Soalan 3.

Knowledge Management Process

Knowledge management may simply be defined as doing what is needed to

get the most out of knowledge resources.The goals of the process should be to
make it increasingly easier to capture and used these resources and capabilities for
obtaining a significant organizational benefits.Knowledge management (KM)
defined is the process of creating, sharing, using and managing the knowledge and
information of an organization to ensuring that its knowledge to approach to
achieving organizational objectives by making the best use of knowledge.

Knowledge management process is the heart of knowledge management.

Ruggle [1997] proposed generation, codification, and transfer. Knowledge
generation includes all activities which bring to light knowledge which is new,
whether to the individual, to the group, or to the world. Knowledge codification is
the capture and representation of knowledge so that it can be re-used either by an
individual or by an organization. Knowledge transfer involves the movement of
knowledge form one location to another and its subsequent absorption.

The Knowledge Management process has basic steps assisted by different

tools and techniques.When these steps are followed sequentially, the data
transforms into knowledge. The following is an outline of the process of knowledge
management.

1
1. Collecting

The most important step of the knowledge management process is data

collection. If collect incorrect data the resulting knowledge may not be
accurate.Therefore,the decisions made based on knowledge could be inaccurate
as well.There are many methods and tools used for data collection.These
procedures should be properly documented and followed by people involved in data
collection process.The data collection procedure defines certain data collection
points.

Information comes from a variety of places. Sometimes it comes from

researching, or gathering from outside sources, and other times it is actually
generated within the company itself. Whatever the source, it is important for a
company to be able to obtain this information in order to help them with future
endeavors or to solve problems.In addition to data collecting points and extraction
mechanism,data storage is also defined in this step. Most of the organizations now
use a software database application for this purpose.

Some points be the summary of certain routine reports as monthly sales report
and daily attendance reports its two good resources for data collection points which
the data extraction techniques and tools are also defined.For an example,the sales
may be a paper-based and where a data entry operator needs to key in manually to
a database and where the daily attendance report may be an online report where it
is directly stored in the database.

2. Organizing

Data organizing refers to the method of classifying and organizing data sets to
make them more useful. In the world we live today, information is everywhere. With
such a wealth of information,one sometimes can't see that reason, it is very
important to organize information (data).The data collected need to be organized by
organization based on certain rules which is defined by the organization.If much
data in the database, techniques such as 'normalization' can be used for organizing
and reducing the duplication. This way,data is logically arranged and related to one
another for easy retrieval.

Organizing data also helps in reducing the data loss and reduces errors .As an
example, all sales-related data can be filed together and all staff-related data could
be stored in the same database table. This type of organization helps to maintain
data accurately within a database. For example, re-ordering or analyzing the
arrangement of data items in a physical record is part of data organization.

2
3. Summarizing

In this step, the information is summarized in order to take the essence of it.
The lengthy information is presented in tabular or graphical format and stored
appropriately.For summarizing, there are many tools that can be used such as
software packages, charts (Pareto, cause-and-effect), and different techniques.

When you want to measure something in the natural world you usually have
to take several measurements. This is because things are variable, so you
need several results to get an idea of the situation. Once you have these
measurements you need to summarize them in some way because sets of
raw numbers are not easily interpreted by most people

The first step in solving problems in public health and making evidence-based
decisions is to collect accurate data and to describe, summarize, and present it in such
a way that it can be used to address problems. Information consists of data elements
or data points which represent the variables of interest.

Processes
A number of studies have addressed knowledge management processes; they divide
knowledge management into several processes. For example, Alavi and Leidner [2]
considered four processes such as creation, storage, transfer, and application. These
processes are often concurrent and not always in a linear sequence [9].
Among these processes, creation-related activities (for example, creation [2] or

3
 construction [21]) become important because knowledge creation is a strategic
weapon
in today’s global marketplace; without the constant creation of knowledge, a
business
is condemned to obsolescence [83, 87]. Knowledge creation is a continuous process
whereby individuals and groups within a firm and between firms share tacit and
explicit
knowledge [82]. Although a great deal has been discussed about the importance
of knowledge creation, there is relatively little empirical evidence [90]. Therefore,
the emphasis of this study is on knowledge creation.
To explore knowledge creation, our study adopts the SECI (socialization,
externalization, combination, internalization) model by Nonaka and Takeuchi [82]
for the following reasons. First, their work has become widely accepted [98]; it has
been used in many research areas such as organizational learning, new product
development,
and IT [98, 99]. Second, their model includes not only knowledge creation
but also knowledge transfer. The transfer of existing knowledge and the creation of
new knowledge are important, and both of them should be considered in knowledge
management [69]. Their SECI model is made up of four intertwined activity modes;
socialization (S), externalization (E), combination (C), and internalization (I).
Socialization
converts tacit knowledge into new tacit knowledge through social interactions
among members. Externalization codifies tacit knowledge into explicit concepts.
Combination
converts explicit knowledge into more systematic sets by combining key
pieces. Internalization embodies explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge.
Intermediate

Knowledge Creation
The ability to create new knowledge is often at the heart of the organization's
competitive advantage. Sometimes this issue is not treated as part of knowledge
management since it borders and overlaps with innovation management (Wellman
2009). Since I chose a broader knowledge management definition, I very much
regard it as a part of the process, and I will refer (albeit superficially) to some
theories that pertain to innovation.

Knowledge creation according to the Nonaka's SECI model is about continuous

transfer, combination, and conversion of the different types of knowledge, as
users practice, interact, and learn. Cook and Brown (1999) distinguish between
knowledge and knowing, and suggest that knowledge creation is a product of the
interplay between them. The shift in condition between the possession of
knowledge and the act of knowing - something that comes about through practice,
action, and interaction- is the driving force in the creation of new knowledge.
Furthermore, in order for this interplay to be most fruitful, it is important to
support unstructured work environments in areas where creativity and innovation
are important.

4
Knowledge sharing and knowledge creation thus go hand in hand. Knowledge is
created through practice, collaboration, interaction, and education, as the different
knowledge types are shared and converted. Beyond this, knowledge creation is
also supported by relevant information and data which can improve decisions and
serve as building blocks in the creation of new knowledge.

Knowledge Discovery and Detection

In this subsection, I will the knowledge management (KM) initiatives involved in

knowledge discovery & detection.

This step deals with discovering the knowledge that a firm possesses all over the
organization, as well as the patterns in the information available that hide
previously undetected pockets of knowledge.

Once knowledge is created, it exists within the organization. However, before it

can be reused or shared it must be properly recognized and categorized. This
subsection deals with the former aspect, while the following subsection deals with
the latter.

 Explicit Knowledge: This is largely a process of sorting through

documents and other records, as well as discovering knowledge within
existing data and knowledge repositories. For the latter, IT can be used to
uncover hidden knowledge by looking at patterns and relationships within
data and text. The main tools/practices in this case include intelligence
gathering, data mining (finding patterns in large bodies of data and
information), and text mining (text analysis to search for knowledge,
insights, etc.). Intelligence gathering is closely linked to expert systems
(Bali et al 2009) where the system tries to capture the knowledge of an
expert, though the extent to which they are competent for this task is
questionable (Botha et al 2008).

 Tacit knowledge: Discovering and detecting tacit knowledge is a lot more

complex and often it is up to the management in each firm to gain an
understanding of what their company's experts actually know. Since tacit
knowledge is considered as the most valuable in relation to sustained
competitive advantage, this is a crucial step, a step that often simply
involves observation and awareness. There are several qualitative and
quantitative tools/practices that can help in the process; these include
knowledge surveys, questionnaires, individual interviews, group
5
 interviews, focus groups, network analysis, and observation. IT can be
used to help identify experts and communities. Groupware systems and
other social/professional networks as well as expert finders can point to
people who are considered experts, and may also give an indication of the
knowledge these people/groups possess.
 Embedded knowledge: This implies an examination and identification of
the knowledge trapped inside organizational routines, processes, products
etc, which has not already been made explicit. Management must
essentially ask "why do we do something a certain way?" This type of
knowledge discovery involves observation and analysis, and the use of
reverse engineering and modeling tools.

It is important to note that the sources of knowledge that a firm has access to may extend
well outside the organization. This type of knowledge, which was introduced in the
previous subsection on "Understanding Organizational Knowledge" is called extra-
organizational knowledge. This can exist in both formal and informal settings. The
former refers to management driven initiatives like partnerships, while the latter refers to
the informal networks of individual members. We are interested in the former, which can
be located and managed at least to some degree. Gamble and Blackwell identify several
such sources:

 Alliances
 Suppliers
 Customers

At this stage, we are still only discussing knowledge discovery and detection, so these
relationships will not be explored in detail (see knowledge acquisition and external
knowledge networks for more). Knowledge from alliances and partners can exist in joint
projects, shared knowledge/experts operational data and so on. Suppliers and customers
can provide product feedback, trends, developments etc. Within their respective
limitations, similar tools as above can be used to identify the knowledge and/or
knowledge sources.

IT can be used in this context both as a means of feedback, communication, and

cooperation between partners, and also as a way to gather, analyze, and "mine" data and
information.

Facilitating Knowledge Discovery and Detection

Useful to this process is the adoption of practices that make knowledge easier to detect.
For example, teams could be asked to document aspects of their work with a certain
language and presentation standard. Generalists could be used to help organize this
process, as well as to document the expertise of the individual team members (which can
be used later to promote tacit knowledge socialization). A rundown of how management
6
 should prepare knowledge in specific situations is presented in the final segment of the
Knowledge Reuse subsection.

Knowledge management includes several processes, e.g., knowledge creation,

knowledge storing, sharing, and using knowledge. When these processes run
smoothly, an organization can confirm that information is available for users
whenever needed. This is essential for organizations that sell knowledge based
services. However, often these processes are not as effective as they could be.
In this article the authors concentrate on the following knowledge management
processes: storing, searching, and sharing knowledge. The purpose of the
research was to find out the different kind of practices companies use for these
processes and how information technology can help companies produce these
processes more effective. This paper includes the theoretical background of
knowledge management and its processes as well as the results of an empirical
benchmarking research done among medium sized and large organizations in
knowledge intensive businesses.

Inkpen - Cited by 1352

http://www.knowledge-management-tools.net/knowledge-sharing.html

Frappaolo, C. (1998). Defining knowledge management: Four basic functions. Computerworld,

32(8), 80-80.

최 병 구 , & 기 술 원 . Knowledge Management Enablers, Processes, and Organizational

Performance: An Integration and Empirical Examination.

Rollett, H. (2012). Knowledge management: Processes and technologies. Springer Science &
Business Media.

Alavi, M., & Leidner, D. E. (2001). Knowledge management and knowledge management
systems: Conceptual foundations and research issues. MIS quarterly, 107-136.

http://koasas.kaist.ac.kr/bitstream/10203/6110/1/2004-003.pdf

7
Step 3: Summarizing
In this step, the information is summarized in order to take the essence of it.
The lengthy information is presented in tabular or graphical format and stored
appropriately.

For summarizing, there are many tools that can be used such as software
packages, charts (Pareto, cause-and-effect), and different techniques.

Step 4: Analyzing
At this stage, the information is analyzed in order to find the relationships,
redundancies and patterns.

An expert or an expert team should be assigned for this purpose as the

experience of the person/team plays a vital role. Usually, there are reports
created after analysis of information.

Step 5: Synthesizing
At this point, information becomes knowledge. The results of analysis (usually
the reports) are combined together to derive various concepts and artefacts.

A pattern or behavior of one entity can be applied to explain another, and

collectively, the organization will have a set of knowledge elements that can be
used across the organization.

This knowledge is then stored in the organizational knowledge base for further
use.

8
Usually, the knowledge base is a software implementation that can be accessed
from anywhere through the Internet.

You can also buy such knowledge base software or download an open-source
implementation of the same for free.

Step 6: Decision Making

At this stage, the knowledge is used for decision making. As an example, when
estimating a specific type of a project or a task, the knowledge related to
previous estimates can be used.

This accelerates the estimation process and adds high accuracy. This is how the
organizational knowledge management adds value and saves money in the long
run.

Conclusion
Knowledge management is an essential practice for enterprise organizations.
Organizational knowledge adds long-term benefits to the organization in terms
of finances, culture and people.

Therefore, all mature organizations should take necessary steps for knowledge
management in order to enhance the business operations and organization's
overall capability.

Capturing Tacit Knowledge Tacit knowledge can only be captured when it is found.

Therefore the key to successfully leveraging tacit knowledge within an organization is to

accurately find the right people to solve that particular situation. Expertise management

becomes a central tenet of tacit knowledge. Organizations that can identify and link experts

who can share their tacit knowledge benefit by providing higher quality solutions that are

delivered faster and at a lower overall cost. It's applicable in markets that are challenged

with business-critical situations, including customer support, IT help desk, strategic account

management, team selling, professional services, and R&D. Channeling informal discussions

into a collaborative workspace--behind the scenes--is a great way to begin. It replaces ad-

hoc interactions like shouting over the cube and blasting email threads with a single, well-

organized place where people can work together as teams that may extend to customers

and partners. Here they can share information about a current issue, problem, or topic.

Workspaces nowadays have become much more integrated into communication channels

typically used throughout the day, such as email and instant messaging, so ease of adoption

9
concerns have been dramatically reduced. Organizations can, by automatically capturing

these interactions, expand the scope of reusable knowledge to include data like the

following:

Lack of Knowledge Sharing Culture

Knowledge sharing culture is one of the the primary drivers of KM success or failure, and if
your company continues to reward people for hoarding content rather than sharing it, you’re
going to have a difficult time being successful. (Tweet this!)

I analyzed my survey data to see if companies with better knowledge culture have better
knowledge implementation. I separated all 400 responses into 3 groups based on how they
rated their company’s KM culture. A snapshot of the best and the worst knowledge management culture in
both employee-facing and customer-facing knowledge bases.

I saw what the average ratings were for current KM implementation by culture group, and
the results showed that the stronger the culture, the better the implementation, and the
greater success they had with their current KM system. (Tweet this!)

While there are a lot of things you can do to improve knowledge sharing culture within
departments, it’s a top down initiative. I suggest anonymously polling your employees to see
if they feel encouraged to share what they know with the rest of their team, or if they are
more inclined to hoard their knowledge. From there, you’ll be able to take the necessary
steps towards encouraging employees to share what they know.

No Incentive to Use the System

Many managers, myself included, make the mistake early on by rewarding employees that
submit the most new knowledge articles, and that is the single best way to collect a lot of

10
junk and other useless information in your knowledge base.

While many companies still don't incentivize content creation, of the companies that offer rewards, the most

popular method is tying KM outcomes in with employee performance reviews.

I’m very wary of companies that incentivize based on the number of articles and activity,
rather than which articles are the most used, support topics that have the most thumbs up
from customers, and which topics are the most helpful. If you’re currently promoting activity,
try switching it up to focus on outcomes and tie them in with employee performance reviews,
offering compensation for the best content.

Knowledge base analytics can help you determine the most useful content based on who
created it, who looked at it, and who is updating and maintaining it. If you can figure out

11
what these top knowledge curators are doing right, you can then capture those skills and
train others to do the same.

Not Capturing Knowledge from

Professional Services Consultants
By the time your PS consultants complete a large customer implementation, they’ve learned
all kinds of interesting things along the way. They’ve built customization codes, they’ve
found bugs in the system that nobody knew about, but unfortunately they tend to not tell
anyone what they’ve learned without outside encouragement or guidance. Currently, only
11% of PS organizations have a formal process for capturing “best practice” and “lessons
learned” content at the end of each project or engagement, which is a lost opportunity to
further grow your knowledge base to assist consultants tasked with similar projects in the
future. (Tweet this!)

No Dedicated KM Team
In the first few months after implementing a new KM program, you’ll need a lot of hands on
deck to set it up and keep it running smoothly. Once you’ve captured the majority of the
content, the shift then moves toward maintenance, and the number of people needed to
author, edit, and maintain this knowledge decreases. But who should be responsible for this
maintenance?

While it’s true that everyone should be accountable for the maintenance of this information,
if you don’t have anybody with direct responsibility for the program, the idea that “everyone
is accountable” quickly turns into “no one is accountable.” It is best to have dedicated staff to
manage your knowledge with everybody else contributing. After all, someone needs to steer
the boat.

Out of Date Content

Most of the time when launching a new project, you get amazing success right out of the
gate. Eventually, budgets get trimmed or the people driving the project get pulled off and
redistributed elsewhere, resulting in stale, duplicate, or junk material languishing in your
forgotten knowledge base.

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 How often is your knowledge management content updated to edit or remove unused or
outdated content? Fortunately, there are a lot of capabilities in today's KM tools that allow
you to modify and find this duplicate or stale content. Dedicating resources to this ongoing
process is an absolute must, because if you don’t, I guarantee you’re going to be
implementing a new KM system every 3 years, and the “rip and replace” cycle will begin
anew.

Gaps in Your Knowledge Base

A common frustrating scenario that I’m sure most people can relate to when you have a
problem with a product, but are unable to find a single answer related to the issue on the
manufacturer’s official knowledge base. However, often times a simple Google search can
yield all kinds of answers from people just like you who are solving this problem for
themselves through forums, blog posts, or social media.

Many companies like to think that their customers or employees will provide feedback, either
via email or trouble tickets, alerting them to this gap in their knowledge base, but that is a
naïve approach to filling knowledge gaps. Realistically, they’re just going to search
elsewhere, and perhaps never return to try your self-service tools again.

Search technology is a huge enabler in helping you pinpoint where the holes in your
knowledge base are. (Tweet this!) For example, you might have a lot of content on a
product, but it all pertains to implementation with no content about upgrading or actually
using that product, and it’s this concept level of information that’s missing. Once you accept
that search technology is here to stay and use it to your advantage, you can start filling in
these gaps and making sure both customers and employees receive the best and most
accurate information, wherever they happen to find it.

Understand the flow of knowledge in your

organization
Knowledge Management incorporates the flow of information from collection to
codification to sharing, but before you jump into that process, make sure you
understand how knowledge flows (and where it gets trapped or diverted) within
the people and teams in your organization. Consider the following to get started:

 Determine your most critically important knowledge – What is it, and in

what departments, functions, locations and people does it reside?

13
 Map out critical business activities – Mark the decision points and the
information that gets collected and produced within them.

 Identify and isolate blockages – Figure out where you have gaps, silos or
lack of participation, information overload, worker overwhelm and any other
problems that need fixing.

2. Understand that KM technology is only one

component
KM technology is one of the critical success factors, especially as systems have
become more sophisticated and prevalent. Yet time and again we find ourselves
reminding our clients that “Knowledge Management” and KM technology
systems are not synonymous. Technology is a tool and enabling platform and
nothing more, no matter how many bells and whistles, many of which go
underutilized anyway.

Knowledge Management as a process involves many other components that are

much bigger and more important:

 People – First and foremost, Knowledge Management is about tapping

into the insights of people for sharing, learning and leveraging with other
people across the organization.
 Other Practices and Processes – The Knowledge Management process
takes place in relation to other practices, processes and flows of work and
information within the organization

 Culture – How the organization does (or does not) embody, encourage and
support active participation and sharing will determine whether or not the
technology is leveraged and optimized, or remains largely idle and untapped.

3. Address your critical success factors

Various components must come together to create a complete, cohesive
Knowledge Management system. Each of them must be present, fully functional
and interconnected for success. If any are missing or lacking, even the most well-
defined process or sophisticated technology will be ineffective.

Common issues that get in the way of KM success:

14
 Goals and objectives that are poorly defined, poorly communicated and
lacking in participation and input from all stakeholder groups. Failure to tie
Knowledge Management initiatives to business goals and objectives is the
biggest problem we see.
 Lack of metadata, poorly-designed user interfaces and other missing
features that empower users to find what they need, quickly and easily, and
enable managers to maintain the system over time.

 Lack of change management initiatives that would help develop, promote

and sustain a knowledge-driven culture.

processes

To ensure that knowledge in your company is properly

created, stored, and used, it is paramount to implement the
internal processes the right way. Company policy and
procedures govern the way employees interact with each
other and the organization itself, so if you are looking to
adopt knowledge management both effectively and
efficiently, here are some things you should know:

1. General Company Policy Towards Knowledge Management.

Communicate the importance of knowledge management and knowledge sharing to your employees. Adopt
knowledge management practices and make them mandatory in the day-to-day operations of your company. For
example, giving employees some time off work every week so that they may think of what they had learned
recently and commit it to writing is a good policy you may wish to implement.

2. Knowledge Creation Guidelines.

Make sure that any material that enters your knowledge base does so in an organized fashion. Create guidelines
for knowledge creation, communicate them to your employees, and make sure that they are followed. Ideally,
every employee should have access to the knowledge management tools and be encouraged to contribute.

However, keep in mind that the guidelines must help employees create and store knowledge, not stifle their
enthusiasm. You will do well to create a template for adding new material to the knowledge base. The template
should make it easy to understand what information should be displayed on every page, how the material should
be structured, what fonts are to be used, how the text should be formatted, and so on. This will make life much
easier for those who are willing to put in the time to make knowledge management a success in your
organization while at the same time ensuring that the information in your knowledge base is well-structured and
consistent. In these parts, we call this a “win-win”.

3. Contacting The Subject Matter Expert.

In the previous article, we established that it is necessary to give your employees access to the foremost experts
within your company. Establishing rules that tell how and when the experts may be consulted will, on the one
hand, give your employees access to superior expertise, and on the other, make sure that the experts can
perform their main duties without constant interruption. Best practice in this regard is to have every expert pick a
day of the week and set some time aside for consulting at that day at a specific time (make sure to communicate
this information to your employees). Also, it is recommended for those seeking advice to clearly formulate their
questions beforehand to save time.

4. Preserving Expertise Related To Solved Issues.

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Companies, like people, must learn from their errors and avoid pitfalls they’ve encountered before. To that end, it
is vital to preserve the information about the incident, as well as the steps taken to rectify it. You will be wise to
make it a rule in your organization that as soon as an issue has been dealt with, the following data must be
entered into your knowledge base:

 What was the issue.

 What caused the issue.

 How the issue was solved (if it was solved).

 The contact information of the employee(s) who dealt with the issue so that them may be reached at
short notice should the issue arise again.

5. Preserving The Expertise Of Employees Leaving The

Company.

Employee turnover is a fact of life, and even key personnel may leave
for greener pastures. However, this doesn’t mean that you can’t or
shouldn’t try and minimize the damage this will cause. Expertise is
valuable, and you should strive to preserve every ounce of it once
somebody gives you their notice. While frontal learning will come in
handy, you should try and have the leaving person’s knowledge
committed to writing as well as communicated orally. If you are parting
ways on good terms, the soon to be ex-employee will probably not
refuse to create a document detailing the processes they were
responsible for. In addition, ask them to highlight the potential pitfalls
that may cause issues unless handled with care. Preserving the
expertise of departing employees is crucial for any organization, so
take it seriously, or risk taking a big loss.

Knowledge Management Tools And Techniques

In knowledge management, technology plays second fiddle to people

and the interactions between them. However, tools and techniques
also have their place. The platform for implementing knowledge
management that you choose must feature fundamental knowledge
management tools and be user friendly and easy to operate. This is
important - if you make participating in knowledge management a
chore, don’t be surprised when your employees are less than enthused
by the prospect. To understand what features an ideal knowledge
management platform must possess, let us take a look at the tools
commonly used for that purpose in companies around the world.

Knowledge Bases

The “old reliable” option, knowledge management adoption in a

company often starts with creating a knowledge base (to be fair, it
often doesn’t progress any further than that). It usually takes the form
of an intranet portal or a wiki-based mini-site containing answers to
the most frequently asked questions in the organization, descriptions
of technical procedures, detailed use cases and post-mortems of
issues encountered in the past. A knowledge base can contain text,

16
multimedia materials, video tutorials, links to relevant third party
resources, and more.

Ideally, the knowledge base should be maintained and updated

regularly. At a minimum, you should have a few employees tasked with
compiling new expertise within the company and entering it in the
knowledge base in an agreed upon format. Preferably, every employee
should have the ability to edit the knowledge base and add new
material to it.

From the technology standpoint, there are a number of possible

options for building a knowledge base, including in-house solutions,
wiki software, and LMS/LCMS (stands for Learning Management
System and Learning Content Management System, respectively), with
the latter being the preferable option. Unlike websites and wikis,
LMS/LCMS feature the functionality necessary for knowledge
management, from uploading material and training courses to
collecting usage statistics, right out of the box.

Communities Of Practice

These are professional communities where members are united by a

common sphere of activity, a shared project, or a common goal. If you
can make it so that your employees start talking shop with each other,
sharing tips and experience, congratulate yourself on getting over a
major knowledge management hurdle, as creating and fostering such
communities is one of the major knowledge management goals. You
can use different technical means, such as forums or groups belonging to the organization’s internal social
network, to help your employees share their expertise. It would also be a big plus if the chosen solution features
the ability to rate or upvote particularly useful topics or insightful contributions.

A self-regulating community is a treasure trove of useful ideas and innovative solutions. The ability to have a
quick informal chat with a colleague raises the employees’ confidence and makes them more efficient workers. In
most cases, leaving a post on a forum or shooting a private message on a social network is quicker and more
convenient than conversing via email.

Knowledge Map
A knowledge map makes it easy for your employees to connect to an expert in a specific area of knowledge. It
stands to reason that before you can ask for advice, you must first find someone who can give a competent
answer, and this is where a knowledge map comes in handy. It lists the experts within the organization, shows
their respective areas of expertise, and provides the means of contacting them

Here are three ways you can capture that tacit knowledge before it’s too late:

1. Create a culture of knowledge sharing

Communicate the need and value of a collaborative culture. We get it; sometimes you don’t like to share your
best ideas; it’s nice to have an ace up your sleeve. And sometimes it’s nice to consider yourself an expert. But,
consider this: knowledge is not power if it is not shared.

To overcome these pitfalls, encourage teamwork. By having employees work in teams, your organization may be
able to increase its employee’s perception of their team members. Working closely with each other will give the
employees the opportunity to see how valuable their knowledge can be. This, in turn, may encourage the
employee to want to help out their team members when they see that there is a knowledge gap, error, or false
truth present. Help your employees understand that they will be gaining much more than they are giving.

17
2. Create incentives based on quality

Provide incentives (both monetary and other types) to employees who participate in knowledge sharing. An air of
caution, though — volume does not equal value! So don’t just provide incentives based on the amount
contributed; otherwise your knowledge base may end up being overloaded with non-value adding contributions.
Form a group of knowledge managers who are responsible for reviewing that each submission adds significant
value to the business. This will also help cut down the possibility of errors and false truths.

3. Create opportunities to share

Daily scrums, weekly one-on-one’s, monthly roundtables, or quarterly town halls — these are the perfect
opportunities to elicit tacit knowledge. Ask questions, interview each other with the intent to learn, and convert
that tacit knowledge into accessible, reusable information. Remember to phrase questions properly, listen, avoid
arguments, focus on the expert’s approach, and look beyond the facts. Be cautious not to interrogate, interrupt,
put the expert on the defensive, or pretend to understand when you actually don’t. Go in with the mindset of
wanting to “know” how the experts know what they know.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/management_concepts/knowledge_manageme
nt.htm

https://libsource.com/3-ways-enhance-knowledge-management-process

Davenport, T. H., De Long, D. W., & Beers, M. C. (1998). Successful knowledge management
projects. Sloan management review, 39(2), 43.

Alavi, M., & Leidner, D. E. (2001). Knowledge management and knowledge management
systems: Conceptual foundations and research issues. MIS quarterly, 107-136.

Mishra, B., & Uday Bhaskar, A. (2011). Knowledge management process in two learning
organisations. Journal of Knowledge Management, 15(2), 344-359.

Armistead, C. (1999). Knowledge management and process performance. Journal of

Knowledge Management, 3(2), 143-157.

Becerra-Fernandez, I., Sabherwal, R., & Gonzalez, A. (2003). Knowledge management.

Pearson Education.
18
3 Ways to Capture the
Tacit Knowledge Inside
Your Employee’s Head
We often think of knowledge as something that can be
recorded in words, visualized and taught. This is called
explicit knowledge.

 Explicit Knowledge: The knowledge that has

been recorded and structured into an organizational
knowledge asset. Others can find it, reuse it, and
collaborate on the knowledge. Explicit knowledge
includes documents, code, manuals, websites,
videos, presentations, procedures, etc.

19
However, this isn’t always the case. Tacit knowledge is a
class of knowledge that’s difficult to communicate.

 Tacit Knowledge: This is the information and

knowledge you keep in your head, and you can
spew at will. It’s what we know that we don’t know.
In other words, you don’t know what you know,
until someone asks. For example: “What are the 3
sales strategies you would tell people to follow?”

Tacit knowledge is a particular challenge for knowledge

management. Teams strive to make it accessible among
co-workers and would like to prevent knowledge loss
during employee turnover. Unfortunately, tacit
knowledge almost always goes with the employee.

Tacit knowledge is essential to competitive advantage

because it’s difficult for competitors to copy. It’s the
reason some teams pump out innovation after
innovation while other teams struggle.

Here are three ways you can capture that tacit

knowledge before it’s too late:

1. Create a culture of knowledge sharing

Communicate the need and value of a collaborative

culture. We get it; sometimes you don’t like to share
your best ideas; it’s nice to have an ace up your sleeve.
And sometimes it’s nice to consider yourself an expert.
But, consider this: knowledge is not power if it is not
shared.

To overcome these pitfalls, encourage teamwork. By

having employees work in teams, your organization may
be able to increase its employee’s perception of their
team members. Working closely with each other will
give the employees the opportunity to see how valuable
their knowledge can be. This, in turn, may encourage
20
the employee to want to help out their team members
when they see that there is a knowledge gap, error, or
false truth present. Help your employees understand
that they will be gaining much more than they are
giving.

2. Create incentives based on quality

Provide incentives (both monetary and other types) to

employees who participate in knowledge sharing. An air
of caution, though — volume does not equal value! So
don’t just provide incentives based on the amount
contributed; otherwise your knowledge base may end
up being overloaded with non-value adding
contributions. Form a group of knowledge managers
who are responsible for reviewing that each submission
adds significant value to the business. This will also help
cut down the possibility of errors and false truths.

3. Create opportunities to share

Daily scrums, weekly one-on-one’s, monthly

roundtables, or quarterly town halls — these are the
perfect opportunities to elicit tacit knowledge. Ask
questions, interview each other with the intent to learn,
and convert that tacit knowledge into accessible,
reusable information. Remember to phrase questions
properly, listen, avoid arguments, focus on the expert’s
approach, and look beyond the facts. Be cautious not to
interrogate, interrupt, put the expert on the defensive,
or pretend to understand when you actually don’t. Go in
with the mindset of wanting to “know” how the experts
know what they know.

Three important steps

 Use an appropriate tool or
technique to elicit information
from the expert
21
 Interpret the information and
infer the expert’s knowledge
and reasoning process
 Use the interpretation to build
rules that represent expert’s

solutions

Pros and Cons of Using Multiple

Experts
Advantages
 Complex problem domains benefit
from the expertise of more than one
expert
 Working with multiple experts
stimulates interaction
 Listening to a variety of views allows
knowledge developer to consider
alternative ways of representing
knowledge
 Formal meetings frequently a better
environment for generating

thoughtful contributions

Pros and Cons of Using Multiple

Experts (cont’d)
Drawbacks:
 Scheduling difficulties
 Disagreements frequently occur
among experts
 Confidentiality issues
 Requires more than one knowledge
developer
 Process loss in determining a

solution

Complex problem domains benefit from the expertise of more than one expert
􀂓Working with multiple experts stimulates interaction
􀂓Listening to a variety of views allows knowledge developer to consider
alternative ways of representing knowledge
22
 􀂓Formal meetings frequently a better environmentfor generating thoughtful
contributions
Banyak perusahaan belum atau tidak mengetahui adanya potensi pengetahuan dan
pengalaman yang tersembunyi dalam diri karyawannya. Riset Delphi Group (Widayana, 2004)
menunjukkan bahwa pengetahuan dalam organisasi tersimpan dengan struktur: 42 % di pikiran
(otak) karyawan, 26 % dalam dokumen kertas, 20 % dalam dokumen elektronik, 12% dalam
database pengetahuan elektronik (electronic knowledge base). Berdasarkan fakta ini diketahui
bahwa aset pengetahuan sebagian besar tersimpan dalam pikiran manusia, yang disebut
sebagai pengetahuan tersirat (tacit knowledge). Pengetahuan tersirat adalah sesuatu yang kita
ketahui dan alami, namun sulit untuk diungkapkan secara jelas dan lengkap. Pengetahuan
tersirat sangat sulit dipindahkan kepada orang lain karena pengetahuan tersebut tersimpan
pada pikiran masing-masing individu di dalam organisasi. Manajemen pengetahuan menjawab
persoalan tersebut, yakni melalui proses mengubah pengetahuan tersirat (tacit knowledge)
menjadi pengetahuan yang mudah dikomunikasikan dan mudah didokumentasikan, yang
disebut dengan pengetahuan tersurat (explicit knowledge).

Can you explain all of the skills necessary to be an effective leader? What about
the skills needed to create an innovative design? There are aspects of these
skills that are difficult to articulate or to transfer to others via language. This is
referred to as implicit or tacit knowledge.

Tacit knowledge is intangible knowledge acquired from experience and insight.

You will recognize it in people with competence and expertise. Decades ago,
Polanyi (1966) explained that people “can know more than they are able to tell.”

The opposite of tacit knowledge is explicit knowledge, or that which is codified

and transferable through written or oral language. Unfortunately, the majority of
formal learning experiences focus on the transfer of explicit knowledge alone,
failing to pass on tacit knowledge.

There is increasing evidence that tacit knowledge is “the important strategic

resource that assists in accomplishing a task (Woo, 2004).” Here are some
reasons why it is essential to uncover and transmit tacit knowledge in
individuals, teams and organizations.
There is increasing evidence that tacit knowledge is “the important strategic resource that assists in
accomplishing a task (Woo, 2004).” Here are some reasons why it is essential to uncover and transmit tacit
knowledge in individuals, teams and organizations.

1. If we are able to elicit both implicit and explicit knowledge from subject matter experts, we will be more
prepared to help novices and intermediates build competence. We need to understand what contributes to an

23
 expert’s intuitive ability to solve problems, innovate, and make smart decisions. Thus, it is important that we find
ways to access and encourage the transfer of tacit knowledge.
2. Also, when people with expertise leave a job, the organization often loses critical tacit knowledge
because it was not passed on to others. This knowledge gap can be costly and time-consuming or impossible to
replace (Leonard, 2014). Organizations need ways to glean and disseminate the tacit knowledge of experts for
their own preservation. Tacit knowledge transmission is essential to an organization’s future success.

3. In addition, tacit knowledge is often embedded in an organization’s processes and procedures as a

result of continuous improvements. Without an awareness of it, tacit knowledge can be overwritten and lost. To
avoid this, it is important to raise awareness of the organization’s tacit knowledge store and make it explicit
through knowledge management strategies

Many tacit knowledge capture techniques are derived from the techniques used primarily in
artificial intelligence more specialized, in the development of expert systems. The expert
system combines knowledge gathered from experts and designed to perform as experts do.
The term acquisition of knowledge was created by the developers of the system to refer to
various techniques such as structured interviews, protocols or talking about analysis,
questionnaires, surveys, observations, and simulations. Some writers (for example, Keritsis,
2001) even use digital term cloning. Knowledge management in the relevant business
arrangement is also the same as capturing knowledge, seeking ways to make tacit knowledge
explicit (for example, documenting best practices) or creating expert directories to encourage
sharing of knowledge through fellow human collaboration (Smith, 2000).

INTRODUCTION:
Knowledge management play vital role in present competitive world. Knowledge is the
source for any company or organization. It is stored mainly in human brains.
Knowledge is a level which is higher than the information. Many humans agree that
knowledge is not personal. Knowledge is mainly available in two forms tacit knowledge
and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is a knowledge which cannot be articulated
and not available in the form of data, document. It is highly personal and need some
experts to transfer information for tacit to another form of knowledge. It needs face to
face communication to transfer knowledge. Second type of knowledge is explicit

24
knowledge. It is quite opposite to tacit. Explicit knowledge can be articulated easily and
available in the form of data, document and manuals etc. explicit knowledge does not
required experts to transfer information. Every individual can get the required
information at any time.

Knowledge management is a work environment in which all information and knowledge

updated, connected and distributed among individuals of an organization. It is also
known as competitive advantage improvement. Knowledge management varies from
organization to organization, it involves following factors mainly

 Creating new knowledge

 Using knowledge for decision making

 Processing knowledge

 Transferring existing knowledge into many forms.

Knowledge creation is very important in every organization, this paper clearly explains
about knowledge creation in literature review. Tacit and explicit knowledge play main
role for the knowledge creation. It exists mainly in four forms socialization,
externalization, combination, internalization. Depending on the requirement of tacit
and explicit knowledge, knowledge creation is made in the organization.

TACIT KNOWLEDGE:
Tacit knowledge is a knowledge which cannot be articulated, not expressed in words.
This knowledge will not be shown in document and it cannot be said by words. Tacit
knowledge word came with Michael Polanyi (1891-1976), he was initially Hungarian
medical scientist, his first interest was in physical chemistry and later he turned into
philosophy. According to him knowledge is public and also very great extent personal,
the basic fundamental point to tacit knowledge is explicit knowledge because tacit
knowledge information can be known by learning the explicit knowledge and by doing
that.

According to Pan and Scarbrough (1999 p362) "Tacit knowledge is not available as a
text. . . .It involves intangible factors embedded in personal beliefs, experiences, and
values".

Main problem for tacit knowledge is that, it is not articulated in words. Tacit knowledge
will collect the things that we know how to do but do not know how to explain to do
that even by symbols. The person having tacit knowledge is very difficult to
communicate with the others even by the expressions also. Tacit knowledge depends
on some factors to share with others. Action speaks more than words so showing is
very easier than telling to transfer tacit knowledge but to do so this one must need to
be experienced and professional about that situation. Tacit knowledge is referred to as
'know how'. Once tacit knowledge is transformed to other person it will create a new
knowledge, this new one can be tacit knowledge or explicit knowledge and it will
depend on other person who is receiving.

Example for tacit knowledge is 'riding a bike' even if anyone tells about it in a perfect
way, telling will not be implemented in same way. It need some practice to do it. So

25
practice is also plays an important role while implementing tacit knowledge. More
examples for this is how to catch a ball, mark a line, tie a knot etc...

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

OF TACIT:
Advantages: it is very important in knowledge management because overall
information and benefits come from tacit knowledge only. Tacit knowledge tends to
transfer knowledge directly from one person to another, later knowledge play vital role.
Tacit knowledge returns great investment and it increases workplace efficiency. Tacit
knowledge is canter of the research in knowledge management. In a company usage of
tacit knowledge is the main source compare to competitive knowledge. Tacit knowledge
is not much expensive and it is easy and it leads to employee satisfaction and
motivation. Information is secured in an organization.

Disadvantages: the main disadvantage in tacit knowledge is knowledge

transformation. Knowledge will remains in tacit stage in knowledge is not transformed.
To transform tacit knowledge need some experience and skillful person. Tacit
information may remain in tacit stage if individuals not share the information. Face to
face interaction shares the information only with one person at a time and other
individuals need some time to gather tacit information. And one of the most
disadvantages is that once tacit knowledge leaves it may convert into tacit again, in
organization it will cause a huge damage. Tacit knowledge cannot be found in the form
of document.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVATAGES OF

EXPLICIT:
Advantages: One of the main advantages in explicit knowledge is that, it can be found
in the form of document or data and it can be used in an easy way. Information can be
transferred quickly without any time waiting process. Knowledge transfer is made easy
one to other in an organization. Information can be articulated in an organization
systematically. Knowledge can be improved in further way explicit for learning.

Disadvantages: the main disadvantage in explicit knowledge is information may not

secure, as the information passes to many people. Information should remain within
the boundaries. Many organizations need some expert to articulate knowledge, every
individual may not have required skill to articulate in the organization. Documentations
or database should be maintained securely because explicit knowledge may be codified
as it is also available in documentation.

26
Conclusion
An organization is what it knows. What it knows it gets from its learning (Bonner, 2000). The strength and
importance of tacit knowledge is that it is often very difficult for competitors to imitate it and, therefore, to
be
transferred. Organizations that use and recognize the employees’ wealth of tacit and
explicit knowledge achieve a
competitive advantage. More and more organizations become aware of the importance of the employee
and more
exactly of the importance of the tacit knowledge that the employee possesses. This is why the management
of every
company has to find the right motivational system to make its employees capture, reuse and share their
knowledge,
thus avoiding mistakes, losing time and profits and increasing the advantage in front of the competitors.

Using a Single Expert Advantages:

Ideal when building a simple KM systemA problem in a restricted domainEasier to
coordinate meetingsConflicts are easier to resolveShares more confidentiality than
does multiple experts <img
src="http://slideplayer.com/4667489/15/images/8/Using+a+Single+Expert+Advantages
%3A.jpg" width="800" align="left" alt="Using a Single Expert Advantages:" title="Ideal
when building a simple KM system. A problem in a restricted domain. Easier to
coordinate meetings. Conflicts are easier to resolve. Shares more confidentiality than
does multiple experts.">

9 Using a Single Expert (cont’d)

Disadvantages:Sometimes expert’s knowledge is not easy to captureSingle expert
provides only a single line of reasoningExpert knowledge is sometimes dispersedSingle
expert more likely to change scheduled meetings than experts in a team <img
src="http://slideplayer.com/4667489/15/images/9/Using+a+Single+Expert+%28cont
%E2%80%99d%29.jpg" width="800" align="left" alt="Using a Single Expert (cont’d)"
title="Disadvantages: Sometimes expert’s knowledge is not easy to capture. Single
expert provides only a single line of reasoning. Expert knowledge is sometimes
dispersed. Single expert more likely to change scheduled meetings than experts in a
team.">

Using Multiple Experts

Advantages:Complex problem domains benefit from expertise of more than one
expertWorking with multiple experts stimulates interactionAllow alternative ways of
representing knowledgeFormal meetings often a better environment for generating
thoughtful contributions <img
src="http://slideplayer.com/4667489/15/images/10/Using+Multiple+Experts.jpg"
width="800" align="left" alt="Using Multiple Experts" title="Advantages: Complex
problem domains benefit from expertise of more than one expert. Working with
multiple experts stimulates interaction. Allow alternative ways of representing

27
knowledge. Formal meetings often a better environment for generating thoughtful
contributions.">

11 Using Multiple Experts (cont’d)

Disadvantages:Scheduling difficultiesDisagreements often occur among
expertsConfidentiality issuesRequires more than one knowledge developerOverlapping
mental processes can lead to “process loss” <img
src="http://slideplayer.com/4667489/15/images/11/Using+Multiple+Experts+%28cont
%E2%80%99d%29.jpg" width="800" align="left" alt="Using Multiple Experts (cont’d)"
title="Disadvantages: Scheduling difficulties. Disagreements often occur among experts.
Confidentiality issues. Requires more than one knowledge developer. Overlapping
mental processes can lead to process loss">

Use an appropriate tool or

technique to elicit information
from the expert

Use an appropriate tool or technique to elicit information from the expert

Eliciting requirements is one of the most important steps during the

software development life cycle. The functionality and market success of a
product depends on well-devised requirements, which have a direct
impact on how users receive and engage with your product.

28
 Sound scary? Kind of, but
requirements elicitation needn’t be a big stress factor for BAs: bringing
User Experience (UX) techniques into the early elicitation phases of the
SDLC will help BAs get more accurate requirements, faster. And you don’t
have to be a user experience expert: these 5 UX techniques and tools can
be applied by any BA looking to understand users’ emotional responses,
expectations, and needs at the elicitation stage.

User Experience Technique #1 – Role-

playing and Card Sorting
As all experienced BAs will tell you, most often potential users don’t know
what they need from software; people have a hard time anticipating and
articulating their future necessities, which makes requirements elicitation
difficult. UXers often use role-playing as a way to break down this
obstacle. Take the pressure off both you and your users by junking the
traditional interview and instead putting them in a situation that lets them
act out a probable scenario, then brainstorming around that experience.
You may even find that some basic props, like associated images, help
users imagine the scenario. Find out more about UX role-playing to elicit
requirements here.

You can also try card sorting, a simple exercise to uncover user thought
processes. Grab a small group of potential users, give out cards each
marked with a product feature and get people to group and name them.
Hopefully, their organization choices will reveal expectations of information
architecture. These can then be included in your requirements. Smashing
Magazine has some great tips on card sorting.

29
User Experience Technique #2 – User
Personas
User personas can be a powerful tool during requirements elicitation.
Rooted in user research, personas attempt to present a type’s personality,
behavior, personal information (age, income, civil status etc.) and,
importantly, tendencies – oft-used brands, use of technology and similar
information. The aim of drawing up these user personas is twofold: to
evoke real understanding and empathy for real users, rather than a distant
conception of ‘the average user’; and to assist in organizing requirements
by ranking features according to importance in each persona. This feature
prioritization matrix means that your prioritization process is objective and
evidence-based.

User Experience Technique #3 –

Prototyping
Most BAs will be familiar with using prototypes to validate requirements,
but they can also be used at the elicitation stage as well. Introducing a
wireframe or prototype into the requirements elicitation phase can throw
up functional requirements that might otherwise have remained hidden.

Basic static mockups, often bearing very little (if any!) resemblance to the
actual finished product, can be used in the very first stages of elicitation to
hash out the basics and get the team on the same page. These prototypes
should be super basic, focused only on concepts and not on aesthetics.
(This is the type of prototyping that’s covered in Bridging the Gap’s Use
Case and Wireframes course.)

As you start to elicit more detailed requirements you can write User
Scenarios into your prototypes, mapping out navigation flows and testing
them by simulating them with potential users. Checking navigation flows in
this way uncovers business rules and will make your requirements more
expansive.

User Experience Technique #4 –

Observations
Nothing beats user observation as a method to uncover hidden
requirements. UXers will often alternate between direct and indirect

30
observation of users operating the software solution in context. Direct UX
observation involves ‘contextual inquiry’ methods: observe your target
users driving an app or software, and examine their immediate
environment for clues as to things they’re lacking.

For example, observing an employee writing tasks on post-it notes before

updating them in their project management software will give you clues as
to areas of need that you probably couldn’t have gotten from talking to
sales, support or marketing. For UX professionals, contextual inquiry is
pivotal.

Indirect observation involves users keeping diaries, or building interaction

logs on an existing system. Indirect observation, while it can be tried in
requirements elicitation, is probably more apt for later in the SDLC.

User Experience Technique #5 – Workshops

Workshops are another tried and tested BA tool for requirements
elicitation. But giving them a UX twist can foreground the users’ voices.
First, plan participants carefully – normally they will be potential users, but
workshops can be run with any stakeholders if you feel requirements are
thin; just try to keep group sizes small and intimate.

A few days before the workshop, send out a welcome pack with a small
warm-up activity; this will help kick off thought processes about
requirements. The welcome pack can include the agenda, workshop
details, and a pre-workshop research task (keep it light!). On the actual
day, design-oriented games are the best way to engage participants.
Innovation Games is a good online resource for UX workshop activities
that stimulate sharing and conversation.

UX workshops value involvement and a relaxed attitude, so dedicate

yourself to becoming an engaging facilitator. And follow these basic
ground rules:

 Look hard at what users actually do, not what they say they do.
 Analyze the data you collect for patterns.
 Take part yourself – what better way to user test your workshop,
after all?

The Takeaway

31
Integrating these UX techniques into your requirements elicitation will
strengthen your requirements gathering process, and in the longer term
your product development. UX techniques are a great addition to any BA’s
toolkit, and these 5 tweaks are a good place to start.

http://www.bridging-the-gap.com/user-experience-techniques/

The reason for losing knowledge is because its stored in the heads of
the people and it is often lost if not captured elsewhere. The surest way
to avoid collective loss of organizational memory is to identify the
expertise and the skills of staff and capture it. Organizations need to
develop ways of capturing its internal knowledge; devise systems to
identify people’s expertise and develop ways of sharing it, for example
capturing knowledge can include collating internal profiles of academic
librarians and also standardizing routine information-update reports.

This can also be achieved through brainstorming, open discussions,

and provision of fertile ground for creativity, sharing of ideas, organizing
workshops, conferences, mentoring, web archiving, digitization, and
identification and collectively addressing problems and finding solution

ADVANTAGES OF TACIT:
Advantages: it is very important in knowledge management because overall information
and benefits come from tacit knowledge only. Tacit knowledge tends to transfer knowledge
directly from one person to another, later knowledge play vital role. Tacit knowledge returns
great investment and it increases workplace efficiency. Tacit knowledge is canter of the
research in knowledge management. In a company usage of tacit knowledge is the main
source compare to competitive knowledge. Tacit knowledge is not much expensive and it is
easy and it leads to employee satisfaction and motivation. Information is secured in an
organization.

1. INTRODUCTION
People in organisations have a potential competitive advantage. Folwarczná (2010) says
that the
way in which managers of organisations deal with their subordinates influences how
employees
communicate with customers and with the interests of employees in looking for
innovations and

32
solutions. Manager’s skills, knowledge, their involvement and their managerial style are
from the
point of organisation competitiveness very important factors. If managers are to fulfil
their role
successfully they should be well prepared. This is why many expert publications are
aimed at
manager preparation, development and education. This topic is always lively discussed.
Scientists, e.g. Sternberg (1997), Eraut (2000), Kerr (1995), Armstrong and Mahmud
(2008),
have shown that a factor which decides if managers will be successful in their
profession or not
is tacit knowledge. Our paper is focused on this topic. The aim of the paper is to identify
how
to support the forming and moulding of tacit knowledge which managers will need in
their work
within the framework of manager preparation.The paper is based on the content
analysis of expert publications and the results of a completedproject. In the first part
theoretical backgrounds will be presented, next the research results followedby a
discussion part.

33