse 10 reveal theit marital status to thane Top tas are, bry join The Feminism thespomgay ‘nctedbly huniining experience to have people comoncent {Porters who inulced? ladeed others in the group disput his ‘explanation. For instance, Nunete Rulnone come ere wer thse who sa tha aig was ving ov eet ey ov ape an sl sh he ‘ase he grupo compromise : carom ais that he quota was “abit ofanembartasmcat for ‘atied members, but thinks that lt was wood tahave seo ‘Rose women” 2s posible who would go home ve denser at forte the quota Wanted the group to take me ion pa ns, which they felt mared women might oppose seh, The folned whe sroup imonedately‘olowing the gross wae ‘age action in September, corroborates Kearon's et Ins dae which you hae w remeber wee very, ey to. bit me ht that ome wen we mone ea ‘owe out hi thers We ao ae he {ns we can ony havea catain pscenage of Come Jn tei view, feminism was synonyinous with separatmy and Sarrte: with collaboration, in fat Rearon argue hereon ‘lef exert a power and comntant prea wi then ich cin be dangerous othe movemetn atau ioe "Me quota was estublished!. Keaton wines bdo mac ea ai ceed But the policy engendered fecings of mistast and betta, not Re seiduty and trast hey bad hoped for. By te tne hehehe 1270 pat to challenge the quota she weal tg eee, oss” Pek found thei condescension especialy galing since {hey didn’t speak on national televiaon about thelr abortions 2 she courygeously ha following the Redtockingy abortion speak out? Athinson'y writings suggest that she may have had other things ‘emg esis shielding the groups mated members tone «ticism bythe pres. Atkinson, who ceterred to muted women 4 hostages," auaitained that "the root of case consciousness ile when we separate off rom men,” To Atkinson, marrage ‘fe that matter any relationship witha man, was tious oe The re of clinging he enemy youre. To enter into 4 ‘slaionship witha man who Bar divested hms ss conpcy Bit om tena ele mal le ak “8 with the But Atkinson appears to hive been more conceane ‘movements image than with the welfare of those feminists whe ontinued 19 “consort with the enemy." Atkin despeney wanted the movement to be taken seriously, to be separa ‘Soma yt dt so the fins vem ‘as, primarily, been women coming together to compas And in er view, caicul feminists who continued to assoc wath men undermined the movement by making It sppeat le Atkinson herself efused to appear with men in public when it tht be construed that they Wete fends She made an exp, im for any man who had “disassociated himself ron the mae ole nd rom the male class as much as pesnible."* Late ate "porte reused to appear with any mann pbicenceptroee sige in “class coatromeaion ‘Atkinson sem to have heen motivated not only bya desire to ‘demonstrate the movements seriousnes, but bythe desc ren aves of Raia Femina Tani emi asthe sultant adem gp In Api 1969, Atkinson refered tothe October tana 2 “the fst radical feminist group" In Fea oe aes the group had formed the eaicl mn eng emement and a month late she mae the mec sel hat he most cada eminist om NYRW] cane Ce eh The Feminis’ vanguard as Son sro cn or tel inexperience with ae polisy Or ae, Sane Whatever the teaon, the quots made maned eee feel a8 though they were the cncang cr Feminists fondness for rule dnt subside ater the sum roca at the ties seemed a prot, thus Beg pam menibes wis vena designated unter of cigs Bu Of te mectng and was reuied to tow eee Mitt afte room every ne she spoke: Oncaea hen Aenuedher supply of chips, she could no longer pean age steuion. Mehubof and Kearon admit tha the wow eee (Reis ostem ely becase of Atkinwn's logan ene {Sphmclly abided bythe sytem, “but now,” Seong tom, “each te she spoke she spoke frm long Despite the plethora of rules and systems, the roblem of who {rote thepapersand who inked he wear apparcninpeeioe Son the winter of 1969-70, the group deeded Wo eae Seewety Workshop wa ache the problem. Atkian wt Se Workshop was established “to encourage and sopreg sividual members in seeking out and developing ther eine Potentials“ People were expected wo anapee and anneaout ses of paticuar inert to them. However, te Crea Workshop le bat wo mecings betes rane formed nt the Cass Wenkshop The Cis Workshop, which as tpt by Meh and cen, qk decd ta aiinson shou be exude the roup bei she was upper clas. Akinso's wen nr ‘ate at she was nally supportive ofthe Cas Worse Ih February 197, se pony med hatin contrat tothe eta the women’ ieraton movement, “The Feminists ah the exception of mci ae lower or owermie ie anor back And Atkinson hepato capone chs diferent Zhong women. Athough she deed tat women belonged fo anyother pola la hut thet sex clas she Came hat ‘omen "do evidence cera exprenions chante a the snembers of pomer lac felon to sores She once ha women who were tached to app or mile clas men ike powcr min the comm cas sae at “hemuimaned ht hey could explo ther women win that "netsh claborated upon Atkinson's ideas about class, She, too. aged thatthe “sonar css system," By whic Se Ineant he econ lasted oe any el owe to Somen Women,” Meth are, aways be dete BY “her moe potion athe pinay lst However Shecontende tals ifetenes would ume pertance ‘omen orgie heme. fa, she mated tha he Somes ibrtion movement “has become the cccon “trey dese cass antagoniane wil ke theses wm, Metros analy ediced the problem feasts. infact she atte al frm of ol domination oe mae “alvesstem "andar thar women whe explo ter women ‘nthe movement hae intrmaluemale vase" ete we ee ‘he neniieaton of power with males Whe hs anal ae ‘some the extence of la ferences among woes ‘cu hm aban amc cenvegandscheea fee Upper or mids women dese tangible nets, but ht SE power, ee he fate oe hasan poston ihe se System The problem or The Fem wa at these women ‘ould undermine female solidarity by pretending. 48 Atkinson ‘us it, 1 be “kings” whi they eee realy“ beygare=™ During the winter and spring of 1970 relations Betwcen Akin Son and the Class Workshop worsened. "What happened Metuor asserts, is that we began to challenge her onthecny nice ek that she was The Feminists’ theoretictan""Theps on AprilS, 1970, The Feminists passed a esoltion which crm Atkinson for allowing the media to define het av the prow leader! They agued that Atkinson hid circumvented ad om detmined theft system by dsungushing her activities sn atoup member fiom her activites and appeaances ss an medal, They contended that Askinson's growing stature inthe rec ‘made a mockery of The Feminists much vaunted cqaltanane inaly they declared shat feminist dea tise out ofthe coms ‘mon coniition of women and are not therefore the exclusive propery of any individ, ‘To-ensure that the group was wuly “leaderes,” they resolved that “ai! contact with the medion feminist issues by 4 member (of The Feminists isto be decided upon by the grup sa chose Dy lot" The resolution warmed tht Magrunt dstega fo the ale ‘would result in expusion trom the group. An addenda to the resolution cequited that al members “appearing on the rede ‘be Mdemtified by their group afiiaton athe than by sume, Teo days after was pase, atkincon condemned the relation se ‘wrong on priniple," and withdrew from the group Bh ‘Menthot and Kearon insist tha the group did not want Atkinney {© resign and were surprised when edad ‘The fesoluton was probably prompted by a March 1970 Newsweek aricle which described Atkinson the gov Spokeswoman. Newsiverk wan't the only magazine or tena et heralding Atkinson asa movement leader By 1970, both oe ‘Movement and Atkinson were recelvinga peat dea of publics Atkinson's high profile confounded ihe geoupssttemp wos ail power diferent between members. All thei exliann ‘metwutes could not prevent the press fom singing oul Atkin ‘sa leader. all members were tly equ, why ws tha oy ‘Atkinson was pursed by the press dd sought ater for speaking tiagements? Why were they tected lke ciphers? since The Feminists could eal with diferences only by math them, thecelebrity in the group had to be muzzled. Atkinson was an Snomaly, 3 constant reminder ofdiflerence and privilege. Keaton ven suggests that "T+Grace functioned - sour man in The tainly gave of that she sas, and that eomorted a 1t of peo: pie Or couse iis more tan a Mle oie thatthe very ing the group was stalin aunt wan what enthralled them Alice Atkinson's departure, the group pasied more rues. Mem: bers were penalized for tardines:digessons were no longer pet mite dunngymecting: liquor and drugs were notto be used du tng oF before meetings, and members were encouraged «0 develop “personal living. habits. consistent with, good health” A ear iter, in 1971, the group voted to exch all ma ‘ed women fom membership in The Feminists This ast dec Sion was prompted by Mehr, Keron and Cronan’s participa ton the Detos Radial Feminist Conference inthe spring of 1971 The Feminists proselytizing on behalf of separatam upset both conference planners and attendees, In the midst of one heated exchange, Robin Morgan, who opposed the separatist steategy, pointed out that even The Feminists allowed one-third Drier members o be marced, Upon thie return to New York, ‘Cronaa promptly propose thatthe group bar all marred women to esablsh complete consistency between theory and Ta the post Atkinson ers, The Feminists didnot diverge fom the group's original analysis sexuality. Ata December 1972 Lesbian Femunist Conference at Cokambia University, members ‘contended that "aside rom eape, prostitution and marae, se just not all hat portant," in other words, sexuality was i portant only sofa ds wis used against women, They aged that “ehiclly and morally. feminists must stave to love each other and not be confined wih dhe disractions that sex tts it women were tohave sex, The Feminists urged then to embrace “Amazon Vir.” “where you have sex but don't take i rea seriously." ‘Mtr Atkinson's withdeawal, The Feminists seemed to ose terest in beings vanguard group, Instead, they commited them selves to developing a female "counter realty” and countercu {ure ta October 1971, Keason and Mehhof contended: Varieties of Rea Fomiiom efi ey aang erin i inated sport of femal experience unde by ale ‘The group succumbed to essentilsm asi explored matiatchy and developed. "female religion.” Kearon and Mary Lute devel ‘oped a religious rite in which Wine and marijuana were the sce ments and the chan was "Momma." They constructed an en ‘mous and anatomically coereet,paplermlché man which they {ore apart during the ital ™® ia 1993, The Feminists maintained ‘at “a female religion could provide the same it” that Mar ‘sm, humanism, and liberals provide: 4 sense that We ate et ‘doomed to ature. Someday worten will ule the world" Kea fon argues thatthe ritual was an smportant outlet for women's Imsandry and insists that egardess of whether or not matiatchy ‘ver existed, “it was a good thing for women to harken ack 2 World of thelr own, ‘The Feminists continued to function wii late 1973. By the Lume ofits dissolution, Mehrhof, Kear, and ronan were no onger with the group. Cronan was the fist to leave. dropping out in 1971 w emer aw school, Mehitof and Keaton stayed Tong ‘enough to become victims themselves of the equality hove. They beieve that they were resented because they lacked Atkinson's aura" and “presige."™” They, apparently, weathered the a tucks, but had falling out, Meo et the group in June 1972 and Kearon followed suit sometime within the yer t attend la schoo! after Kearon left The Feminists, the group became ven more absorbed in the question of atrarchy. In June 1973, ‘The Feminists "presented the ease for matiachy” at aNew York NOW-sponsored pane! discussion entitled "Matnarchy vs, Hi manism.” At the event, the group proposeda “new plan for fen ist revolution [wich included} the longest goal of bul Permaneat nto which would nove away Kom perna ‘The Feminists’ interes in female mysticism, matty, anf male counternstiutions—allof which were predicted upon sn "Ssemtalistvew™cesailyprefigured cultural feminism, at she Feminists would never have followed this trajectory had AtkinSom remained active in the group. Atkinson Would not ave toes ated the group's explorations ito female mysticism and mata. ‘hy because, unlike Mehihot and Keavon, who sought "the ese ‘ation of female rule,” Akinson ad always doubted that women ‘would wield poner dierent from men indeed, by 1990 Ar ‘iason hat “grown so cynical about sisterhood that she Droclaimed, "Sisterhood is powerful. I kil ster" More over, Atkinson believed that feminism ented conlrontaton, ‘ot reteat nto spirtuaty. In 1974, atkinnon deste nally, Atkinson was moving away from implicitly essentialist explanations of male dominance which, she contended, had bnded feminists to women’s eapacty to oppress others ac, in 1971 Atkinson confounded virally everyone when she be ame involved with the talian-American Civil Rights Lea: at ‘tganization formed by Mata kingpin Joseph Columbo. August 1971 shonty after Columbo was gunned down, Atkinson partic Dated in a panet discussion on violence in the women's move iment. Whea twas her ten to speak, Atkinson taped pete of te slain Golumbo tothe podium and harangued the audience of feminits for having failed to support "Sister Joseph Columbo." This was not what the audience expected of ken son, and many women inthe audkorium leered her To them Columbo was nothing more than gangster who teafficked in «rug and prostion. But atkinson claimed, much to thers da ‘ay, that Columbo was revolutionary commited to bullding + ‘working clas movement in America a act, Atkinnon sagged thatit was who was the revolutionary whereas women's bere omits were hopeless “phonies who talked about violence in stead of “hanging out” in “the sleet with people [who were] Hating for their own asses." Again we have the lane "steain—the women's movement has radial pretensions, But no cal revolutionary substance. Severl days later, Atkin rote ar, divorced you the womens movement over the pre evolutionary spi, spat of hs malenee TSE te Milt later observed that Atkinson “is she best teacher we ‘ave—she will give us the hardest case, a Mala boss, and inpone hishumanity upon us. Rub our nosesin his bullet eooneh ge Us humanity." But Atkinson wan doing mote than simply ae Posing Columbo'shumanityon the audience, se man cacy ‘women's liberasonists for fling to“pick up the gun. Theat of course, what Weatherman was ying tothe rest fhe left a itis no coincidental that Weatherman was the one lefts poop ‘rkinson singled ou for prase in her speech. This was ary ‘anguardsm tht seemed to grow cut ofa contempe forte nen Dl, that indeed made an enemy ofthe people In important respects, though, The Feminists proto cultura Feminiam followed from the group's and Aikinson't onan gy cptwaization ofthe problem. atkinvon adited that elu oe had always “tied to maintain the dstincuon between men fa biological entities) being the enemy, and the behwstor of mn being the enemy,” that even she at tines fad lost sight ot wa dlsinction.™ Moreover, by Kentfying female sequrscence es 4 large part ofthe problem, The Feminists mas the proces op ‘-reatg oneself the ental feminist sk. Theit confining op the polticat and the personal made lies synonymioes ioe Political struggle. But while The Feminists invoked "the penny 's political” inthe interests of itensivng the arugate eee ao be invoked by those escaping politcal sttuggie nd once time, personal transformation did Become a subst for pol ‘The Feminists were the fist of many radical feminist groups to inverprct “the personal is poltical" presctptvey, For he Feminists, one's personal ie was a eflection ul one's pole ¢ batometer of one's radicals and commitannn to hewmen ‘While The Feminists proscribed hetctosexual elatonshipe rato than heterosexual sex, st ws just a matter of tine betore te sea ded became even nasrower and mote contning Indeed, The Feminists! advocacy of separaism established the theoreti foundation for tsbuan separationiy mis-1969, one of the most pressing problems facing the ‘women's iberation movement w2s, paradoxically ts succes In ‘New York Cty alone, there were chousinds of women clamoring to become involved in the movement. Yet none of the exiting radical feminist groups seemed ready of wing to organize heen The Feminist, asanavowealy vanguard group, was obvioualy for wwomen who mere combat ready, rather han for neophytes. And alter months of debate on the advantages and disadvantages ex ansion, Redstockings wa ust beginning to undcrake organ ng groups fornew women. Most adicl feminist feared tha vit ation would accompany expansion, But as interes in women's liberation grew, some women realized tha the movement has face the challenge. Minda Bikman, who joined Redstochings 204 i July, remembers ShulamithFuestone, whom she knew from Washington University i St, Lous, complaining that Re Stockings was mising the opportunity to organize masses of women. Of course, Firestone was aso deeply sstnied with Redstockiogs” dogged commitment vo consciousness raising and {he pro-woman line Rather than remain in the group. Firestone Secides to forma new group with Ane Kaedt, who had eecently ‘departed The Feminsts. ‘When Shulamith Fiestone and Anne Koedt launched New ‘York Radical Feminists (NYRE nthe fall 1969, i in the hhope that they were bulléing "1 masebased radical feminat ‘movement "ann snitow remembers Firestone explaningat an ‘any planning session that this group would "sce ise" rather ‘than emaining closed and seitcontained tke ether radical fem fist groups. Firestone and Koede were also analous that th {r0up avoid what they considered to be the Redstockings and ‘The Feminists ideological and onganiational flaws." To tha fend, Koedt wrote the group's manifesto and Fitestone ks organi. Ing pencipes, and they viewally “hand picked the members of their new group. Snow attended the group's fs formal oF ‘anizational meeting and remembers it as an cstany of acu sion. These were the people Who were going ro be the new frou, We were there with the Understanding tha this wo be Detter than whatever had been ™* During October nd Novembe 3 group of about five women met to plan NYRE. By the end of Novembes, the goup cones of sven women—Minds Bikman, Diane Crothes, Maree oe ‘hin, Ann Snitow, Celestine Ware, Ftetonc and Roca ting members—with the exception of Stow, who ha beck oe and for wo years—had been nvlved nother ening he founding “brigade” of NYRF took the name, the Seon seihony Buta. (hey had planed to call thee eel oops ‘Phalanxes” until someone astutely poinied out thatthe Rao Sal Sed tnemscives “phate i the Spanish Cie War 2) Qu December 5, 1969, Koedt and Fiesone presented atest of 1 BoUP's mazileto and organizing principles to a wean ok ‘ay women "The firs group to he organized West Cites mber of writes, nchading Grace Pale, Sheap ‘Of which were inthe Vilage The groups manifesto, "Poles of the Ego, sychologea analysis of mak Feminists. The Feminists ha favored a highly le supremacy, not unlike that of the : argued that men oppress women to ented the significance oftheir own exintnce se oy alr {peo Individual self creavky.” Kosa wate the sume ioec wg ‘considerably les obfuscation in NYRFs manne: eelve hat he arose of mae spac s prmay 19 ghia pecogalew nacion, ind a is mans hel a eommie ana ES 3 poychologcal dynamic in which mea dominae eee, ‘out of need fora sense of power."™ The oot ofthe pees zs what Roedt called the “male ego identity” which ieneninity, or instance, as2“skill—-er contention that men oppress ‘women for "eo fodder,” hat dhe services men extracted from ‘women Were "serves tothe male eyo,” implied that the deste VRE proposed in etence ha nen wanted to excise power of The Feminists analysis, conceptualzed the problem as one of Imaleness rather than of unequal power relations, Indeed, the Imanifeo’s “aisorcis and tmcless categories of inequalty So conceened both Shitow an! her find Evelyn Frankford that they proposed revising the manifesto. However, when they broached the idea at the December Sth meeting, they enous ‘erestingy, Snow thought that she and Frankfort had succeeded Jn carting the majorty, but concedes that the fal, pubis ‘erion ofthe manifesto makes no mention of history © Wills Even Kars Jay, 4 meme of Meds Wome ‘ho pated aspects of the action, comended tus eg a ‘oda ote hat athe dy wor onthe protestors had ated ‘moran more to appeal leaner ceptions og fuch money he would mike ona worn’ thc ag numberof ovement etn won decane sah tee Son nana encs ing ave te mvemst tones she watson a Neda Women oan the seca te fra Nor ws noon Peso plese with heaton Acca at cording kan, Roe ata these." And novelist Ab Kates Shulman Dees the ston demonstated tha the “movement ha reson ty nese sen Siters coming nand pp te movement. her cen ‘ada feminss who had ina ana ould ever be tice unl were ee the ain ‘ston Inthe carly 70s radical feminism scemedo be hours ‘tainly, the women’s liberation movement was having ype‘mous impact on the nation. tn fly 1970, New York State ber ved its abortion lw, making t dhe most progressive inthe coun ty Three years ater, n Roe 2: Wade, the US Supreme Cour fed that state laws forbidding abortion violated the consis ‘onal igh to privacy. tn August 1970, the House af Represcta toes ater onan our of debate, passed he Eg Ris Amendment way subsequeny pase by Cones in Mate of 1972 Andon gas 26, 17) the fiteihannierary of woman sutteage—feminsts ste hele demonstration for teat “suaty in American tsiry. The Womens Ske for Egy sw Deewcen 35,00 a 50,00 momen in New York Cy sons." Takot women sberatn or ore efter, women's) wes everywhere, Thete wan an explosion of ral emt Merature—bomh abovegrnd and underground Kate Miley Sexual Pots, estos Te Dialcie f exan Reba t's anthology Sutrbou 6 Powerfal were‘ palate 19%0 and’ were all beste Rada Teint groupe ad Proj croppedupevertee noroniyinmajoratbantens Buty 1995 head feminist movement an acai ‘ne The groups response or making the importantes Cal weak wee cer ead or monn Cena ne Feminists, Cll 16, and NYRF ha evolved in ways whch ther founders had never netted Cel band The Feminie towed ‘slr eninm, and NVR owed ber minim & noe suovement pioneets ha ween fom ne mavens of ‘en, as Saruchldand Leon observed in mid 1971, ay ecu of be ing attacked as “eis,” "middle class" oe “unsterly.™" fac, the summer of 1970 small group of self named feminist. Fetugees, "among them some ofthe women fespnsile for estab Jung the ts women’s Mberaton groups the county, met New York to discus he Feadesship “purges” Then thee wee divisive stuns over cis, ev, and sexual preference hich started to consume the movement i 1970. BY 1972 the ‘womica's movement was so fractured tht it made, in the words ‘of Nora Ephron, “the Amencan Communist Patty ofthe 1930 ook tke a monoti." The adical feminist wing oF the move ment Became 40 absorbed ins own intsnat sugges that Ie ook outside ise to focus om the somtimes found i diticul larger problem of male supremacy ‘Among some of the founders, there was growing uneasiness about the movemen’s diection For inane’ eens anich, Leon, Maar and Clete Pe revived Redhcckingy in December 1973, in large part because they beloved tae ees ‘the capplngs ofthe early eaical upsurge remain ence teat and syle have been watered dowa, peeing on sey ‘momentum only, the movement & slowing down yee the founders even began to question certain inital premises rie ‘rough an alilance with men! By 1975 acca eminism was hegnning to give way to cultura feminism and perl ferns. Inthe cays Hnced feo boudeneditsanalysisasit moved away ftom Fredan'eece (i and legalistic approach and embraced pects of og nism In contast to Fredan, who had. deparsged. ees femins' focus on he “personal,” many lberlteratts en ‘omgre with aiealfeministthat there was pola denen, fo Perional lit. NOW chapters cvcn began te omen consclounestrasing groups for lnerested wemen Bar ne, G2 feminists wete commited wo social wanton aie feminsts spoke of sitsmprovement. is mapaaine whieh nn publshieg tn 1972, was quite suc in promuaiy ‘ull yourstF up by-yourootsraps" brand of fentaen s ‘any women came 0 embrace" Equally atracinc t omen was that iberal feminists indicted sex wles rather ‘en From the begining Friedan had presented femme sxole revolution ia which both men and women wean gon Be Indee for Fedan feminism was but "a stage nie whoa Iman rights movement." And in 1970, Govt Stineny ae a tor and the best known exponett ofthis new liber erraiee ployed radical ehetorc, bt ke Fiedan nphedsha Iberaton wis men's iberaion aswel. "Men wllhae ogee ‘ling class privileges, but in retuen they will no longer ne weto suppor the fay et dated, bea the stain of espons: bay ant eeedom reasons, not the least of which ws is iberaism, But NOW was abo nowhere ney as fractious as most radical emis group, snd was considerably more accepting of women who dh nat Yet know that in some femunist icles high cele and ake up ‘were evidence of coloration ™ Aad by comparison to adic feminists who must have seemed s though they were engaged in 4 Tong and tedious encounter session wih each other, bel feminists seemed models of ellciency and etlectveness. OF course to many women's Hberationists seemed that the esl liveand judicial vitores that iberl feminists were ling Were nothing but concessions designed 0 co-opt the movement For instance, in September 1970 The Feminist sera message to the Senate Subcommitce on Constitutional Amendments denouae ing the ERA and advising feminists “against squandering inal ble time and energy on™" A delegation of Washington, D.C feminists invited to testify about the ERA before the sume com mite, declared, "We are aware thatthe syst wil ry to ap [ease us with thee Je] paper offerings. We will ot be appeased ‘Our demands ean only he met bya total ransformation of society hich you cannot legislate, you cannot copy, jou cannot com trot" And Ptetone went so fr (in fact, further than many ‘hth adical fein to dismiss child ate centers a tempes 20 ‘oy women off” becuse they “ete the Immediate presse without asking why the pressute on women" But the toa ism of radial feminis’s vision and its cynic toward ftom Although cultural feminise was stil quite inchoate in 1973, ‘here was Within the radical feminist wing the movement more ‘alk of esentisism and a greater antagonism toward he let. One also finds the emphasis siting in certain quarters from pallica ‘confrontation to personal transformation and he consteucion of a specifically female culture and commity. There was les act ‘sm, especially around abortion an chill cate—two ssues cen teal erly atical feria. Bu this Followed in are pat om "he way in which radical femuais was defined by gsoups suchas The Feminists and Cell 16. radical feminism gequed separation ‘Hom men in one's personal lie, those sues tht seemed very sng to women's relationships with men were ns ose {te During bes. Beginning in 1971 thefacusol radi lenin, activism started osteo he se ot rap ‘al feminists spoke of viekence they ae ihe ord of Ann Sakow, “the violence of the mete demonsraring against beauty pagcanis, women’s agrees caey Remedi, feminists were challenging the euural recone Gkaumen which, they argued, caused unold poche deaaae amen. And while radial feminists smeumes sehnewlesgea deol pled by physical violence. in muni cee Supremacy, they tended to emphance re allen etering ti het aetna i {urn to biologistic explanations of mate dominance = abthough cura feminism was fundamentally dsint rom {adil feminism as k was ariculited by Fitentone, Maa Sarachid, or even Dunbar the seeds of coe ail the vanities of radical teminna, Sy ama 283 unary category the depiction amen ieras Wy exist and of women x poweres vit, athe cone ‘hat feminism was the single taratonner The characterzation of ive theory—all helped, feminism. And although radical fon ith setamprovement to be detined ss Pola. While the radical feminise ovement sa wha ne Sl constructions. and committed to maxaniaing women or telplesure, there wete radi feminits whone ence gerag and sexuality pretgured cultural feminism. In ct he ge ‘ofsome radical feminists to blame mulen : ness ater han power te Lions not ony en lyencouragedessenilisen, but also helped sites {cets away ftom controntig men to balding fone ona (ilure a 4 efuge from contaminating maleness Ye mt feminis's demise didnot talow inevitably ftom euher a on ‘ical shortcomings or even the increasingly comereaive ooine of radia Feminism Ite ofthe "Us. To understand the dectne of and the ascendance of cultural feminist we must ook more ‘iosely a the petiod of 1970-1973 when the movement was waged by intense Facuonalsm over the sues of etm, clas, {nd lesbianism 5 “The Eruption of Ditterence Pa gucaninsts25 well However, those femine wie ae pcs ssethood ound teas to sate te nee Poise adversies than to acknowledge the formosa and compelling co many