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J. R. Soc. Interface (2006) 3, 471–482

doi:10.1098/rsif.2006.0127
Published online 18 April 2006

REVIEW

Biomimetics: its practice and theory

Julian F. V. Vincent*, Olga A. Bogatyreva, Nikolaj R. Bogatyrev,
Adrian Bowyer and Anja-Karina Pahl
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Centre for Biomimetic and Natural Technologies,
University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK

Biomimetics, a name coined by Otto Schmitt in the 1950s for the transfer of ideas and
analogues from biology to technology, has produced some significant and successful devices
and concepts in the past 50 years, but is still empirical. We show that TRIZ, the Russian
system of problem solving, can be adapted to illuminate and manipulate this process of
transfer. Analysis using TRIZ shows that there is only 12% similarity between biology and
technology in the principles which solutions to problems illustrate, and while technology
solves problems largely by manipulating usage of energy, biology uses information and
structure, two factors largely ignored by technology.

Keywords: biomimetics; bionics; TRIZ; technology transfer; conflict; inventive principle

1. INTRODUCTION examining biological phenomenology in the hope of

gaining insight and inspiration for developing physical
Otto Schmitt was a polymath, whose doctoral research or composite bio-physical systems in the image of life.
was an attempt to produce a physical device that (Harkness 2001)
explicitly mimicked the electrical action of a nerve. By
1957, he had come to perceive what he would later label Later, Schmitt used the word biomimetics in the
biomimetics as a disregarded—but highly significant— title of a paper (Schmitt 1969); the word made its first
converse of the standard view of biophysics: public appearance in Webster’s Dictionary in 1974,
accompanied by the following definition:
Biophysics is not so much a subject matter as it is a point
of view. It is an approach to problems of biological science The study of the formation, structure, or function of
utilizing the theory and technology of the physical biologically produced substances and materials (as
sciences. Conversely, biophysics is also a biologist’s enzymes or silk) and biological mechanisms and processes
approach to problems of physical science and engineering, (as protein synthesis or photosynthesis) especially for the
although this aspect has largely been neglected. purpose of synthesizing similar products by artificial
(Harkness 2001) mechanisms which mimic natural ones.
(Harkness 2001)
The word bionics was coined by Jack Steele of the US
Air Force in 1960 at a meeting at Wright-Patterson Air Biomimetics (which we here mean to be synonymous
Force Base in Dayton, Ohio. He defined it as the science with ‘biomimesis’, ‘biomimicry’, ‘bionics’, ‘biognosis’,
of systems which have some function copied from ‘biologically inspired design’ and similar words and
phrases implying copying or adaptation or derivation
nature, or which represent characteristics of natural
from biology) is thus a relatively young study embracing
systems or their analogues. At another meeting at
the practical use of mechanisms and functions of
Dayton in 1963, Schmitt said
biological science in engineering, design, chemistry,
Let us consider what bionics has come to mean electronics, and so on. However, people have looked to
operationally and what it or some word like it nature for inspiration for more than 3000 years (since the
(I prefer biomimetics) ought to mean in order to make Chinese first tried to make an artificial silk). Historically,
good use of the technical skills of scientists specializing, we have:
or rather, I should say, despecializing into this area of
research. Presumably our common interest is in — Leonardo da Vinci studied birds flying and designed
some machines, but never made any.
— In Swift’s satire of the Royal Society:
*Author for correspondence (j.f.v.vincent@bath.ac.uk).
The electronic supplementary material is available at http://dx.doi.
org/10.1098/rsif.2006.0127 or via http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac. There was a most ingenious architect who had contrived
uk. a new method for building houses, by beginning at

Received 21 December 2005

Accepted 27 March 2006 471 q 2006 The Royal Society
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472 Biomimetics: its practice and theory J. F. V. Vincent and others

the roof, and working downwards to the foundation; caught in the coat of George de Mestral’s dog when
which he justified to me by the like practice of those two they were out on a walk (Velcro 1955). The first
prudent insects the bee and the spider. use he wanted to put the concept to was a novel
(Swift 1726) type of zip fastener.
— Jeronimidis analysed the main toughening mech-
— Henry Mitchell of the American Coast Survey anism of wood in tension and decided it was due to
invented a pile the orientation of cellulose in the walls of the wood
cells, which is commonly at 158 to the long axis of
the cells in softwoods. He made assemblages of
so cut that the lower portion of it, of a space of six or eight
tubes with various orientations of glass fibre in a
feet, presents the appearance of a number of inverted
resin matrix and showed that this indeed produces
frustums of cones, placed one above the other.
the toughest material (Gordon & Jeronimidis
1980). In another series of tests he showed that
When this sways under the action of waves it sinks this structure is, weight-for-weight, about five
deeper into the sea bed, a design times tougher than anything else in impact
(Chaplin et al. 1983).
borrowed from nature .certain seed vessels, by virtue of — The observation that the leaves of the lotus are
their forms, bury themselves in the earth when agitated always clean, despite growing in muddy and
by wind or water. stagnant water, led to the production of Lotusan,
(from H. D. Thoreau’s Journal (1859); thanks to a paint for self-cleaning surfaces (Barthlott &
Prof. Kalman Schulgasser for the information) Neinhuis 1997). Similar surface textures are used
to repel dirt or make it easily removed (e.g. a honey
— Pettigrew had some pithy comments to make spoon which drains completely), and have been
about people’s failure to produce a usable flying observed in many other plants and in other
machine, saying that systems, such as insect wings (Wagner et al.
1996). The same surface properties are now being
developed on metals.
It has been cultivated, on the one hand, by profound — Antireflective surfaces have been discovered sev-
thinkers, especially mathematicians, who have worked eral times on insect eyes (Bernhard et al. 1965;
out innumerable theorems, but have never submitted Parker et al. 1998), wings of insects (Stoddart et al.
them to the test of experiment; and on the other, by 2006) and leaves of plants in the understorey of
uneducated charlatans who, despising the abstractions tropical forests (Lee 1986). This has now been
of science, have made the most ridiculous attempts at a
manufactured on polythene sheet, which is
practical solution to the problem.
adhered to the glass surface of a solar panel
(using glue which matches the refractive indices),
Interestingly, he also pointed out that the invention of resulting in a 10% improvement in capture of light.
the hot air and hydrogen balloons had misled — Soft Kill Option (a finite-element model by
research, causing people Mattheck (1989) developed from his studies on
stress-relieving shapes in the adaptive growth of
to look for a solution. by the aid of a machine lighter trees) was used to design the chassis of the
than air, and which has no analogue in nature. DaimlerChrysler Bionic Car based on the shape
(Pettigrew 1873, p. 209) of the boxfish (Ostracion meleagris), which has the
Pettigrew thus missed the analogy of a balloon in air unusual combination of a large volume within a
and a neutrally buoyant organism in water. small wheelbase (Anon 2005). It is possible that
— Clement Ader designed and built several steam- this design is based on original observations by
powered aircraft (Eole) using the wing design of a Daniel Weihs and others (Bartol et al. 2005), but
bat. He attained a flight of 300 m or so, but could this is not acknowledged by DaimlerChrysler in
not gain control with such a compliant wing their promotional literature.
(Coineau & Kresling 1987). — Dry adhesive tape has been made using the
adhesive mechanism of gecko feet. A single gecko
The following list is by no means complete; the foot hair (seta) adheres equally well to hydro-
Internet is a large and unreliable source of further phobic and hydrophilic surfaces, generating van
examples. We have chosen examples which are conten- der Waals forces of 10 MPa, showing that the
tious, interesting or iconic. adhesive properties of gecko setae are a result of
the size and shape of the tips, which conform to the
— The stable wing designed by Ignaz and Igo Etrich in local surface topography, and are not strongly
1904 was derived from the large (15 cm span) affected by surface chemistry (Autumn et al. 2001;
winged seed of Alsomitra macrocarpa, a liana which Geim et al. 2003).
grows on islands in the Pacific (Coineau & Kresling — A micro-air vehicle has been made with oscillating
1987). The seed with its outgrowths functions as a wings inspired (in part) by birds (Jones & Platzer
flying wing and can glide for significant distances. 2002), especially those flying low over water
— Velcro is an invention derived from the action of making use of the ground effect. This is particu-
the hooked seeds of the burdock plant which larly interesting because it also illustrates the

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Biomimetics: its practice and theory J. F. V. Vincent and others 473

limitations which observation of nature can implemented (as ‘nektors’) in small submersibles
impose. Although the Jones & Platzer design by Nekton, Inc. These vessels, with four nektors,
uses up-and-down motion of wings, it is technically have all six degrees of freedom of movement. An
plunging rather than flapping since the whole early example of the concept is the Twiddlefish
aerofoil is moved up and down by the same amount (McHenry et al. 1995).
along its span (Lai & Platzer 2001), which is — The body shape of a penguin has extremely low drag
anatomically impossible for an animal which has and has been used to design low-drag dirigibles
the wing attached to the body at one end. The (Bannasch 1993).
plunging aerofoils have a changing angle of — The bumpy surface of the elytra of beetles from the
incidence since they move on an arc, but their Namibian desert encourages the formation of
(summed) net angle is zero. They therefore provide droplets of water from damp air at the dew point
mainly thrust; lift and control are provided by a (Parker & Lawrence 2001). This mechanism is
separate fixed wing. Yet the design is inspired by being implemented by QINETIQ.
nature. The problem has always been stated as ‘how — Many architects use biology as an inspiration.
can we implement flapping flight?’ rather than ‘how Some, such as Frei Otto, make direct and useful
can we oscillate one or more aerofoils so as to reference and so produce efficient lightweight
produce thrust?’ The effect is identical if the tensile structures taking direct inspiration from
aerofoils are mounted vertically rather than hori- spider webs (Coineau & Kresling 1987). Architects
zontally, which could be a mechanism which seals commonly use biology as a library of shapes. As
use to generate thrust with their hind limbs. decoration (Art Nouveau, Jungendstil, and the
— Robotic control systems inspired by natural neural like), this is obviously acceptable, but the client still
circuits, especially those of insects, prove to be has to be able to afford it. Unfortunately, biology is
exceptionally robust and simple (Reeve & Webb also used ineptly as a structural rationale, and Frei
2001). Otto was as guilty of this as anyone, with his
— By clever design of its ‘ear’ drums and associated notorious ‘pneu’ studies, where he claimed that all
nervous system, a fly (Ormia ochracea) increases biology is the product of inflatable structures,
the time difference between the two ears in response totally missing the point that the shape of a soap
to a noise and can detect the source of the sound bubble is necessitated by the inability of a soap film
highly accurately (Mason et al. 2001). to resist shear; therefore, the skin of an object
— Camouflage, especially during the Second World shaped like a soap bubble will also be shear-free and
War, was biomimetic under the direction of Hugh thus lighter and more efficient.
Cott. More recently, motion camouflage has been
described and will be implemented (Anderson & Some systems may be apocryphal in their derivation,
McOwan 2003). An example is given by the have the status of urban myth, or be the product of over-
dragonfly which, as it approaches its prey on the enthusiasm:
wing, endeavours to occupy the same part of
the prey’s visual field, thus appearing not to move — It is uncertain whether Joseph Paxton got his ideas
and therefore not to be a threat. It is difficult to for the Crystal Palace from the leaves of a giant
detect an object moving towards you if all it does is water lily: he used a leaf as an illustration during a
increase in size. talk at the Royal Society of the Arts in London,
— The surfaces of earth-moving machinery (ploughs, showing how to support a roof-like structure, and
bulldozers) can be made more effective when the myth may have grown out of over-enthusiastic
modelled on surfaces of soil-moving animals which reportage (Vogel 1998). Certainly there is little
have geometrically optimized ridges and bumps. similarity between the design of the water lily leaf
This reduces the degree of interaction of the earth- (which uses support of radial tapering beams) and
moving surface with the soil, reducing friction and the design of the roof of the Crystal Palace (which,
improving separation of the soil from the plough with its corrugations, more resembles other types
(Li et al. 2004). of leaf, such as beech or hornbeam).
— The vortices induced by ridges on shark skin can cut — There are stories that Eiffel’s tower was based on
down friction drag significantly. This is being used the structure of trabecular struts in the head of the
on the hulls of sailing boats (and outlawed in human femur, or the taper of a tulip stem. In fact,
competition, so it is obviously very successful!) and it was constructed to resist wind loading, a topic in
the lining of pipes carrying liquid. The same system which Eiffel was an early expert. In the construc-
has been used on aircraft, showing drag reduction of tion of the tower, the curve of the base pylons was
5–10% (Bechert et al. 2000). (See also swimwear calculated, so that the wind loads were resisted
below.) related to their force and the moment exerted with
— The divided wing tip of birds with wings of low height. Thus, even in the strongest winds the tower
aspect ratio (buzzard, vulture, eagle) reduces tip sways no more than 12 cm.
drag (Tucker 1993) and can be abstracted into a — Swim-suits whose surface structure is modelled on
loop that reduces drag in aircraft wings and sharkskin (see above) do not reduce drag signifi-
underwater propellers (Stache 2004). cantly when their performance is examined objec-
— The fins of fishes are much more efficient propulsors tively (Stager et al. 2000). They probably support
than conventional propellers and have been the muscles to some extent.

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474 Biomimetics: its practice and theory J. F. V. Vincent and others

— Polar bears are supposed to have a dark skin to innovative solutions. At the definition stage, a number
protect them from UV, but have hairs that of techniques are used to ensure that the problem is
transmit radiation down to the skin. However, it placed properly within its context (simply changing the
appears impossible for the hairs to act as light context may solve the problem.) and the available
guides since they are largely hollow, and the air resources listed. In the most popular (though probably
spaces which will reflect and disperse radiation not the best) technique for solution, the problem is then
rather than transmitting it. There is no referred characterized by a pair of opposing or conflicting
study published about this supposed phenomenon. characteristics (typically ‘what do I want’ and ‘what is
stopping me getting it’, but Hegel’s thesis and antithesis
will do as well, suggesting that it is a form of dialectic
process), which can be compared with pairs of charac-
2. A FRAMEWORK FOR BIOMIMETICS teristics derived from other, solved, problems derived
No general approach has been developed for biomi- from the examination and analysis of more than three
metics, although a number of people are currently million significant patents.
developing methods for searching biological literature In order to standardize the process, each of the
for functional analogies to implement. We think that this conflicting characteristics has to be assigned to a term
is only part of the required framework. Although it is contained in a definitive list of 39 contradiction features
well known that design and engineering are rendered (Domb 1998; Altshuller 1999). The solved problems
much easier with use of theory, in biomimetics, every whose conflict pairs match most closely those of the1
time we need to design a new technical system we have problem under examination are then used as analogues
to start afresh, trying and testing various biological of the solution that is being sought, and thus provide the
systems as potential prototypes and striving to make synthesis to complete the dialectic of thesis–antithesis.
some adapted engineered version of the biomimetic In order to make this matching process easier, the
device which we are trying to create. Additionally, the inventive principles derived from existing patents are
transfer of a concept or mechanism from living to non- entered into a matrix with the antithetic features along
living systems is not trivial. A simple and direct replica the top, and the desired features arranged along the
of the biological prototype is rarely successful, even if it vertical axis. This contradiction matrix then serves as a
is possible with current technology. Some form or look-up table. Hence, the problem is resolved. Crucially,
procedure of interpretation or translation from biology this method allows the problem, and its derived
to technology is required. More often than not, the analogue(s), to be separated from their immediate
technical abstraction is possible only because a biologist context, so that solutions to any problem can be drawn
has pointed out an interesting or unusual phenomenon from a very wide range of science and technology. Hence,
and has uncovered the general principles behind its TRIZ should become a suitable vehicle for identifying
functioning (e.g. the self-cleaning lotus effect). Only then functions and transferring them from nature to engin-
does the biological principle become available outside eering. In passing, one of the characteristics of this
biology for biomimetic use. The result is often unex- method, which points to something much deeper,
pected (e.g. self-cleaning buildings) and the final presumably soluble only by some philosophical argu-
product—in this instance, a paint containing par- ment, is that the more apparently incompatible the
ticles—seldom resembles the biological prototype. We contradiction features are, the stronger the solution
present here a logical framework that we believe exposes which will be revealed. This has to mean that the nature
some important underlying patterns. of the problem is better defined, or perhaps even
Approximately 50 years ago in Russia, a particularly identified, by a thesis–antithesis pair that is as conflict-
successful problem-solving system began to be ing as possible. Therefore, a robust definition assists the
developed. It was named TRIZ, the acronym of Teorija identification of a more robust synthesis to the dialectic.
Reshenija Izobretatel’skih Zadach (loosely translated as That such a system of definition and solution of a
‘Theory of Inventive Problem Solving’).TRIZ is well problem should emerge from Russia is not surprising
known for its successful transfer of various inventions when it is realized that similar philosophical arguments
and solutions from one field of engineering to another. and teaching are (or were) given to Russian children
Since the main thrust of biomimetics is also to transfer while still in school.
functions, mechanisms and principles from one field to
another, TRIZ seems the ideal starting point (Bogatyrev 3. SOLVING PROBLEMS IN BIOLOGY AND
2000; Vincent & Mann 2002). We also use TRIZ as a TECHNOLOGY
functional summary and definition of engineering
methodology, a novel use of the system. We know of The nature and organization of biology and engineering
no other strategy or system which is so powerful and so are very different: organisms develop through a process
general. Since TRIZ is not very well known to Western of evolution and natural selection; biology is largely
science and technology, a short description is necessary, descriptive and creates classifications, whereas engin-
outlining its normal use by problem solvers. eering is a result of decision-making; it is prescriptive
TRIZ is a collection of tools and techniques, and generates rules and regularities. Types of
developed by Genrich Altshuller and Rafik Shapiro
(Altshuller 1999) that ensures accurate definition of a 1
In TRIZ these are called inventive principles, of which there are
problem at a functional level and then provides strong about 40. Appendix 1 of the electronic supplementary material lists
indicators towards successful and often highly both technical and biological examples of the principles.

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Biomimetics: its practice and theory J. F. V. Vincent and others 475

classification can be hierarchical (e.g. phylogenetic), advantage if it recycles as much of the old cuticle as
parametric (e.g. cladistic, or like the Periodic Table) or possible when synthesizing the new one at the moult,
combinatorial. However, the driver for change in biology which stiffness will compromise since it requires exten-
and engineering may well be the same: the resolution of sive cross-linking. Larval and nymphal cuticles tend to
technical conflict. be less cross-linked than adult cuticles, probably for this
We present a case study based on a relatively simple reason. Resolution is achieved in soft-bodied larvae by
natural fibrous composite material—the outer covering prestressing the material in tension to allow the
or cuticle of arthropods. This layer of material, produced structure to take compressive forces (i.e. a hydrostatic
by a single layer of epithelial cells, is called upon to skeleton), which provides protection before the challenge
provide a large number of functions, such as shape, and is described in IP 9 Prior counteraction.
structure, hinges, barrier, filter and similar functions In order to compare these biological resolutions of a
(Neville 1975). Some of these functions are intrinsically design conflict with those which technology would use, it
and profoundly conflicting, although obviously since is necessary to convert the functions identified in the
they coexist some form of compromise must have been cuticle into the conflict topics that TRIZ recognizes. For
evolved, so that the cuticle can be multifunctional. A list instance, the functions change stiffness, protection, soft
of these functions and the associated characteristics of cuticle and stiff skeleton are all reduced to conflict
cuticle was generated partly by reference to literature number 11, which is defined as stress or pressure
(such as Neville 1975) and partly from experience with (compression, tension or bending). Similarly, keep
insects and insect cuticle over the years. poison out, self cleaning, surface properties and water-
Consider, then, the function of the cuticle in providing proof all become conflict number 30, which is external
a stiff support or exoskeleton for the insect, attachment harm affects the object. The conflicting functions are
for muscles, mechanical protection and control of shape similarly classified into the standard TRIZ features,
(Vincent 2005). A uniformly stiff skeleton does not which now allow the conflicts to be treated in the
permit movement, so hinged areas are needed. In the standard TRIZ system (Vincent & Mann 2002) and a
insect, this has been achieved by making the cuticle direct comparison to be made between technical and
softer along the hinge line. This appears to be the same biological solutions to the same problem.
as TRIZ inventive principle (IP) 3: Control of local One outcome of this study is that biology and
quality, which is characterized by the following state- technology solve problems in design in rather different
ments: use gradients instead of uniformity (change an ways. Apart from similarities in spectral filtering which
object’s structure, or its environment, from homo- to allow the cuticle to let visible light through to
heterogeneous); compartmentalize (make each part of an photoreceptors, yet resist damaging UV radiation
object more adapted to its own purpose); introduce (a resolution which we would resolve in the same way
multifunctionality (make each part of an object fulfil a that the insect does), most of the functions of cuticle are
different function like a pencil with an eraser; a hammer provided by detailed control of properties over a very
with a nail-puller; or a Swiss army knife). Translated short distance at a chemical and morphological level,
into cuticular structure, the hinge areas have different summarized in IP 3. The TRIZ matrix derived from
amounts and orientation of chitin (the fibrous com- technology reveals that we tend to use a rather blunter,
ponent), and the matrix proteins are chemically different more global approach. This is illustrated by the fact
from the stiff areas and so more hydrated and softer; the that IP 35 is the commonest resolution in the TRIZ
geometry of the hinge can be linear (for an interseg- matrix, which involves changing a parameter, such as
mental membrane) or circular (for a hair socket). temperature.
Second, stiffness requires extensive cross-linking of the TRIZ was conceived in and derived from the
matrix protein, which militates against the use of the environment of things artificial, non-living, technical
cuticle as a labile, resorbable chemical energy store and engineering. But biomimetics operates across the
(important for insects which feed only intermittently, border between living and non-living systems. And since
such as Rhodnius prolixus, a blood-sucking bug). The the reason for looking to nature for solutions is to
resolution of this conflict is achieved by processes enhance technical functions, it is necessarily true that
described by IP 2: Extraction—extract, isolate or TRIZ does not contain many of these functions, and
remove an interfering or necessary part or property probably does not have the means of deriving them.
from an object. Its cuticular translation is to have a Despite the fact that TRIZ is the most promising system
minimum of two layers of cuticle, the inner one being for biomimetics, we still have a mismatch. This is
only partially stabilized and available for resorption. conflated by a number of factors that are currently not
Since this layer is more likely to take loads in tension, its normally observed in a technical system. For instance,
ability to resist compression is less important. Third, an the more closely an artificial system is modelled on a
external skeleton is a barrier to transmission of sensory living prototype, which is typically complex and
information about the external environment, a function hierarchical, the more frequently we have emergent
provided by sensory hairs and holes (the functional basis effects, which are unpredictable, therefore mostly
of the campaniform sensillum and slit sense organ). Note unexpected and often harmful. Furthermore, one of the
that translucent cuticle, needed over photoreceptors basic features of living systems is the appearance of
(IP 3), can still be cross-linked and stiff. Resolution here autonomy or independence of action, with a degree of
is achieved by the morphology of IP 31 Porous materials, unexpectedness directly related to the complexity of the
make an object porous; use the pores to introduce a living system. This gives living systems great adapta-
useful substance or function. Last, the animal will gain bility and versatility, but at the expense of the

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476 Biomimetics: its practice and theory J. F. V. Vincent and others

predictability of the system’s behaviour by an external

observer. In general, we do not accept unpredictability in supersystem
technical systems; indeed, we avoid it. But we need to
consider this even in our current technology, since nearly
every technical system is actually a combination of a
system
technical system in the narrow sense, and a living
(usually human) system which is the operator of this
technical system. This immediately suggests a broader
and more general definition of the term technical
system—a biological system, part of the functions of
which is delegated to a device that is mostly artificial subsystem
and/or non-living. This definition includes agriculture.
Figure 1. The System Operator hierarchy for biological
This consideration is commonly omitted; technical systems.
systems are often considered in isolation, neglecting
any broader context despite the fact that engineering is
the effect will be expressed at the remote level. This
really a subset of human behaviour. At best this can lead
causes cumulative properties of biological effects which
to reduced effectiveness, at worst it produces techno-
appear as emergent effects. An effect has influence in the
logical catastrophes and/or social tension and unrest.
super-System, and the super-System tries to compensate
Another TRIZ concept of which we make much use is
for the actions/effects of its sub-Systems. But the only
the System Operator or ‘9 Windows’. It is commonly
System that ‘wants’ to change is that which has a goal.
depicted as nine squares arranged 3!3, horizontally
The inherent inertia (homeostasis) in biological systems,
representing time (‘before’, ‘now’ and ‘after’) and
due to negative feedback, opposes change. That is why
vertically representing size or hierarchy. This allows us
an active effect is always coercive at the levels of the
to regularize levels of hierarchy above and below almost
super-System and environment, a fact emphasized by
any object being studied that can be in a different
the few positive-feedback systems in nature, for example
condition (growth, death, attainment of a goal and so
the pheromonal/behavioural induction of swarming in
on) before and after the time at which they are currently
locusts. If the organism is considered as the System
being considered. In biology, the hierarchical levels are
(figure 1), then super-System is the environment or
organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organism, population,
ecosystem and sub-System is the organ within the
ecosystem; the hierarchical level of the object under
organism. Such classification is to some degree arbitrary,
scrutiny is always referred to as the System. The super-
but the general rules are that the super-System ‘wants’
System represents the assemblage of which the System is
to maximize input and use the System as a resource,
apart (for a cell it is the tissue; for an organism it is the
while the System ‘wants’ to minimize effort and wants its
population) and the sub-System represents one of the
resource from the super-System.
components of the System (for a cell it is an organelle; for
an organism it is an organ).
Increasingly, we are finding that this classification—
which in TRIZ is usually regarded simply as a way of 4. TRIZ AND BIOLOGY: THE SYNTHESIS
expanding the conceptual approach to a problem—is an We have analysed some 500 biological phenomena,
integral part not only of understanding the problem but covering over 270 functions, at least three times each at
of divining where the solution to the problem might lie. different levels of hierarchy. In total, we have analysed
This is because the System Operator, especially in about 2500 conflicts and their resolutions in biology,
biology, defines the context of the System. The sorted by levels of complexity (Vincent et al. 2005). Even
implication is that context is less important in engin- so, this is less than a thousandth of the data contributing
eering, which, in turn, implies that integration between to the engineering TRIZ system. To enable us to process
hierarchies (insofar as they exist in engineering) is less this huge amount of information, we established a logical
good. To some extent this is true, since we find, framework (Bogatyreva et al. 2004) captured by the
empirically, that the solution to a problem where mantra: things do things somewhere. This establishes six
hierarchy is less important (as in engineering) usually fields of operation in which all actions with any object
lies at the same level within the hierarchy (this is can be executed: things (substance, structure) includes
probably obvious), whereas the solution to a problem hierarchically structured material, i.e. the progression
where hierarchy is integral usually lies at a level above sub-system–system–super-system; do things (requiring
(or occasionally below) the current level of the System energy and information) implies also that energy needs
(figure 1). This result is not obvious. It is apparent, to be regulated; somewhere (space, time). These six
though, that we should take into account the relation- operational fields re-organize and condense the TRIZ
ship of the sub-System and super-System to a given classification both of the features used to generate the
System. Therefore, we also consider the hierarchy conflict statements and the inventive principles (appen-
(which regulates resources, energy distribution and the dix 2—electronic supplementary material). Although
capacity of the System in space and time) and the this generalization blunts the contradictions tool of
inertia, (which affects the likelihood of an effect TRIZ, it actually makes other processes easier (e.g. the
being expressed on a different level of the hierarchy). implementation of functional analysis in TRIZ, com-
The further the super-System is from the effector in monly called the Substance–Field system) and is
terms of hierarchical levels, the less the likelihood that considerably more logical and easier to use than the 39

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Biomimetics: its practice and theory J. F. V. Vincent and others 477

Table 1. PRIZM matrix derived from standard TRIZ matrix.

fields substance structure space time energy information

substance 6 10 26 27 31 40 27 14 15 29 40 3 27 38 10 12 18 19 31 3 15 22 27 29
structure 15 18 26 1 13 27 28 19 36 1 23 24
space 8 14 15 29 39 40 1 30 4 5 7–9 14 17 4 14 6 8 15 36 37 1 15–17 30
time 3 38 4 28 5 14 30 34 10 20 38 19 35 36 38 22 24 28 34
energy 8 9 18 19 31 36–38 32 12 15 19 30 36–38 6 19 35–37 14 19 21 25 36–38 2 19 22
information 3 11 22 25 28 35 30 1 4 16 17 39 9 22 25 28 34 2 6 19 22 32 2 11 12 21–23 27 33 34

Table 2. PRIZM matrix derived from biological effects: BioTRIZ.

fields substance structure space time energy information

substance 13 15 17 20 31 40 1–3 15 24 26 1 5 13 15 31 15 19 27 29 30 3 6 9 25 31 35 3 25 26
structure 1 10 15 19 1 15 19 24 34 10 124 124 1 3 4 15 19 24 25 35
space 3 14 15 25 2–5 10 15 19 4 5 36 14 17 1 19 29 1 3 4 15 19 3 15 21 24
time 1 3 15 20 25 38 1–4 6 15 17 19 1–4 7 38 2 3 11 20 26 3 9 15 20 22 25 1–3 10 19 23
energy 1 3 13 14 17 25 31 1 3 5 6 25 35 36 40 1 3 4 15 25 3 10 23 25 35 3 5 9 22 25 32 37 1 3 4 15 16 25
information 1 6 22 1 3 6 18 22 24 32 34 40 3 20 22 25 33 2 3 9 17 22 1 3 6 22 32 3 10 16 23 25

contradictions system. Moreover, it is more complete, in also difficult to use, since in engineering (taken here to
that the conflict matrix that is constructed from these represent the entire spectrum of effects which people
fields has all the cells occupied. This more general TRIZ impose on the world in an attempt to make it more
matrix (which we name PRIZM—Pravila Reshenija habitable) hierarchy is not as well developed as in
Izobretatel’skih Zadach Modernizirovannye—translated biology. The definition of cause and effect needs
as ‘The Rules of Inventive Problem Solving, Moder- clarification: in physical terms, ambient pressure
nized’) is now used to place the inventive principles of (cause) dictates the temperature of the boiling point of
TRIZ into a new order that more closely reflects the pure water (effect); in biological terms, an effect is a
biological route to the resolution of conflicts. We call this problem to be solved by the organism and the cause is
new matrix BioTRIZ. the method of solution. Changing the boiling tempera-
We can now compare the types of solution to ture invokes the operation field energy as does changing
particular pairs of conflicts which are arrived at in pressure. These are at the substance level of hierarchy.
technology via classical TRIZ, and in biology. Although At the molecular level of hierarchy we would say, ‘the
the problems commonly are very similar, the inventive speed at which molecules move in a liquid (operation
principles that nature and technologies use to solve field is time) depends on the pressure (operation field is
problems can be very different (tables 1 and 2). energy) and temperature (energy) which we apply to
In fact, the similarity between the TRIZ and BioTRIZ them.’ Appendix 3 of the electronic supplementary
matrices is only 0.12, where identity is represented by 1. material illustrates our classification of effects.
Only the principles of spatial composition are signifi- We can now comment quantitatively on the differ-
cantly similar (0.73) in biology and technology. The ences between biology and technology (figures 2 and 3)
differences are in large part to do with the pervasive At size levels of up to 1 m, where most technology is
presence of hierarchy in biological structures and sited, the most important variable for the solution of a
systems. But they are also to do with the degree of problem is manipulation of energy usage (up to 60% of
detail it is possible to incorporate into a structure which, the time), closely followed by use of material (figure 2).
like an organism, is self-assembled and even designed by Thus, faced with an engineering problem, our tendency
the forces of molecular interaction (Vincent 1999, 2005). is to achieve a solution by changing the amount or type
Hierarchy is exceedingly important in the solution of of the material or changing (usually increasing) the
problems (see above); this is not obvious because our energy requirement. But in biology the most important
current technologies are either not significantly hier- variables for the solution of problems at these scales are
archical, or ignore any hierarchical structure. However, a information and space (figure 3). This can be illustrated
strictly scalar approach is difficult since many basic by comparing the functionality of biological and man-
biological functions occur in organisms over a very wide made polymers, proteins and polysaccharides. People
range of sizes. Thus, the basic processes of cellular have produced over 300 polymers, but none of them is as
metabolism are more or less invariant from protista to versatile or responsive as these two biological polymers.
large mammals; complexity and added functionality are For example, at the primary level, proteins are
achieved by adding levels of hierarchy which can be remarkably similar in the energy required for their
quantified quasistatically by considering the number of synthesis since the peptide bond is the pervasive motif.
cell types in an organism (Bonner 1965), or in a more However, there is a wide range varying from inert fibrous
dynamic way by considering the provision of infrastruc- (such as collagen or silk) to responsive fibrous (such as
ture (West & Brown 2005). The hierarchical approach is muscle) and from inert globular (such as skeletal

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478 Biomimetics: its practice and theory J. F. V. Vincent and others

1.0 In order to approach this, we note that engineering

problem resolutions

materials can be mapped with property dimensions, such

0.8 information as mechanical, thermal, electrical, optical and cost.
0.6 energy These maps show significant gaps in property space,
time which can sometimes be filled with hybrids of two or
0.4 space
structure more materials (A, B) or of material and space (ZAC
0.2 substance BC shapeCscale; Ashby & Brechet 2003). Particulate
and fibrous composites are examples of one type of
0 hybrid, but there are also sandwich structures, foams,
nm µm mm m km
size lattice structures and others. The structural variables
expand the design space of homogeneous materials,
Figure 2. Engineering TRIZ solutions arranged according to allowing the creation of new materials with specific
size/hierarchy. property profiles. Although it can be difficult and
expensive to make a successful hybrid, so is the
1.0 alternative of developing a new material. Both routes
problem resolutions

0.8 involve exploration of property space; the hybrid will be

information more likely to deliver the required properties, but the
0.6 energy
time quality may be compromised by factors, such as
0.4 space chemical incompatibility of the components. We already
structure have some tools to short-circuit this process: for
0.2 substance instance, a database of composites, of reinforcing fibres,
chemistries and choice of structure; these methods allow
0
nm µm mm m km promising hybrids to be identified. To go further, we
size should attenuate a significant number of our materials
synthesis systems, concentrating on those with the least
Figure 3. Biological effects arranged according to
size/hierarchy. energy requirement and the greatest initial variability,
and generate the required functionality by closer control
of the information content (e.g. monomer sequence). We
proteins in insects) to responsive globular (such as can also realize the potential of nanotechnology, which is
enzymes). The difference between these proteins is less to to escape from the nano approach as soon as possible,
do with the energy required for their synthesis than the and progress to making larger structures which can
complement and order of the amino acids, which is a self-assemble in a programmed manner using the
derivation of information stored in the DNA of the information captured as, for instance, the type and
nucleus or elsewhere. Space is also relevant, since the arrangement of monomers along the polymer chain.
shape of the protein is an essential part of its function. Another implication of this argument is that we should
The same story pertains when considering biological have a database of the engineering properties and
hard tissues. Calcium, and less commonly silicon, hybridization potential of both technical and biological
derivatives are commonest, and carbonates and phos- materials. The database of technical materials is
phates are predominant. This limited range of chemicals comparatively well known; that of biological materials
(with the occasional addition of iron, zinc or manganese) is due almost entirely to the efforts of Wegst (Wegst &
suffices for nearly all biological hard materials. In insect Ashby 2004) and is as yet unavailable generally.
cuticle, the main variety of function is achieved by
making complex composites with anything up to 10
constituents and a range of properties (like Young’s 5. THE EXPANSION OF TRIZ
modulus), thus covering several orders of magnitude In order to develop TRIZ as a framework for biomimetics,
with a single material (Vincent & Wegst 2004). we first have to make biological information available
This comparison between the few materials of within its structure by cataloguing and classifying the
biology and the many materials of technology has effects of the actions, and mechanisms of functioning, of
been made commonly, but never explained functionally. biological systems, and perhaps modify and expand
We can now do this. It appears that biological systems TRIZ, so that it can cope with the extra varieties of
have developed relatively few synthetic processes at low input information. For this task, we need the framework
size at which the contribution of energy is significant; to be suitable for describing and classifying both
but the main variety of function is achieved by engineering and biological data. In general, we have to:
manipulations of shape and combinations of materials
at larger sizes achieved by high levels of hierarchy, — find patterns in the solution of problems in
where energy is not an issue. This is a very subtle technology (the original TRIZ system);
— find patterns in the solution of problems in biology
biomimetic lesson. Instead of developing new materials
(develop a modified, BioTRIZ, system);
each time we want new functionality, we should be
— make these patterns compatible within a new
adapting and combining the materials we already have.
general Biomimetic TRIZ.
Obviously, we are doing this to an extent, but it is
unclear whether we recognize this as a significant route The data from technology and biology present a
rather than a route of convenience. continuum of variables and contradictions at different

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Biomimetics: its practice and theory J. F. V. Vincent and others 479

levels of complexity—from a cellular organelle to an

ecosystem, from a single transistor in a microcontroller
to a fleet of aircraft. The biological data have to be
structured into a framework that is compatible with
technology to operate with this large amount of very
varied information. Initially, we designed auxiliary
conflict matrices for biological structures and environ-
ments, and for causes and limits of actions. These allow
us to break natural data into engineering-like chunks of
information and cover the primary TRIZ components of
‘function’, ‘effect’ and ‘conflict’. The matrix we have
developed takes account of: Figure 4. The ‘cat-paw’ wheel, (a) inflated and (b) ready for
icy surfaces.
— an object and its parts (which are accounted for
in the TRIZ contradiction matrix); (ii) analyse and understand the problem and so
— the environment in which the object operates; uncover the main conflicts or contradictions.
— the limits and causes of action; The technical2 conflicts are then identified in the
— the ultimate purpose of action; TRIZ matrix and listed. Find the functional
— the resources and auxiliary systems involved. analogy in biology (look into the PRIZM) or go to
the biological conflict matrix (table 2);
It incorporates the ideas of several TRIZ tools within (iii) compare the solutions recommended by biology
a single context, and is thus not only a database of and TRIZ. Find the common solutions for
physical effects, but also a database of intention and biological and engineering fields. List the techni-
motivation. This is needed because biological systems cal and biological principles thus recommended;
are teleological. Their goal is a condition that enhances (iv) based on these common solutions, build a bridge
the reproduction of the individual. Thus, no biological from natural to technical design. To make the
system can be described as having only emergent technical and biological systems compatible,
behaviour. Although a computer model can describe make a list of their general recommended
the behaviour of ants or termites in the apparent absence compositions;
of a target state, the goal has been set by the (v) to create a completely new technology, add to the
experimenter. In real life, the goal is set implicitly by basic TRIZ principles some pure technical or pure
the individual organism or by its forbears, and the biological ones (e.g. those listed in appendix 1—
function of a biological system is the action needed to electronic supplementary material).
achieve a useful or desired condition. In technical
systems, the achievement of the goal is delegated to a
technical device, but the goal remains the same: the 6.1. Case study: the cat’s claw wheel
future condition of the system. So, the function of a
In many areas, the winter temperatures go below 0 8C,
technical system is the action needed to achieve a useful
leading to dangerously icy road conditions. But the
or desired condition with the help of a technical device.
spikes or chains often attached to wheels for the whole
The technical effect is equivalent to the use of tools, a
winter damage ice-free roads. It is inconvenient to be
phenomenon observed in many mammals, birds and
changing continually between special winter and sum-
insects. Technology is not uniquely human. An isolated
mer tyres or putting chains on and off the wheels. It
technical system cannot set its own goals, although a
would be better to have an instantly changing tyre, which
machine with embedded logic functions could transgress
would be a conventional rubber tyre on an ice-free road
this differentiation (Vincent et al. 2005). and able to generate high friction on an icy surface.
Thus, we have a typical TRIZ conflict, with require-
ments to be soft and smooth and to be solid, hard and
6. BIOMIMETICS USING TRIZ sharp. It is also possible to formulate our problem as: ‘we
We need to show that the introduction of biology into need adequate friction between a wheel and a road under
TRIZ does not compromise its ability to solve engineer- variable road surface conditions.’ The friction must also
ing problems and yet makes it compatible with the vary without the weight of the vehicle changing. Now
natural solutions to various problems from biology. This follow the steps above and try to find a biomimetic
is best shown with a case study. The sequence of solving solution. How can we maximize the grip of the tyre to the
the problem is: road surface under all driving conditions? How can we
change the gripping mode instantly when the type of
(i) define the problem in the most general, yet surface changes? A relevant functional biological proto-
precise way. It is essential to avoid specific type would be a cat’s paw with claws that can be
directions of thought or premature solution of withdrawn, allowing the soft pad to contact the ground.
the problem. One should also avoid special
terminology, because it inevitably confines the 2
thinking space to the existing (i.e. conventional) The classical TRIZ contradiction matrix, at 39!39 elements, is
much larger than the PRIZM matrix, more detailed and more difficult
sphere. Then list the desirable and undesirable to use. It is available from many sources (e.g. TRIZ Journal on the
properties and functions; Internet) and so is not provided here.

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480 Biomimetics: its practice and theory J. F. V. Vincent and others

Table 3. The degree of similarity in the inventive principles between technology and biology.

fields of operation substance structure space time energy information

substance 0.18 0 0.22 0.2 0 0

structure 0.36 0 0.73 0.25 0.29 0.28
space 0.18 0.17 0 0.25 0 0
time 0 0 0.2 0.22 0.18 0
energy 0.22 0 0 0 0 0.36
information 0 0 0 0 0 0

Let us compare the suggestions from the conventional thin films and IP 39 Inert atmosphere. The Bio-TRIZ
39!39 TRIZ matrix with our 6!6 PRIZM TRIZ and matrix recommends
biological matrices (tables 2 and 3).
The conflict is that force in contact with the road — IP 1 Segmentation;
should increase (feature 10) but not by increasing the — IP 17 Another dimension;
weight of the vehicle (feature 1), which would be the — IP 19 Periodic action.
usual way to increase the normal force, with the TRIZ
Overall, the principles held in common between the
matrix suggesting IP 1 Segmentation; IP 8 Anti-weight;
three conflict pairs are IP 1, IP 15 and IP 17. This
IP 18 Mechanical vibration and IP 37 Thermal expan-
suggests that sharp and soft parts should be segmented
sion. The solutions suggested by nature from the Bio-
and/or alternately structured (arranged in space),
TRIZ matrix are:
perhaps as multiple claws and pads. These alternating
— IP 1 Segmentation: the cat’s paw is segmented into units should be alternated in time as well, in other
words, soft and sharp modes of operation of the wheel
several pads and claws;
should be switched on and off in time. And eventually,
— IP 3 Local quality: the paw is not sharp in its
IP 17 clearly indicates the necessity to design some
entirety, but only at some points—at the operating
spikes (claws, serrations, teeth and so on) to provide
zones of the claws;
adequate grip for the wheel. All this shows that we
— IP 14 Spheroidality or curvature: the pads are
should design the wheel/tyre with spikes, which will
spheroidal, the claws are curved; operate like cat’s claws—dynamically, according to the
— IP 15 Dynamics: the claws can be deployed or prevailing road conditions. The wheel and tyre already
retracted at will; possesses IP 29 Pneumatics and hydraulics and IP 30
— IP 17 Another dimension: giving the contact Flexible shells and thin films—the flexible pneumatic
surface a third dimension, i.e. the soft paw pad rubber tyre. IP 2 Taking out should be also employed as
with the retracted claws is quasi-planar; when the already recommended above. It means that the alter-
claws are deployed the paw moves into the third nated segmented parts due to their dynamics should
plane. perform the ‘soft’ and ‘sharp’ modes due to the taking
out principle. And the last (but not least) point is that
Alternatively, we can reduce the contact area to one should pay attention to IP 13 The other way round.
maximize ground contact stress (feature 5) without It means that the supposed wheel with the retractable/
changing the weight of the vehicle (feature 1): how to protractible claws is much easier to design vice versa—
minimize contact surface area without losing weight of the rigidly mounted claws are combined with the
the object—the field 5/1 in the TRIZ matrix. In this inflatable/deflatable soft part, the pneumatic tyre.
case, TRIZ recommends IP 2 Taking out; IP 4 Technically, it is much more convenient to inflate and
Asymmetry; IP 17 Another dimension and IP 29 deflate a tyre than to make sophisticated actuating
Pneumatics and hydraulics. Solutions from the Bio- protraction and retraction mechanism for numerous
TRIZ matrix repeat those above: spikes. Eventually, the wheel would look like figure 4.

— IP 3 Local quality;
— IP 15 Dynamics; 6.2. Other TRIZ tools in biomimetics
— IP 17 Another dimension. We have described the relevance of only one of the TRIZ
tools, the contradiction matrix, and related it to the
These again suggest versatile claws, which can be System Operator and hierarchy. TRIZ offers more
retracted and protracted according to necessity. similarities between biology and engineering, notably
The third conflict can be formulated as: how can the in its Evolutionary Trends series, where the tendency of
wheel possess the quality sharpness only under icy technical systems is to evolve towards increased
conditions and/or how to grip the road surface, or how functional complexity and versatility, often with associ-
to reduce the ground contact area without losing ated structural simplicity (Pahl & Vincent 2002). In
adaptability and composition stability. This points to both technology and biology, control systems tend
fields 5/35 and 5/13 in the TRIZ conflict matrix, and IP towards decentralized feedback; skeletal structures tend
2 Taking out; IP 11 Prior cushioning; IP 13 The other towards compliance and flexibility (although obviously
way round; IP 15 Dynamics; IP 30 Flexible shells and gravity exerts a constraint on this tendency). We have

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Biomimetics: its practice and theory J. F. V. Vincent and others 481

merely observed these remarkable parallels without Bartol, I. K., Gharib, M., Webb, P. W., Weihs, D. & Gordon,
attempting analysis of any sort. It would be a fruitful M. S. 2005 Body-induced vortical flows: a common
area for palaeontological comparisons and predictions, mechanism for self-corrective trimming control in box-
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identification of inventive principles gives a more corneal nipple array. A biological, broad-band impedance
sophisticated method called Substance–Field (or Su- transformer that acts as a antireflection coating. Acta
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