CULTURAL PROBLEMS IN TRANSLATION

Dr. M. Farook M.Phil., Ph.D.,

The Head, Dept. of English
C. Abdul Hakeem College
Melvisharam
The translation of works dealing with Religion, Philosophy, Psychology and the like poses
problems for the translators, for language is culture preserving and culture transmitting.
Furhter, the work of translation bristles with many built-in difficulties especially if the work
translated happens to be poetic in form, and problem becomes more acute when the source
text is a unique poem like The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam which attracts translations in
many world languages.

The Problems Posed by Religious Faith and Cultural Concepts

Religious faith and cultural concepts create more problems for the translators while
translating from one language to another. The discussion that follows deals with the problem
of religious faith and cultural concepts, based on Fitzegerald’s The Rubaiyat and its Tamil
translations, rendered by Kavimani Desigavinayagam Pillai, Saami Chidambaranar, Abdul
Kadher Lebbai, Minna Noorudheen & Sa. Thu. Subramaniyayogiyar and presents the
individual and distinctive approaches employed by the Tamil translators in the process of
translation, in the absence of a specific, universally applicable theory of translation in English
or Tamil.

Shift from Specific to General Concept

“Translation across cultures results in ideological shifts. The shifts are greater where
the gap between the source culture and the target culture is wider. Two general trends may be
detected in ideological shifts resulting from the process of translation, alienation and
integration. Alienation may be defined as a shift away from the culture of the source text.
Integration means a shift in the direction of the target culture usually resulting in a more or
less ideological merger” (Aziz .29). The discussion that follows proves that the shifts are
greater because the gap between the Persian culture and the Tamil culture is wider.

Shift may be achieved by means of substituting general terms for cultural-specific

ones. The translator may feel that certain terms in the source text are too much oriented
towards the source culture and would be inappropriate in the target text. He therefore
replaces them by less marked terms as in the following examples:

i. A Muezzin from the tower of darkness…. (qn. 27, version II)

a. NfhGuj;jpy; ,Ue;J tUk;
kdpjFuy; xd;W Nfl;Nld; - Saami
b. fhhpUl;Lf; NfhGuj;jpd;
fhtNyhd; $Wjy;fhz; - Yogi
ii. Up from Earth’s centre through the seventh gate . . . . (qn. 31, version I)
a. caUk; VOthd; Kbthf . . . . - Kadher
iii. Of Heaven Parvin and Mushtari they flung . . . . (qn. 31, version II)
FUKjyh etf;utuq;fs;
fjptFj;j Kjw;gfNy - Yogi
iv. And who with Eden didst device the snake . . . . (qn. 31, version I)
. . . . xs;spa jPik eP itj;jha; . . . . - Kadher

v. Ah! take the cash and let the promise go . . . . (qn. 13, version I)
ez;Zk; cd;ifg;nghUs;jhd; - Kavi

In the examples (i - v), the specific terms, muezzin, seventh gate, Parvin and
Mushtari, snake and cash are replaced in the Tamil text with the general terms, kdpjFuy;
(voice of man) fhtNyhd; (protector) for muezzin, VOthd; for seventh-gate, etfpu`q;fs;
(planets) for Parvin and Mushtari, jPik (evil) for snake, and nghUs; (wealth) for cash.

The Parvin and Mushtari (the constellation of the Pleiades and the planet Jupiter) are
replaced with the general terms etfpufq;fs; (The nine planets supposed to govern one’s
destiny as per astrology) in the Tamil text. This is a case of hyponymy, where the
superordinate word is substituted by the subordinate one. Further the general term functions
as superordinate to the specific term. Here shift from the specific to the general is achieved.
Certain terms which are only mildly and vaguely religious in the English text are
replaced in the Tamil text with others which are strongly religious, as in the following
examples:

i. So when at least the angel of the darker drink (qn. 46, version II)
. . . . ,Us; miza Rit nja;tk; kuq;fs; tsh; - Saami

ii. . . . . came shining through the dusk an angel shape (qn. 60, version II)
. . . . ahd;fz;l wpahj
vopyhh; nja;t tbTilNahd; . . . . Kavi
In English text (i & ii), the word ‘Angel’ is mildly religious. The expressions in
Tamil texts in (i & ii) nja;tk; are strongly religious. As a result of this process, the Tamil
rendering has lost much, if not all, of the mild religious colouring of the English text.

Shift from Worldly to Religious Concept

Speaking communities with strong religious beliefs often envisage natural phenomena
in a religious light. This is clearly evident when the translated texts belonging to a culture
which is less governed by religious conceptions are translated into a language with strong
religious culture as is the case of rendering the following English text into Tamil:
. . . . Nor Heaven with those eternal signs revealed
And hidden by the sleeve on Night and Morning (qn. 36, version II)
a. fhZk; xU Fwpaw;w
flTs; jik tzq;fpLk; - Saami
b. nghq;FFwpr; Rlh; thDk;
mwpahj Nghjkd;Nwh! - Yogi

In the English text the word ‘heaven’ is used to refer to the star whose eternal sings
are night and day. The sun revolves and so night and day occur eternally. This is a natural
phenomena. Saami takes this natural phenomena into religious frame work. This is evident in
his rendering which runs as Fwpaw;w flTs; (God without any sign) for the lime ‘Nor Heaven
with those eternal signs’. . . . Wherein Yogi renders as nghq;F Fwpr; Rlh;thDk; (Heaven
with sign) which refers to the sky as meant in the English text. In the meantime Saami’s
rendering could be supported with the extract from the Quran.
“It is out of His Mercy that He has Made for you Night and day” (The Holy Quran
28:73)
Thus the original worldly belief that night and day occur as the sun revolves, replaced
in the Tamil text with religious belief that night and day happen as God (flTs;) wills. Shift
here takes from the worldly to religious concept.

SHIFT FROM PERSONAL TO NON-PERSONAL EXPRESSION

A shift away from the source culture is realized by means of replacing personal
expression with non-personal expression. This process usually involves the possessive
pronouns from the source text.
i. Ah, my Beloved, Fill the cup . . . . (qn. 21, version II)
a. fpz;zk; epiwa vdf;F
,dpa kJeP> thh;j;jplk;kh! . . . . - Kavi
b. kJfpz;zk; mij epug;gp . . . .
nfhzh;f ePjhd;
md;ghf . . . . - Saami
c. thB> vd; fz;kzpNa! . . . . - Yogi
ii. Indeed the idols. . . . have done my credit drowned my glory . . . .
And sold my reputation (qn. 101, version II)
a. cUtq;fs; vy;yhk; . . . . epyTGfo; . . . .
ngUkhz;G . . . . eyk; epiwe;j
fPh;j;jpapid . . . . - Saami

b. moF cUf;fshy; . . . . fPh;j;jp vyhk; - Yogi

In English texts (i, ii), the personal possessive expressions, ‘my beloved’, ‘my credit’,
‘my glory’ and ‘my reputation’ become in Tamil texts, thh;j;jplk;kh! nfhzh;f> md;ghf> Gfo;>
ngWkhz;G and fPh;j;jp. (Addressed to the lady without possessive pronouns). Here the
possessive pronouns disappear. Only Yogi in (i,c) uses the pronoun. vd; fz;kzp, (My lady)

The shift here indicates a move away from the source culture, realized by replacing
the possessive pronouns.

MODE OF ADDRESS
Mode of address conveys various degrees of familiarity between the speaker and the
addressee. They are usually culture - specific and pose certain problems to the translator.

i. Ah! my Beloved, Fill the cup that clears . . . . (qn. 21, version II )
a. ,dpa kJeP thh;j;jplk;kh! . . . .(fill the cup with sweet wine) - Kavi
b. thB vd; fz;kzpNa! (Come on, my darling) - Yogi
c. md;dNk epug;G ts;s … (Oh, darling, fill the cup) - Noor
d. ,dpa kJit vd; md;Ng (my dear lady fill the cup) - Kadher

ii. Fools! Your reward is neither here nor there . . . . (qn. 25, version II)
 a. vd;Wk; %lh; ed;ik ckf;F
,q;Fk; ,y;iy mq;Fkpy;iy - Kavi
b. cd;dhj %lh;fs;! - Saami
c. Ngu&sPh;! ,q;Fkpy;iy mq;F kpy;iy ngUk; NgNw! - Yogi
d. …. ed;ik ,q;Fkpiy mq;Fkpiy NaKlh; vd - Kadher
iii. Oh! Thou who didst with pitfall . . . . (qn. 87, version II)
a. ghJfhg;gha; NghjfNd! - Kavi

iv. Ah Love! Could you and I with Fate conspire . . . . (qn. 108, verion II)
a. md;;Ng! ahDk; ePAk; ,ire;J . . . . - Kavi
b. . . . . Rfk; mspf;Fk; khNj! . . . . - Saami
c. fhjypNa! . . . . - Yogi

The expressions in English text (i) ‘Ah! My beloved’ ‘Fools’ ‘Oh Thou’ and ‘Ah
Love’ are familiar terms to Tamil readers. Both ‘Ah! Beloved’ and ‘Ah! Love’ are the
dearly, and darling expressions with delight in English text. The word ‘Beloved’ is replaced
with mk;kh (i, a) mother, a word addressed by younger for elder woman, fz;kzp (ii, b) dear
lady, the term of endearment to address lady love, md;dNk (ii, c) lady. vd; md;Ng (ii, d)
Darling. md;dk; (Annam) in Tamil refers to swan (a bird whose gait is a standard
comparison for the elegance of a woman), ‘md;d eil elf;fg;Ngha; fhfk;jd; eilAk; ,oe;jhh;
Nghy;’ - (Tamil proverb).

The Tamil terms fz;kzp> (dear lady) md;dk;> (lady) md;G (love) used as the mode of
address are apt specific equivalents in Tamil as English expressions addressed to ‘Lady
Love’ by the speaker, whereas the term mk;kh (mother) is not appropriate in this context.
Moreover it is a general term. However the familiar terms of address in English text are
equated with other familiar terms of address, in Tamil, which are culture specifics also.

In example ii, the term, ‘fools’ is a derogatory expression, which is addressed to the
people who anxiously expect reward from God in the world after death. Both Kavi and
Saami repeat the same derogatory expressions as in English, as %lh;(ii, a,b) (fool) which is a
direct equivalent whereas Yogi addresses as NguUsPh; (addressed with respect) which is a
polite expression, though it is a vague one. The expression in example (iii) ‘Thou’ is an
address to God. Kavi here, replaces ‘Thou’ with religiously mild expression Nghjfd; (guru) .

The expressions md;Ng> fhjypNa (sweet-heart) in (iv) are similar to the example (i)
however, the expression khNj is a weak term in this context since the term khNj> (woman) is
a general term. Saami here seems to refer to khNjtp cikak;ik (Parvathi, goddess). Further
Saami addresses goddess wherein the expression in the English text is an address to lady
love. Hence this mode of address is squarely an expression between unequal ranks.

COLOUR
Translation is a kind of decoding operation, for each language has distinctive
expressions which have no counterpart in other languages. For example, the colour ‘white’
symbolizes different things in different culture. A woman dressed in white in Hindu
tradition generally symbolizes widowhood. In Europe however, widow’s weeds are only
black, for black is the colour of mourning. Different cultures use different colour
metaphors.
. . . . never blow so red
The Rose as where some buried Caesar bled . . . . (qn. 24, version II)

In English text, the simile is, the rose is as red as Caesar’s blood. ‘In blood-red’ and
‘red blooded’ are some expressions in English language. The former means having the same
colour as blood and the latter is a phrase which means one who is full of vigour or sexual
desire. The simile in English text reflects the expression, ‘blood red’ and the same expression
is retained in Tamil by all Tamil translators. Thus the original figures of speech is
maintained. Here literal translation is achieved.
ii. That all the misbelieving and black horde of fears and sorrows . . . . (qn.62
version II)
(a) vz;zpa rka thjpah;fs;
,Uspy; miye;J jphpfpd;wdh; . . . . - Kavi
(b) Jf;fk; Jauk; mtek;gpf;if . . . . ,Us; mRuh; . . . - Yogi

The expression ‘black Horde’ in English text refers to the disbelievers and sufferers,
and in Europe, ‘Black’ is the colour of mourning. In Tamil, both Kavi and Yogi, replace the
phrase ‘black Horde’ with rka thjpah;fs; (saint and sages) and (mRuh;), one among the
demons at loggerheads with Devas. Here the colour ‘black’ becomes ,Us; (darkness) in
Tamil, which metaphorically represents the dark practices of the people, such as disbelief and
superstition which result in their misery.
“Another interpretation in this regard is that just as Mohammed Ghazni scattered all
disbelievers with his sword, grape-juice drives out of mind fears and sorrows” (Sundaresa
Iyer .36)
i. . . . . nor the seas that mourn in flowing purple . . . . (qn. 36, version II)
fUePyk; gha;e;J fj;jp tPRk; flYf;Fk; . . . .(dark blue) -Yogi

ii. . . . . Herb whose living Green fledges. . . . (qn. 25, version II)
(a) grpa Nfhiu mofpid ghh; ( greenish) - Kavi
(b) gw;wp gRikAld; . . . . (greenish and freshness) - Kadher

In English text, the word ‘purple’ means having the colour of red and blue mixed
together. In Tamil (I a) this word becomes, fUePyk; (dark blue) while the proper Tamil word
is nre;ePyk; (red blue). Thus the word ‘purple’ is misrepresented in Tamil. At the same time
the colour ‘Green’, in English text (ii) is literally represented, as grpa (Greenish) (ii a) and
gRik (Greenish and freshness) (ii b), which are synonymous to their corresponding Tamil
word gr;ir (Green)

GREETINGS
Greeting is a mode of ‘phatic communication’ expression which is used as a sign of
good will. Greeting is a part of culture.
i. And peace to Mahmud on his golden Throne (qn. 11, version II )
VWk; mwf;fl;bypNy . . . .
mUshsd; ngah; jiof;fNt - Saami
 guR kh%j; nghd;gPl
glh; rhe;jk; Mf;fpL eP! - Yogi

The expression, ‘peace to Mahmud’ in English text, is a term of greeting which is

Islamic culture, reflects the Islamic way of greeting. It is a religious practice among the
Muslims. When they meet, they extend the greeting, ‘Asalaamu Alaikum’ (warah) to fellow
Muslims, which means ‘Let God’s peace be on you’ like “J.B. Philip’s rendering of the New
Testament where he has translated, ‘greet one another with holy kiss’ as give one another a
hearty handshake all around. The same mode of greeting is preferred in Tamil text by Yogi
with the expression as rhe;jk; (peace). Islamic Culture is echoed in it whereas Saami prefers
the expression mUshsd; ngah; jiof;fNt (Let King’s name long live) which is a general term of
greeting among the elite.

GEOGRAPHY
Geographical expressions and terms are often culture specific, which if translated
literally may be unfamiliar or irrelevant to the reader. They therefore undergo considerable
change in the process of translation, as in the following examples:

i. Beside me singing in the wilderness

Oh, wilderness were paradise . . . . (qn. 12, version II)
a. itae; jUkpq; tdkd;wp
thOk; nrhh;f;fk; NtWz;Nlh? - Kavi
b. etkpF nrhh;f;fQ;
nrhh;f;f ehnlhdhy; nghl;l yhNk - Noor
c. gpd;Nd ,e;j tdkpd;wp
NgRk; nrhh;f;fk; NtWz;Nlh? - Yogi

The expression ‘wilderness’ in English text is replaced with tdk; (i, a&c) (forest) and
nghl;ly; (i,b) (large area of barren land) in Tamil text. In an attempt to localize the text, the
translators prefer the terms tdk; (forest) and nghl;ly; (barren land). Anyway the Tamil
expressions, both tdk; (forest) and nghl;ly; (barren land) are quite relevant here as no desert,
as in Arabia is found in Tamil Nadu.
CONCLUSION
Translation, it is observed from the above discussion, can do much to create contacts between
cultures and thus has ambassadorial considerations. Further, the Tamil translators to whom
translation was not a discipline, but an experience voluntarily explored their own possibilities
of tackling the different task of translating The Rubaiyat by employing individual and
distinctive approaches. The Tamil translators thus, at times differ in their perception of ideas
and approaches and render it according to their mindset, for language is a dress of thought.

Sources Consulted

Fitzgerald, Edwin. Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. New Delhi: Rupa & Co., 2001.
Tamil Books:
Chidambaranar, Saami. Omar Khayyam Padalgal. Chennai: Sivagami-Chidambaranar,
Ilakiya Nilayam, 1963.
Desigavinyagampillai, Kavimani. Omar Khayyam. Chennai: Parri Nillayam, 1976.
Lebbai, AbdulKadher. Omar Khayyamin The Rubaiyat. Pandaravalai: Manikural
Pathippagam, 1965,
Noorudheen, Minna. OmarKhayyam Paddalgal. Madras: Kesari Printing Works, 1937.
Subramaniyayogiyar, Sa. Thu. Persian Poet Omar Khayyam Padalgal Trichi: Star Pirasuram,
1946.
Aziz, Yowel.Y. “Cross Cultural Translation and Ideological Shift” in Internationals, Journal
of Translation Vol: II No. 1-2, New Delhi: Bahri Publications, Jan-Dec-1999.