1

History of Eritrean culture their Origin, development and changes

(A cultural study)

Abstract

In the older times societies used to depend on old people for all sorts of information just like mass
media of our time. People for that purpose went to weddings, funerals and other ceremonies like
people do now to new book launches. But nowadays, whether we like it or not, culture is evolving
by merging and changing some aspects. So, as the tradition is no longer available, incorporating
them with the system of education is a choice that can not be given deaf ear. As a matter of fact, in
this shrinking world, cultures are melting down into one. So, the tougher we get to keep a record of
oral traditions, the easier it would be to make use of them stopping the meltdown. It is then that the
history and all aspects of various past generations that they reflect would embolden the young with
their identity and drive them to conserve their culture. So we need to preserve our oral traditions, by
recording them. And further by analyzing our oral traditions we can learn proper lessons from them.
Introduction

Literature is said to be able to give the definition and real appearance of a state. If it is, especially
written by the ones who have witnessed the state, its credibility goes beyond limit and at times
becomes the chronicle that people would continuously rely on to make true accounts. Literary
historical periods are often divided into sections based on the type of literature trend that existed
then. For instance we see the history of English literature being divided into the Elizabethan, the
Edwardian, the Georgian, the commonwealth and so forth. This basically arises from the fact that
these literary periods deal with and represent the history of each of the times with which they were
connoted.

This article deals with the history of Eritrean people - their cultures and their developments
in all aspects of life, since literature is the reflection of the existing people and their circumstances.
This paper deals with the developments of Tigrinya culture specifically. An extensive attempt is
made to excavate the contents of the lessons of Tigrinya fables and their transmission from
generation to generation.
 2

History of Eritrea

The area included within the boundaries of what today is known as Eritrea has been for
millennia the home for peoples of various ethnic origins and with diverse cultural traditions. In spite
of its limited extension, the country is, geographically, among the most heterogeneous areas in north
east Africa.

The contemporary Eritrean populations are classified on the basis of their connection with
the following three ethnic stocks:

1. Nilotic groups 2. Kushitic groups 3. Semitic groups.

1.Nilotic groups (the Nara and the Kunama)

Historically, the earliest inhabitants of present day Eritrea were the Nilotic peoples (people
from Nile River). It is widely believed that these inhabitants of the region were composed of Nara
and Kunama, which are believed to have had moved from southern eastern Sudan into the Gash Setit
area of present day Eritrea.

2. Kushitic groups: the Beja, manly Beni Amer, who, although having their own language (to
Bedawye) have largely adopted Tigre; the Bilen, speaking, Bilen, a language strictly related to agew;
the Afar, speaking Afar, the Saho, with a language closely allied with Afar, and embracing various
groups, i.e: Assaworta, Tora, Minifere, Hazo, Beri Mela, Iro, Idda, Iddefer, Baradotta, Assabat
Arre........

The kushitic groups were pastoral hamitic tribes who migrated from northern Sudan (mainly)
and spread along the coastal regions to the Dankalia area. The Hamitic (cushitic) linguistic family is
composed of four groups, the Beja, the Saho, the Bilen and the Afar.

3.The Semitisized groups: belong to two main linguistic areas, the Tigrinya and Tigre speaking
sections to which must be added the groups of recent Arab origin.

Tigrinya: groups of Tigrinya speech are mainly and originally the population of the high land with
various extensions.
 3

Tigre: groups of Tigre speech are the Mensa'e, the beitJuk, the Marya qeih, the Marya Tzellim, the
beit Asghede (Habab, Ad Teklies,Ad temariam), the Affenda, the meshalit, the Ad Ha, the Ad shuma,
the Ad asker, the Nabara, the waira, and the Ad Tsaura.

Groups of Arab origin (recent immigrants) are: the "Ad Mu'allim, the "Ad sheikh, and Rashaida;
the Beit Mala also claim an Arab origin.

Inhabitation

In spite of Greek references to the ancient Eritrean as troglodytes, cave was not their only
inhabitation; various types of huts were employed compatibly with the climate and the system of
life.

Social organization

Division of society into small communities, strong blood ties, matriarchate, the role of the
chief (among the kushites) and village elders (among the Nilots) seen to have been the basic social
structures in ancient Eritrea.

Religion

Belief in a supreme divinity (among the kunama) or divinities (among the kushites), bonds
with the ancestors, belief in spirits (or genies) associated or identified with the forces of nature....
were some of the characteristics of one or the other groups in the territory.

As it can be inferred from the above direct or indirect indications, it seems reasonably
evident that on the eve of the historical period societies had developed in Eritrea and surrounding
areas with systems of material and spiritual culture which was to provide favourable conditions for a
higher civilization. Culturally speaking, the main Semitic influx took place when south Arabia was
in a high state of civilization.

The south Arabian impact, as can be deduced from the archaeological sites in Eritrea, can be
identified in the following areas.

Agriculture: artificial irrigation, dams, hydraulic devices, terracements......etc.

 4

Architecture: rectangular, stone walled and roofed houses seem to have been a new element
introduced in the country. Towers, multi-storeyed palaces.... remotely reminiscent of Syrian art,
would characterize, later, the Eritrean architecture in towns.

Language

A Semitic language spoken in slightly varying forms, or one dialect prevailing among several
others, was by long independent development and through influence of the kushitic sabstrata, to
evolve into geez, recent scholarship however is challenging the long axiomatic thesis that geez
issued from south Arabian and that the modern Semitic languages of the country originated from
Geez.

The earliest alphabet used in the country was a South Arabian type (5th century BC). Geez
script dates from the 2nd century of our era; the replacement of boustrophedon by left to right
writing, the introduction of syllabism, and the translation of the Bible are the main stages in the rise
of Geez to the level of a literary language.

Between 1000 and 400 BC, Semitic peoples crossed the Red sea and settled in the Eritrean
highlands bringing with them a more advanced civilization. The Semitic group is composed of the
Tigrinya and Tigre speaking groups. They have had a substantial social, economic and cultural
impact settled in the highland, which they found climatically suitable. This group was more highly
developed than the previous two groups, and presumably brought them their social institutions and
knowledge of political organization, agricultural techniques and commercial experience. In addition,
they brought with them the camel, horse, sheep, new plants and cultivation techniques, and
introduced them to the communities already inhabiting in the region. Further they brought with them
the art of writing, tools of war, the embryo of a ruling elite, and the tradition of group life. This
means that they were already practicing a sedentary mode of life and brought with them to the
region.

The variety of languages, cultures and traditions, properly preserved and harmonized, will
become the basic "staff" through which Eritrean society can be shaped into a culturally wealthy
community.
 5

Cultures and languages of Eritrea

As well as being pluri-ethnic, Eritrea is also a pluri-religious and pluri lingual country. The
main religions are Christianity and Islam, but indigenous African beliefs are also practised. Of the
nine ethnic groups found in the country, the Tigrinya ethnic group are predominantly Christian.
Among them the Jeberti from a muslim minority. The Tigre and the Saho are predominantly muslim;
where as the Afar, Nara, Hedareb, and the Rashaida are entirely muslim, and the Bilen ethnic
community consists of muslims and Christians. Among the kunama, there are muslims and
Christians as well as believers in indigenous religions. There are nine indigenous (mother-tongue)
languages natively spoken by the corresponding nine ethnic communities (listed in the above) that
constitute the Eritrean society.

Except in the case of the Rashaida, the name of an ethnic group and its language is the same.

A) Afar: spoken by the Afar in Denkel, Eritrea. The Afar and the Saho languages are closely related,
particularly with regard to vocabulary.

B) Arabic: spoken by the Rashaida in the Red sea coast line of North Eritrea.

C) Bilen: Spoken by the Bilen, exclusively in Eritrea, in the Senhit town of keren and surroundings.

D) Hedareb: spoken by the Hedareb (Beja) in Barka, Eritrea, and in the Sudan.

E) Kunama: Spoken by the kunama in Gash, Eritrea, and in some parts of Tigray.

F) Nara: spoken by the Nara in Gash, Eritrea.

G) Saho: spoken by the Saho in Semhar and Akeleguzai, Erirea.

H) Tigre: spoken by the Tigre in Barka, Sahel, Senhit, semhar, and the Dahlak islands, in Eritrea,
and also in eastern Sudan particularly in the Port Sudan and kessela areas. After Tigrinya, it is the
largest language spoken in Eritrea.

I) Tigrinya: spoken by about 1.7 million members of the Tigrinya ethnic group in the highland
plateaus of Akeleguzai, Hamasien and Seraye in Eritrea.
 6

Despite the continuing problem of the lack of exact, documented information pertaining to
the population number of Eritrea, there is on the other hand, some consensus among Eritreans
themselves as well as in international publications that the most "likely accurate" number of
Eritreans is somewhere between 3 and 3.5 million. One recent source, estimating the figure at 3.5
million, gives the following overview, expressed in percentages, of the ethnic makeup of the Eritrean
population.

Tigrinya .........................................................................50%

Tigre............................................................................31.4%

Saho.................................................................................5%

Afar..................................................................................5%

Begia (Hedareb)...........................................................2.5%

Bilen.................................................................................2%

Kunama ...........................................................................2%

Nara .............................................................................1.5%

Rashaida ......................................................................0.5%

Development of cultures

The archaeological survey of Eritrea proved that the ancient civilization of Eritrea belonged
to agricultural community, as the evidence of different grains like rice, millet, sorghum, etc. was part
of this society. This agricultural community worshipped sun, tree, water and other natural deities and
called as animist. The agriculture started the barter system in the society. The adventure in search of
agricultural land and water persuaded agricultural community to disperse from one place to another
maintaining its social and cultural milieu intact. The settlement of this community to different
places, the need to agricultural implements and the daily basic needs divided this community into
different professions like milkmaid, ironsmith, jeweller, etc. This took the shape of city life and
developed as urban civilization. The introduction of coin and currency further divided the society
 7

into urban, semi-urban, small cities, and villages having their inter connectivity from one area to
another like:

 The Axumite kingdom, a trading empire setup at the end of 4th century B.c in northern
Tigrai, the end southern highlands of Eritrea with its center at Axum and a port of Adulis.
The Nara community presence in south western Eritrea, first mentioned in king Ezana inscriptions
of the 4th century A.D. Although the scholarly assumption is that they might have migrated from
the Sudan to Eritrea under pressure of invaders, their own traditions suggest that they once lived
near keren. Even though both the Kunama and Nara are nilo-sahara origin, they speak different
languages, which are not mutually intelligible.

Origin, Development, and Changes of Tigrinya Culture

Origin:-

Tigrinya or the language of Tigrinya is spoken in Eritrea and Tigray specifically. This
language is derived from Geez language which was introduced by the southern Arabian immigrants
during the first millennium B.C. Geez was once a spoken language during the “Aksumite Empire in
northern Ethiopia (now province of Tigray). By now a long extinct language, Geez has no native
speakers and is today only employed as a liturgical language in the orthodox churches of Eritrea and
Ethiopia.

As concerns Geez’s own history, most scholars agree that the name itself meant “the tongue
of the free” and come to the land with “the south Arabian people, the Agazyan, who crossed the red
sea and settled in northern Ethiopia and along the Red sea coast, a process lasting for most of the 1 st
millennium B.C”. With time the new immigrants mixed with the local ‘cushitic population, freeing
themselves from ‘their southern Arabian mother-country’, and founded the flourishing Axumite
kingdom, which adopted Christianity in the 4th century A.D.

As an extension of the above process the Tigrinya language speaking people intensely live in
the high lands of Eritrea known as “Kebessa”. The “kebessa” comprises: Hamasien, Seraye, and
Akeleguxay. These people live in permanent dewellings. Of course, some of their members live in
other regions such as “Gash Barka”. The aim of their movement to other regions is for commercial
reasons and other similar purposes. Their main activities are farming and animal raising. The
 8

favorable season for farming is between June and August. Their typical traditional residential house
is known as “Hudmo”

The “Hudmo” is constructed by voluntary collective work of the villagers and is made of
easily available materials, such as: wood, stones mud, and fine soil. It is reinforce by columns of
pole in the middle, and its walls and floor are smoothened with a mixture of ash and fine soil. The
Hudmo has two partitions, the ‘midribiet’ and the ‘wishate’ which are separated by cylindrical grain
stores known as ‘koffo’, which are made of clay and animals dung. The wishate is usually used as a
kitchen and store, while the midribiet for sleeping, dinning, and all other purposes. The beds are
placed by the walls and are built of ridges of earth on which hides and blankets are spread. The
hudmo has a small open extension on the front part, the ‘gebella’, which is usually used as a kennel
and store.

Development

In order to understand the development of the Tigrinya language and literature properly it is
important to be cognizant of the factors that have affected the milieu out of which it emerged and
how it has grown not only in relation to it self but also in relation to the other languages of Eritrea,
however, in order to appreciate the development of the Tigrinya language and literature, it is also
necessary to acknowledge the influence which the Geez language and literature, as its predecessor,
has had on it.

For different reasons very little is known about the development of Tigrinya in the periods
prior to the 19th century. One main reason that has been proposed by researchers to explain this fact
has related the problem to Geez. The following impacts can be discerned as the most significant
influences of Geez on the development of Tigrinya as a whole.

First and foremost, the Tigrinya alphabet, as we know it today, is derived from the Geez
alphabet. The Geez alphabet has 202 signs, as well as its particular numerical system, the most
striking attribute of which is the absence of the zero sign.

At any rate, since Tigrinya language was dominated by the two languages, Amharic and
Geez, it was not enhanced in the both speech and written material. Because the main areas of the
population- the government offices and the church are occupied by Amharic and Geez languages
 9

respectively. According to the researcher Ullendorff’s speaking on this matter, with respect to all
vernaculars, has put it as follows: “literary work was limited to those who knew the only language
considered to be worthy {i.e Geez} of being a vehicle for literary creation. Whether by this ban on
all vernaculars for purposes other than daily use much in the way of popular literary expression has
been lost or strangled at birth- must remain a matter for speculation. It is this exclusiveness of Geez
which has suppressed almost all information as regards the vernaculars. In discussing the severity of
the problem with respect to Tigrinya, ullendorff further reveals that the scarcity of dependable data
on Tigrinya continued “until the latter part of the 19 th century. He adds, moreover, that the
unfamiliarity of academic circles in the west with Tigrinya was so grave that a certain traveler-
scholar could for a long period erroneously mistake Tigrinya texts for Tigre until the record was later
set straight. The history of Tigrinya prior to the 19 th century, references to Tigrinya were not only
scanty, but also irregularly scattered over large periods with unfilled gaps in between.

Regarding archaeological evidences, so far, no one found a written Tigrinya language in

monuments and statues like Geez and other languages. And different people will respond differently
to the question of the mode, method and sources that should be employed to represent the history of
Tigrinya literature. There fore, Tigrinya literature has no recorded history until now, neither a
rigorously descriptive model nor a strictly conceptualized model of developmental history.

The famous Italian Historian, Carlo Kontirosini, by supporting this idea, he said that Tigrinya
was only a spoken language and it didn’t have a written material

Also another Italian scholar who was famous by the oriental education says “Although
Tigrinya language is used many centuries ago, its formal existence was known only in the 13th
century”. This fact is based on the written material which was found in Shimezana- Akeleguzay,
Kada Aba Mettae. In addition to that, Konti Rosini explains as the following “In the 15 th century n
Eritrea Monk known as Issac, when he counts the language which were formed after the construction
of Babel (the place where many languages have been created incidentally by God in order to confuse
the unbelievers), he considers Tigrinya as the language of Habeshat.

The evidence of a written material about Tigrinya was written in the 19 th century. This written
text is existing in the laws of Logo Sarda which is found in the records of Akeleguzay. This written
material shows us the ancient and uncivilized way of Tigrinya writings.
 10

Changes

In the 19th century also the religious missions of Sweden and Kapuchionic did many
contributions to the developments of Tigrinya language. The most significant work among many is
Debtera Matewos’s “translation of the four Gospels” which according to a researcher named Habtu,
“but was not published until much later”. This work of major significance, because it works the first
appearance of the Tigrinya language in book form as well as in a full Geez script. However, Debtera
Matewos was following the syntax of Geez language totally. He was replacing only the words of
Geez by Tigrinya language. Debtera Matewos was used to say the language of Tigray, instead of
Tigrinya or Tigrigna. From the above naming we realize that the word “gna” was added later on by
adapting the Amharic word. So, the translated materials can not be said a pure Tigrinya.

At any rate, the contribution of Debtera Matewos was crucial to the Tigrinya language.
Because at that time let alone to use Tigrinya to translate the Bible, it didn’t exist in any literature.
Moreover, some people referred Tigrinya as the language of illegal persons, like drunkards, thieves,
and adulterers.

In 1900A.D Dr. Vincshit and priest markos, native of Quazen, translated the four Gospels
from Geez to Tigrinya. Yet their translation was influenced by the words of Geez and Amharic.

In the beginning of the 20th century the Evangelical church and catholic church in
collaboration with the Italian Government used the Tigrinya language in many aspects. For instance,
in 1916 in the book named “storia del Giornalismo in Ethiopai” the catholic mission wrote a
megazin called “Nai Hizbi Ethiopai Unetegna Fetawi”. According to a book which was written
jointly by keshi Iverson and Keshi Tron known as “Notizie Storiche e Varie” in the time between
1896-1917, twenty five books were written in Tigrinya by the Evangelical mission.

From 1930-1942Tigrinya was used by the Italian Government as an instrument of

propaganda. For instance, in the daily news of the Italian government named “Quotidiano Eritro”
one page by the name “Nai Mealti Were” daily news was allowed.

Later on the formal Tigrinya language became wider and wider, and started to adopt Italian
vocabularies such as:

Loche, Quareute, Borsa, Angolo, Farketta etc

 11

During the years of the federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia (1952-1962), the official language
of Eritrea were Tigrinya and Arabic, while English, in middle, secondary and vocational schools, and
Italian, in Italian owned schools served as mediums of instruction.

Conclusion

Eritrea is geographically, among the most heterogeneous areas in North East Africa. The
variety of languages, cultures and traditions make Eritrean society culturally wealthy community.

As well as being pluri-ethnic, Eritrea is also a pluri-religious and pluri-lingual country. The
main religions are Christianity and Islam. Of the nine ethnic groups found in the country, the
Tigrinya groups are predominantly Christian.

In order to appreciate the development of the Tigrinya language and literature it is necessary
to acknowledge the influence which the Geez language and literature, as its predecessor, has had on
it. Because, the introduction of syllabism, and the translation of the Bible are the main stages in the
rise of Geez to the level of a literary language.

Generally speaking the society has had rich and varied oral traditions such as fables, stories,
forms of poetry and legends. In such stories, it is common to find a kind of moral at the end. And the
most common element we find in them is the amusement they give to their audience who mostly
children as they are full of funny description of various animals and their acts.

Tigrinya stories have the elements of good prevailing over evil, and the main factor that
attracts observers is the great emphasis on animal tricksters, small, wily, and tricky animals who
cheat and outdo the larger and more powerful beasts. It is not the physical strength that matters, but
the moral authority of the animal characters. On the one hand, the bodily might of the stronger
animals is undermined and their weaknesses exposed by the smaller ones. On the other hand, the
little animals are accredited with intelligence and moral supremacy.

Other stories stress the value of virtue through emphasis on wisdom, patience, justice, good
conscience, proper manners and integrity. On the contrary, vices such as trickery, theft, dishonesty,
untrustworthiness and ignorance are taken as immoral reactions, and advise that it is always better to
be sincere and upright.
 12

References

Fr. Tewelde Beyene, Introduction to the history of Eritrea, 1992

Eritrea profile: vol. 14, No. 18, origin of society and rise of nationalism in Eritrea
Dr. Ghirmai Negash, A history of Tigrinya literature in Eritrea, The oral and the written, 1890-
1991
Jacqueline costello Any Tucker, Forms of literature, A writer's collection.

Author
Dr.M.KishoreKumar An Assistant professor form a Prestigious college in Eritrea specialized in
English and linguistics involved in language, literature and linguistics teaching at College of Arts and
social sciences, Eritrea, N.E.Africa. Accomplished educator with demonstrated ability to teach,
motivate, and direct students while maintaining high interest and achievement. I have published
articles and a book “Communicate with confidence”. Self-motivated with strong planning,
organizational and leadership skills.
Email: kissku53@yahoo.com