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The Mangrove Ecosystem Utilizes Physical Processes

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REVIEW ARTICLE 165

The Mangrove Ecosystem Utilizes Physical Processes

Yoshihiro MAZDA

Professor Emeritus at Tokai University & Vice-President of the Japan Society for Mangroves
1-16-5 Tonosawa, Shimizu, Shizuoka 424-0912, Japan
e-mail: sakim@sakura.tnc.ne.jp

Abstract
Various physical processes support the mangrove environment. In this paper, a synopsis of hydraulic sys-
tems such as tidal flow, sea waves and groundwater in mangrove areas is introduced. Further, in order to
preserve the natural environment of mangrove areas, it is proposed to connect quantitatively these physical
processes and the mangrove ecosystem in execution of interdisciplinary studies.

Key words: ecosystem, hydraulic system, mangrove environment, physical process

1. Introduction gradients and preserve themselves under pressure from

those physical processes.
Mangrove environments are formed through strong The first study of physical processes in mangrove
feedback relationships among biota, landforms, water areas was probably that of Wolanski et al. (1980). Even
flow and the atmosphere (Fig.1). Water flow plays a today, however, research on those physical processes is
particularly important role in mangrove ecosystems, limited compared with the amount of research that
compared to terrestrial ecosystems. focuses on biological aspects. A summary of the past
Biotic activities within mangrove forests, where studies on the physical processes in mangrove areas is
mangrove trees are the central feature of the ecosystem, given below. The details are described in Mazda et al.
have led to the development of a unique substrate (2007a), Perillo et al. (2009) and Mazda (2011).
(bio-geomorphology) in intertidal areas. On the other
hand, colonies of mangroves have developed under the 2. Unique Hydraulic Systems in Mangrove
influence of physical factors such as tides that accom- Areas
pany alternating flooding and drying of the habitat. In
turn, mangroves are sensitive to several environmental 2.1 Mangrove topography
Mangrove topography is classified into three types,
riverine forest (R-type), fringe forest (F-type) and basin
forest (B-type), as seen in Fig. 2. These types differ in
terms of the dominant water movements of each system .
In the typical R-type, swamp water within a few meters
from tidal creeks is dragged by tidal flow in the creek;
thus it flows parallel to the creek. Further inside man-
grove swamps the flow is predominantly perpendicular to
the creek due to the high vegetation-induced friction and
the water surface gradient between the swamp and the
tidal creek. At ebb tide the surface soil in the swamp dries
rapidly (Mazda et al., 2005). In the F-type, the surface
soil remains wet even at low tide. Sea waves are
mitigated in swamps because of the resistance of thick
mangrove trees and their emergent roots. The erosion/
Fig. 1 Feedback system in mangrove environments.
accumulation of the topography depends on the wave
height (see Section 2.3). In the B-type, during the dry
Feedback among four factors, 1) biota in which mangrove
trees themselves are the nucleus, 2) sediment topography,
season, the water level in the depressions continues to
3) water movement such as tidal flow and sea waves, and 4) descend slowly because of groundwater flow to the open
the atmosphere, play important roles in forming and main- sea driven by the difference in water levels between the
taining the mangrove environment.
depression and the open sea (Mazda et al., 1990a).

Global Environmental Research ©2013 AIRIES

17/2013: 165-172
printed in Japan
166 Y. MAZDA

Lugo et al. (1988) and Adame et al. (2010) stated that prise long meandering tidal creeks and wide fringing
the formation of mangrove ecosystems differs among mangrove swamps (R-type), were first proposed by
these three types, and the growth level of R-type man- Wolanski et al. (1980). Uncles et al. (1990) and Dyer
grove colonies is the highest among them, the reason for et al. (1992) analyzed hydrodynamics of mangrove
which is shown in Section 3.4. creeks from a physical viewpoint of water exchange
In reality, these three types have complexities with between mangrove areas and the open sea. The tidal flow
secondary topographies such as sub-creeks and sand in creeks depends strongly on the magnitude of the water
dunes. volume that enters the mangrove swamp during the flood
tide (Fig. 3). Wolanski and Ridd (1986), Ridd et al.
2.2 Tidal flow (1990) and Nihei et al. (2004) used schematic models to
The physical processes that support mangrove eco- investigate the interrelationship between tidal flow in
systems basically consist of the tidal motion of seawater, creeks and tidal inundation into fringing mangrove
although the tide does deform significantly in mangrove swamps. Arranging observational results in various field
swamps due to the high density of mangrove trees and areas, Mazda et al. (2005) formulated mangrove hydro-
roots. Watson (1928) recognized that the mangrove com- dynamics composed of tidal creeks and fringing man-
munity depended on tidal inundation. However, quanti- grove swamps.
tative relationships between the ecosystem and tidal Many tidal creeks with wide mangrove swamps
action have not been apparent till now, mainly because of (R-type) record a tidal flow asymmetry (Fig. 4), in which
the delay in hydrological studies in mangrove areas. the peak current velocity is often 20%-50% higher at ebb
Momentum equations applicable to tidal motion in tide than at flood tide, though the velocity in the swamp is
the peculiar landforms of mangrove areas, which com- always higher at flood tide. This asymmetry is formed by
the interaction between the tidal creek and the mangrove
vegetation in the swamp (Mazda et al., 1995). Wolanski
(2006) pointed out that this velocity asymmetry in tidal
creeks helps flush out coarse sediment from the creeks,
ensuring maintenance of creek depth and material ex-
change between the mangrove area and the open sea. The
tidal flow in creeks is accompanied by secondary circu-
lation, which occurs in the lateral cross-section of the
creek, depending on the existence of freshwater runoff
from the upper stream and meanders of the creek. Inter-
actions between this secondary circulation and the tidally
reversing flow affect dispersal of mangrove seeds (Ridd
et al., 1998).

Fig. 2 Classification of mangrove topography (after Cintron &

Novelli, 1984).
a. RIVERINE FOREST is defined as a mangrove swamp with tidal creeks
(or rivers), which is inundated by high tides and exposed during low tides. Fig. 3 Schematic views of tidal rivers (a) without and (b) with
Tidal creeks commonly run perpendicular to the coastal banks, are highly
flood plains, and tidal flows around the river mouth.
sinuous and can intertwine with other creeks (see Fig. 7).
b. FRINGE FOREST is defined as a mangrove swamp along a shoreline At rising tide the creek water inundates the mangrove swamp, and is
that faces the open sea, which is directly exposed to the action of both tidal trapped temporarily within the swamp. On returning to the creek at ebb
water and sea waves. The bottom slope of the swamp is continuous to the tide, the trapped water mixes with the creek water, and materials that are
open coast. dissolved, floating or suspended in the water disperse longitudinally along
c. BASIN FOREST is defined as a depressed mangrove swamp, which is the creek and toward the adjacent coastal sea with each passing tide.
seldom inundated by high tides during the dry season, but is inundated by The tidal flow flux in the creek depends on the extent of the flooded area
spring high tides during the wet season. and the vegetation density.
 The Mangrove Ecosystem Utilizes Physical Processes 167

Fig. 4 Time series plots of water level and current speed in Cocoa Creek, Australia (after Aucan
& Ridd, 2000).
Only when the tidal level is well over the elevation of the bottom floor of the swamp as shown in the upper
figure, does the ebb flow (▲) prevail against the flood flow (●). Further, this flow asymmetry between ebb and
flood strengthens with increasing tidal level. Mazda et al. (1995) demonstrated that the asymmetry is
dependent on the difference between tidal phases in the creek and the swamp; this difference results from the
drag force of mangrove roots in the swamp.

2.3 Sea waves - tsunamis

Sea waves are another important physical factor in
coastal areas. In R-type topography, wind-driven waves
and swells rarely propagate into swamps because of the
dissipation of wave energy along long tidal creeks. Also,
in the B-type, waves seldom appear because of the pres-
ence of a barrier between it and the open sea. In the
F-type, mangrove vegetation reduces sea waves, result-
ing in coastal protection, as shown in Fig. 5. The
quantitative mechanisms of wave reduction, however, are
not yet well understood because of the complicated
vertical configuration of mangrove trees, structural dif-
ferences between mangrove species, various conditions
of natural vegetation density and dependency on wave
characteristics in the open sea (Mazda, 2011). Further,
studies of wave action at the boundary between man-
grove swamps and the open sea are important from a
viewpoint of sedimentation/erosion (Massel et al., 1999;
Furukawa, 2008).
Findings on sea waves (period typically less than Fig. 5 Difference in the effect of wave reduction (a) with and (b)
20 sec) cannot be applied to tsunami waves (seismic sea without mangroves (after Mazda et al., 1997).
waves) with periods between ten minutes and an hour.
Based on the observation on the Thuy Hai Coast, Vietnam, where
Many studies have examined the hydraulic behavior of mangroves (Kandelia candel) had been planted in a strip 1.5 km wide
tsunami waves reaching various coastal areas. These (toward offshore) at 1 m intervals, wave reduction was estimated. (a) A
studies, however, cannot be applied directly to mangrove wave height of 1.0 m on the open sea decreased to 0.05 m on the coast.
However, (b) without the sheltering effect of mangroves, the waves arrive
areas, because unique conditions such as the drag force with a height of 0.75 m, diminished by bottom stress alone.
on mangrove trees and their vertical configurations are
not taken into consideration. Mangrove forests with their
168 Y. MAZDA

unique vertical configuration protect human lives from findings are supported by the observational results that
tsunamis. For example, though tsunamis uproot under- the hydraulic conductivity (the coefficient of permeabil-
ground roots of mangroves, the substantial resistance ity) of mangrove swamps is two to three orders of
provided by these intertwining roots forms a sacrificial magnitude larger than that of normal sediment substrates
barrier that helps protect the land and human settlements (Fig. 6). Further, the permeability depends on topography,
located behind the mangrove belt (Mazda et al., 2007b). particularly on the bottom slope, suggesting that ground-
However, it is noteworthy that tsunamis behave differ- water behaves significantly differently between R, F and
ently in R-type or F-type topographies. B-types.
Hong (2006) collected articles about roles of man- Groundwater with a tidal period in coastal areas such
groves in protecting human lives from various waves as mangrove forests, particularly where the substrate is
such as sea waves, storm surges and tsunamis in South composed of loose sediment, behaves very differently
Asia. from that in inland areas. The water flow has three com-
ponents: first, a quasi-steady flow towards the open sea
2.4 Groundwater flow due to the tidal mean pressure gradient between the water
Water flow is composed of surface water flow above levels in the swamp and the open sea; second, a tidally
the substrate and groundwater flow through the substrate. reversing flow with exponentially damped amplitude and
Compared to surface water flow, groundwater flow tends linearly delayed phase towards the swamp; and third, a
to be ignored because of the low rate of water flux. residual flow towards the swamp caused by the ex-
However, the role of the groundwater flow in determin- ponentially damped tidal flow (Mazda et al., 1990a).
ing soil properties and maintaining mangrove ecosystems
has been clearly documented from field observations. For 3. Relationships between the Mangrove
example, Stieglitz et al. (2000) reported that a high den- Ecosystem and Physical Processes
sity of crab holes supports water/material permeability
and modifies soil properties. Susilo and Ridd (2005) 3.1 Mangrove topographies are formed by a
stated that 50% of the salt that accumulates around under- self-organization system
ground roots and limits the growth of mangrove trees Water currents forced by tides and sea waves are
may be discharged to the creek via groundwater. These steered, channeled and hindered by the topography of

Fig. 6 Time series plots of water levels at Stns. 1-8 and Stn. C in the Maira-Gawa
mangrove area on Iriomote Island, Japan (after Mazda & Ikeda, 2006).
After tidal inundation of the swamp has ceased, groundwater tables near a creek (Stns. 1 and 2)
descend by up to 15 cm during the time until the subsequent flood tide. In contrast, only minor
changes occur at sites far from the creek (Stns. 6, 7 and 8). This descending speed of the
groundwater depends on the hydraulic conductivity and the bottom slope of mangrove swamps.
 The Mangrove Ecosystem Utilizes Physical Processes 169

swamps and by mangrove trees and intertwining roots. In have received little scientific scrutiny. Geologies of
turn, the movement of sediment that accompanies water drainage basins and channel networks in inland areas
flow modifies the swamp topography, sometimes initiat- have been quantitatively studied, but the mechanism of
ing meanders in creeks or eroding coastlines. However, channel network formation in mangrove areas seems to
the quantitative mechanisms of sedimentation in man- be quite different from that in inland areas because of the
grove swamps have yet to be fully investigated. unique morphological and hydrological characteristics of
Many mangrove areas form a remarkable fractal pat- mangrove areas, such as the very gentle slope of the bot-
tern with innumerable tidal creeks and sub-creeks, as tom substrate, loose bottom sediment and water inunda-
shown in Fig. 7. The mechanisms and physical processes tion into the area with tidal period.
that form the fractal network of these creeks, however, Based on these considerations, Yagi et al. (2007)
proposed the idea of “self-organization,” in which the
fractal pattern must be formed by feedback interactions
among mangrove vegetation, loose soils and reciprocal
tidal flows (see Section 3.4). Further, D’Alpaos et al.
(2009) proposed a formation mechanism of creeks in
tidal flats due to tidal flows. These ideas suggest the
initial stage to form networks of tidal creeks in mangrove
forests.

3.2 Roles of water circulation in the mangrove

environment
Water properties such as temperature, salinity, dis-
solved oxygen and nutrient concentrations support man-
grove ecosystems directly and indirectly. These water
properties vary spatially and temporally in a manner
Fig. 7 Map of the area around the Long Hoa Coast in that is strongly dependent on physical processes such as
southern Vietnam. water circulation, tidal mixing and diffusion/dispersion
All of this area is covered with mangrove swamps, with many tidal (Fig. 8).
creeks and their sub-creeks, except for a small area facing the These water properties also depend on the peculiar
South China Sea which was converted into a human settlement.
mangrove topography. In the R-type, the hydraulic

Fig. 8 Synoptic views of the predicted contaminant concentration cloud (ppm) at two-hour
intervals during a tidal cycle (after Wolanski et al., 1990).
The contaminant cloud stays trapped along the mangrove-fringed coast at and around low tide (③-④
-⑤), and is pushed back into the mangrove swamps through a tidal creek at high tide (①). This behavior
is unique to tidally inundated coastal area with mangrove vegetation.
170 Y. MAZDA

mechanisms that control water properties have been and mangrove litter between mangroves and coastal
investigated, based on field measurements and numerical waters has been described by Woodroffe (1985a, b),
simulations (Mazda et al., 2007a). The diffusivity of Wolanski and Ridd (1986) and Wolanski et al. (1990).
water properties along creeks is increased by the tidal
trapping effect (see Fig. 3) by two orders of magnitude 3.3 Atmospheric and terrestrial processes affecting
from its value in the absence of swamps. The material mangrove ecosystems
transport mechanisms have been discussed by Wolanski Mangrove hydrodynamicists tend to neglect the
(1992) and Ridd et al. (1997) for the R-type, by Wolanski effects of atmospheric elements such as sunlight, rain,
et al. (1990) for the F-type, and further by Twilley et al. evaporation, air temperature, humidity and wind on
(1986), Mazda et al. (1990a) and Susilo et al. (2005) for mangrove ecosystems, as they often assume that these
the B-type. elements are unimportant compared to the influence of
The mangrove ecosystem is affected by the open sea hydrodynamic elements. This assumption may be made
due to diurnal or semi-diurnal tidal actions, while the in part because the thick canopies of mangroves appear to
mangroves affect the ecosystem of the adjacent coastal separate the swamp area from the lower atmosphere and
waters (Fig. 9). This interaction between mangrove for- to self-generate a microclimate under the mangrove
ests and the open sea is mainly achieved through tidal canopy.
creeks in R-type topography, occurs directly in the F-type, Wattayakorn et al. (2000), however, emphasized the
and via groundwater flow in the B-type. influence of river discharge, which varies with seasonal
Tidal flow processes within creeks were described in rainfall, on both water properties and biogeochemical
Section 2.2. The role of tidal creeks in enabling the ex- processes that occur within mangrove estuaries, based on
change of material such as nutrients, dissolved oxygen their observations. Ridd and Stieglitz (2002) stated that
the formation of a salinity maximum zone in creeks due
to effects of rain and evaporation affects mangrove spe-
cies assemblages (Fig. 10). Wolanski (2006) discussed
quantitatively the function of mangrove canopies in
absorbing wind energy and intercepting the transport of
salt spray to inland areas behind mangrove forests. Based
on these findings, he stressed that the mangrove envi-
ronment should be understood in the total ecosystem
that comprises the river basin, rivers, and estuarine/
coastal waters, forming a “total eco-hydrology” system
that should be considered using a holistic approach.

3.4 Feedback relationships maintaining the

mangrove environment
As shown in Fig. 1, four factors, namely biota, sedi-
ment topography, water flow and atmosphere, play im-
portant roles individually in forming and maintaining the
mangrove environment. Further, every factor interacts
with one of other factors. For example, the biology drives
the physics of mangroves; the amount of water that
inundates mangrove swamps depends on vegetation
Fig. 9 Time series plots of (a) solar radiation, (b) sea level in a density in mangrove swamps, because the vegetation
swamp and (c) dissolved oxygen concentrations in the
resists water inundation. On the other hand, the physics
swamp and neighboring coral reef in the Bashita-Minato
mangrove area, Iriomote Island, Japan (after Mazda et al., drives the biology in mangroves: the growth of mangrove
1990b). trees and their zonation patterns depend strongly on the
The DO in the swamp rose sharply at the commencement of the flood tide tides and the elevation of the substrate or the flooding
(20:00) and fell slowly thereafter until anoxic conditions were reached, frequency, duration of inundation and water depth due to
irrespective of solar radiation. The DO at the reef had a diurnal cycle with a
minimum value in the early morning and a maximum in the evening close to tidal action (Watson, 1928).
sunset, resulting from the biological activity of corals and algae due to Further, it should be recognized that all of these
respiration at night and photosynthesis after sunrise, respectively. It is interactions between two arbitrary factors construct the
understood that the DO from the reef strongly influences that of the swamp,
which influences aquatic or benthic organisms in the swamp. feedback system for maintaining the mangrove ecosys-
In this observation, the flood tide happened in the evening (20:00) and early tem, as follows. The water flow associated with tides and
morning (08:00) when the DO in the reef was at its maximum and minimum
values, respectively. This suggests that if the flood tide happens several rainfall helps to supply nutrients to mangrove trees. The
hours before or after the occurrence of a maximum in DO, the swamp will mangrove trees, which grow with the help of solar radia-
not record such high values of DO. In turn, the interrelationship between
oxygen production at the reef and tidal transport processes into the swamp
tion, deposit their decayed leaves around the bottom
controls biotic activity in the mangrove swamp. substrate as sediment, which leads to the establishment of
landforms. The landform or topography modifies the
water flow with their drag force.
 The Mangrove Ecosystem Utilizes Physical Processes 171

Fig. 10 Changes in salinity following major rainfall events in Cocoa Creek and Crocodile Creek, Australia (after
Ridd & Stieglitz, 2002).
(a) The salinity is higher throughout the length of the creek than at the creek mouth.
The salinity maximum zone in the creeks, which is affected by rain and evaporation, forms density currents,
isolating the upper reaches of the estuary from the coastal waters.
(b) The creeks became completely hypersaline within one month after rainfall in late August 1998.
□ 3 Sept. 1998; ○ 10 Sept. 1998; △ 16 Sept. 1998; ▽14 Oct. 1998
Both (a) and (b) suggest the strong influences of rain and solar radiation on water properties in mangrove areas.

Large numbers of tidal creeks supply various materi- ing nonlinear interactions among biological, chemical
als such as seawater, nutrients, dissolved oxygen, and and physical factors, each of which has different spatial
fish eggs/larvae to the innermost area of the swamp. On and temporal scales. Thus, in order to understand the
the other hand, tidal creeks and their tributaries have been mangrove ecosystem as a whole, to preserve it, and to
formed by the actions of tidal waters, mangrove vegeta- ensure that human activity is in harmony with it, inter-
tion and so on, as described in Section 3.1. The network disciplinary studies involving various study fields should
of tidal creeks and their tributaries (see Fig.7) seems to be put into practice.
show the result of these feedback actions. This network is To understand nonlinear interactions among biologi-
similar to the capillary vessels in human bodies; that is, cal, chemical and physical factors, it is necessary to con-
the network appears to sustain the natural mangrove duct joint studies involving researchers with different
ecosystem in the same manner as capillary vessels in areas of expertise, especially simultaneous field work at a
human bodies sustain human activity. In turn, the mang- common site; such works have never been executed
rove ecosystem utilizes the physical systems in order to hitherto. Moreover, these interdisciplinary studies should
preserve the natural environment. be continued successively in the future, as ecosystems
Aquaculture farms have been developed under these with long time scales respond to physical actions with
natural feedback systems (Hong, 2006; Perillo et al., short time scales, which are integrated in the ecosystem
2009). However, there are concerns that their artificial over the course of decades.
development may destroy the natural feedback system, Furthermore, such interdisciplinary studies should be
resulting in a feedback that leads to the degradation of the organized at an international level. This is because man-
aquaculture farms themselves. groves are distributed globally, whilst their ecosystems
vary locally, depending on unique physical processes
which differ locally according to the site.
4. In Order to Preserve and Utilize the
Mangrove Environment
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(2009) Coastal Wetlands. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Yoshihiro MAZDA is a Professor Emeritus at
Ridd, P.V. and T. Stieglitz (2002) Dry season salinity changes in Tokai University and Vice-President of the Japan
tropical mangrove and salt flat fringed estuaries. Estuarine, Society for Mangroves. He has elucidated physi-
cal processes affecting mangrove forests, par-
Coastal and Shelf Science, 54: 1039-1049.
ticularly hydrodynamics such as tidal flow, sea
Ridd, P., E. Wolanski and Y. Mazda (1990) Longitudinal diffusion waves and material dispersion supporting
in mangrove fringed tidal creeks. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf mangrove ecosystems, through field work in
Science, 31: 541-554. Southeast Asia, Australia, Middle America and Iriomote Island
Ridd, P.V., R. Sam, S. Hollins and G. Brunkskill (1997) Water, salt
and nutrient fluxes of tropical tidal salt flats. Mangroves and Salt
Marshes, 1: 229-238.
Ridd, P.V., T. Stieglitz and P. Larcombe (1998) Density-driven (Received 2 December 2012, Accepted 25 June 2013)
secondary circulation in a tropical mangrove estuary, Estuarine,

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