ANAESTHESIA IN ABALONE, Haliotis midae

THESIS

Submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the Degree of

MAS1ER OF SCIENCE

of Rhodes University

by

HERMIEN n.,SE WlllTE

December 1995
THE PROBLEM
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................... iv

ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. v

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER 2. THE IN VITRO EFFECTS OF FOUR ANAESTHETICS ON

ISOLATED TARSAL MUSCLE OF HALIOTIS MIDAE ......................... 10
Introduction ....................................................................................................... 10
Materials and Methods ...................................................................................... 13
Results ............................................................................................................... 17
Discussion .......................................................................................................... 20

CHAPTER 3. THE SIZE·RELATED EFFECTS OF MAGNESIUM

SULPHATE, 2.PHENOXYETHANOL, PROCAINE
HYDROCHLORIDE, ETHYLENEDIAMINE TETRA·ACETIC
ACID, BENZOCAINE AND CARBON DIOXIDE
ANAESTHESIA ............................................................................................... 22
Introduction ....................................................................................................... 22
Materials and Methods ...................................................................................... 23
Results ............................................................................................................... 25
Discussion ....... ................ ................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER 4. THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE EFFICACY

OF MAGNESIUM SULPHATE AND CARBON
DIOXIDE ANAESTHESIA IN HALIOTIS MIDAE ................................... 35
Introduction ....................................................................................................... 35
Materials and Methods ...................................................................................... 35
Results ............................................................................................................... 37
Discussion .......................................................................................................... 43

CHAPTER 5. EFFECTS OF LONG TERM INTERMITTENT

MAGNESIUM SULPHATE AND 2·PHENOXYETHANOL
ANAESTHESIA ON HALIOTIS MIDAE GROWTH
AND MORTALITY ........................................................................................ 51
Introduction ............................................................................... ........................ 51
Materials and Methods ...................................................................................... 51
Results ............................................................................................................... 54
Discussion ..... :................................................................................. ,.................. 59

CHAPTER 6. EFFECT OF MAGNESIUM SULPHATE ANAESTHESIA

ON ABALONE MUSCLE ULTRASTRUCTURE ...................................... 63
Introduction ... ............................................................................................ ........ 63
Materials and Methods ...................................................................................... 64
Results ............................................................................................................... 65
Discussion ..................... ,.................................................................................... 73

11
CHAPTER 7. ANAESTHETIC RESIDUES IN HAUOTIS MIDAE MUSCLE
TISSUE AFTER SHORT TERM AND INTERMI'ITENT LONG
TERM EXPOSURE TO MAGNESIUM SULPHATE ............................... 75
Introduction ....................................................................................................... 75
Materials and Methods .. .................................................................................... 76
Results ......................... ...................................................................................... 77
Discussion .......................................................................................................... 77

CHAPTER 8. PROLONGED EXPOSURE OF HALIOTIS MIDAE

TO MAGNESIUM SULPHATE ANAESTHESIA ...................................... 78
Introduction ......................................................... .............................................. 78
Materials and Methods ...................................................................................... 78
Results ................................................ ............................................................... 79
Discussion ....................... ................................................................................... 80

CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ............................................................. 82

REFERENCES ......... ...................... ......................................................................................... 87

PUBLICATIONS ....... .............................................................................................................. 96

111
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank the following persons:

Prof. T. Hecht and Prof. B. Potgieter for supervision of this project. A very special thank you
to Prof. T. Hecht who brings out the best in every student. Also for all his support and
encouragement throughout the entire project. Without him I would have probably given up
long ago.

Mrs. L. Coetzee who taught me how to use a computer and who always provided a shoulder
to lean on. Dr. H. Kaiser and Mrs. S.E. Radloff for their advice on statistical analysis of the
data. Mr. P. Britz for his advise and support. The staff of the JLB Smith Institute of
Ichthyology Library for their help in supplying the literature.

Prof. B. Potgieter, Mr. L. T. Paton and Dr. S. Daya for their advice and technical assistance
with regards to the isolated organ experiments. Prof. J.R. Duncan for his advice during the
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy experiments. Mr. R.H.M. Cross, Ms. S.C. Pinchuck and Mr.
N.J. Cannon for their guidance during the electron microscopy experiments. URI technologies
at Rhodes University for doing the atomic absorption spectroscopy.

Dr. T. Andrews for his patience and assistance during the setting up of aquaria. Mr. A.
Roberts for system maintenance at the Port Alfred Laboratory.

Mr. C. Claydon of Sea Plant Products in Hermanus for his advice and the supply of juvenile
abalone. Dr. T. Andrews, Mr. P. Britz, Mr. S. Brouwer, Mr. A. Rees, Mr. O. Weyl and Mr.
A.D. Wood for assisting in the collection of wild abalone.

Ms. N. Scott for assisting with labelling of the photographs. Mr. L. Oellermann for assisting
with drawing of the diagrams. Mr. O. Marx for drawing the caricatures.

I also wish to thank the following Institutions for financial assistance:

The Abalone Farmer's Association, Sea Plant Products (Pty.) Ltd., the Foundation for
Research Development and Rhodes University.

Finally, thanks to my husband who's continuous support &nd endless patience gave me the
courage to persevere to the bitter end.

IV
 ABSTRACT

The principle aim of this study was to isolate a chemical for the "safe anaesthesia" of abalone
under commercial farming conditions. "Safe anaesthesia" implied that the anaesthetic had no
immediate detrimental or long term sublethal effect on the abalone, that it was safe for the
farmer, the consumer and the environment.

Four chemicals, magnesium sulphate (MgS04)' ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA),

2-phenoxyethanol and procaine hydrochloride were shown to effectively inhibit the in vitro
contraction of isolated tarsal muscle of Haliotis midae. This identified them as potential
anaesthetics for abalone.

Since abalone, like any other aquaculture species, would be subject to frequent size-sorting
during the grow-out period, size related dosage tables were developed for the four chemicals
at a temperature of 18°C. Dosage tables were also developed for benzocaine and carbon
dioxide (C02), Three size classes (5-15, 20-50 and 60-90 mm shell length (SL)) of abalone
were considered. Only three of the six chemicals, viz. MgS04, 2-phenoxyethanol and CO2,
met the criteria of an effective abalone anaesthetic in that they effected rapid and mortality-
free anaesthesia. The other three chemicals caused mortalities and were considered to be
unsuitable for commercial scale anaesthesia.

Temperature related dosage tables were then developed for MgS04 and CO2 , MgS04
concentrations and CO 2 flow rates for effective anaesthesia in abalone were found to be
inversely related to temperature.

The three size classes of H. midae were intermittently exposed to

MgS04 and
2-phenoxyethanol anaesthesia for an eight month period to determine the effect of the
anaesthetics on growth rate. Because of an increased resistance to the efficacy of
2-phenoxyethanol and high monthly mortalities it was concluded that this chemical was
unsafe and unsuitable for commercial use. MgS04, on the other hand, had no effect on growth
of abalone and no significant effect on the rate of mortality.

v
MgS04 also had no measurable effect on H. midae muscle ultrastructure and, by implication
had no effect on flesh texture. The use of MgS04 as an anaesthetic would, therefore, not
affect l!larketability. Moreover, no magnesium residues were found in H. midae muscle tissue
after short term or intermittent long term exposure to MgS04 anaesthesia.

It was found that the three size classes of H. midae used in this study could be safely exposed
to the recommended MgS04 concentrations for up to 40 minutes without any mortalities. This
is more than adequate for routine farming procedures. Medium size abalone (20-50 mm SL)
were also safely exposed to 14 g.IOO mI-! MgS04 for up to 6 hours without any mortalities.

The results have shown that MgS04 was undoubtedly the best chemical that was evaluated
for anaesthesia of H. midae in this study. It fulfils the requirements set forth by the U.S.A.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in that it is safe for the abalone, the farmer, the
consumer and the environment.

VI
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Abalone are gastropod molluscs belonging to the order Archeogastropoda, the fami! y
Haliotidae and the genus Haliotis Linnaeus, 1758 (Fallu 1991). Approximately one hundred
species of Haliotis occur worldwide, and are found on the coasts of almost every continent
and on many of the islands in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans (Cox 1962, Hahn
1989a, Shepherd et al. 1992). Of the six species of abalone which occur in South Africa only
H. midae occurs in sufficient quantities to warrant commercial exploitation (Newman 1967,
Barkai & Griffiths 1986, Hahn 1989a, Tarr 1992, Hecht 1994).

Abalone occur intertidally and to depths in excess of 400 m (Lindberg 1992). Their preferred
habitat is crevices on rocky reefs and overhangs, which provide protection from light and
predators (Crofts 1929, 1937, Fallu 1991). The South African abalone, H. midae is found
in the shallow sublittoral zone between St. Helena Bay on the west coast, and Port St. Johns
on the east coast (Field et al. 1977, Hecht 1994). Juvenile H. midae « 50 mm shell length
(SL» are found in the intertidal zone under boulders and small rocks. Larger animals (> 50
mm SL) generally occur on shallow in-shore reefs (Newman 1966, 1967). There is some
discrepancy as to the exact depths at which the majority of larger H. midae occur (Newman
1969, Barkai and Griffiths 1986, Lindberg 1992, Tarr 1992). However, it can be safely said
that H. midae occurs abundantly from the low tide mark down to depths of about 20 m.
According to Newman (1969) H . midae is more concentrated in areas where the average
annual sea temperature lies between 15 and 17°C, i.e. between Cape Hangklip and Quoin
Point, although Hecht (1994) argues that it is not temperature which determines the
distribution of abalone, but the availability of suitable seaweeds.

After the Californian abalone, H . rufescens, the South African species is one of the largest
haliotids (Newman 1968, Tarr 1992). It would appear that abalone in the Western Cape grow
at a slower rate, attain a greater size and a higher maximum age, and attain sexual maturity
at a larger size than those in the Eastern Cape (Newman 1968, Wood 1993). These
differences can most probably be ascribed to lower sea temperatures along the Western Cape
coast.

The natural diet of abalone changes with each stage in the life-cycle. The larvae are

1
considered to be lecithotrophic (Fallu 1991, Manahan & Jaeckle 1992), but more recent
research has shown that they require an exogenous source of organic carbon to supply
additional energy not supplied by the yolk (Manahan & Jaeckle 199£). After metamorphosis,
from the pelagic to the benthic or spat stage, the abalone feed on benthic diatoms which
occur on coralline algae (McShane & Smith 1988, McShane 1992), whereafter they change
their diet to macro algae (Fallu 1991, Shepherd & Steinberg 1992). Abalone feed on both
drift and attached seaweeds and feed mainly at night (Wood 1993). The natural diet consists
of some 18 species of algae of which the most important are Ecklonia maxima, Laminaria
pallida, Plocamium corallorhiza and Ulva spp. (Newman 1969, Field et al. 1977, Barkai &
Griffiths 1986, 1987, Tarr 1992, Wood 1993, Britz et al. 1994). Green (Ulva spp.) and
brown (Raljsia expansa) algae are taken in larger proportion by the smaller sub-boulder
cryptic animals (Barkai & Griffiths 1986, Wood 1993), while red seaweeds (in particular P.
corallorhiza and Hypnea spicljera) are preferred by exposed large animals in the Eastern
Cape (Wood 1993) and kelp, E. maxima, in the Western Cape (Newman 1969, Field et al.
1977, Barkai & Griffiths 1986, 1987).

Abalone have been exploited for hundreds of years for food and for making ornaments and
the manufacture of jewellery (Barkai & Griffiths 1986, Shepherd et al. 1992). It has only
been in the last 35 years that abalone fisheries have evolved globally and become
economically important in many countries (Shepherd et al. 1992). Only 22 Haliotis species
are commercially important (Hahn 1989a, Fallu 1991). The major fisheries are found in
Mexico (ca. 34% of world production), Japan (29%), Australia (20%), South Africa (6%),
the United States (5%), Korea( 3%) and New Zealand (3%) (Hooker & Morse 1985). Before
1984, Mexico, Japan and Australia were each landing over 5000 metric tons annually (Chew
1984).

The South African commercial abalone fishery started in 1949 (Newman 1967, Tarr 1992),
and a substantial commercial fishery has been in existence between Cape Agulhas and Cape
Point since the 1950s (Newman 1966, Barkai & Griffiths 1987). A small abalone fishery now
also exists at Hamburg along the South East Cape coast (Wood 1993). The development of
the South African abalone fishery has been reviewed by Newman (1967) and Tarr (1992).
No catch records are available for the first few years of the fishery (Newman 1967). Records
of the estimated landings based on production quotas are only available from 1953 onwards
(Tarr 1992, R. Tarr, SFRI, pers.comm.). Whole mass quota figures are available from 1983,

2
when TAC's were implemented (R. Tarr, SFRI, pers. comm.). Recreational catch data for
H. midae are only available for 1992, 1993 and 1994 and although no figures are available,
poaching of H . midae has definitely increased in the last two years (R. Tarr, SFRI, pers.
comm.). The available catch records since the beginning of the fishery are summarized in
Figure 1.1.

Intensification of commercial fishing activities, the development of more practical diving gear
and increased poaching has resulted in the collapse of wild fisheries in many parts of the
world , especially over the past two decades (Fallu 1991, Tarr 1992). This had led to the
farming of abalone in most of those countries which supported abalone fisheries, as a means
of enhancing over-exploited wild stock and to satisfy market demand (Hahn 1989b, Shepherd
et ai. 1992) .

Abalone aquaculture was pioneered in Japan in the 1950s and 1960s (Hahn 1989c). At
present, Japan, the U.S .A. and Taiwan are the most advanced as far as abalone culture
technology is concerned (Hecht & Britz 1990). Approximate figures of wild-harvested and
cultured abalone produced during 1991 in these countries are given in Table 1.1. Australia,
New Zealand and South Africa are now also on the threshold of producing farmed abalone.

The development of abalone culture technology in South Africa only began in earnest in
1989/1990 (Cook 1991). Three research institutions, the University of Cape Town, the Earth
Marine and Atmospheric Technologies Division (EMATEK) of the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR) and Rhodes University, initiated research programmes in
collaboration with the private sector to develop the technology for the culture of H . midae
(Hecht & Britz 1992, Britz et ai. 1994). The spawning and settling technology for H . midae
was largely perfected by the University of Cape Town and EMATEK (Hecht 1992), while
at Rhodes University research was undertaken on the development of a nutritionally
complete, formulated feed, the development of a weaning diet as well as identifying the
optimal environmental requirements for the intensive farming of abalone (Dixon 1992, Hecht
1992, Britz et ai. 1994, Knauer 1994). The research and development phase for abalone
farming in South Africa has now reached the point at which most of the pilot plants are being
upgraded for commercial scale production.

Abalone farming practices such as size-sorting, maintenance of proper densities, transfer

3
 ~ Recreational landings
3,000
(tonnes / annum)
0
~
~
(/)
Q)
2,500
-0
c:
.2
c: 2,000 ~

c:
0
m
~

~
c:
Q)
.r::. E
(,)
1,500 Q)
Cil
(,) a.
E
m

1
:J
c: 1,000
~
500

OC") co CJ) C\J Lt) 00 ,.... ,....

~ "<;)" ,....
,.... 0 (Y) co CJ) C\J L()
LO
CJ)
LO
0)
Lt)
CJ)
co
CJ)
co co
0) CJ) 0) CJ) CJ)
00
CJ)
00
CJ)
00
0)
00
CJ)
0)
CJ)
CJ)
CJ)
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Year
Figure 1.1. Estimated commercial landings of HaUotis midae (whole mass) before and after implementation of
TACs based on production quotas from 1953 to 1995 (R. Tarr, SFRI, pers. comm.). Recreational figures for
H. midae (whole mass) from 1992 to 1994 are also presented.

between tanks, system maintenance and harvesting require the periodic removal of abalone
from their holding tanks (Hahn 1989d, Tegner & Butler 1989, Shepherd et ai. 1992, Tong
et al. 1992). Abalone possess a large muscular foot which functions as an adhesive organ
(Fretter & Graham 1962), which makes it possible to clamp the shell down tightly onto the
substratum. This makes it extremely difficult to remove the animal from the substratum
(Sames 1987). Considering the number of abalone in a commercial sized farm, mechanical
removal by hand would be logistically impractical. Moreover, mechanical dislodgement often
results in injury and death during routine collection or system maintenance (Genade et al.
1988, Hahn 1989d). This is principally a consequence of the slow healing rate of abalone,
the absence of a blood coagulation system and an increased probability of bacterial infection
and stress (Cox 1962, Armstrong et al. 1971, Genade et ai. 1988). Removal of the abalone
from the tanks by anaesthesia or by relaxing their muscles provides an alternative and safer
method than mechanical removal.

4
Table 1.1. Approximate figures of cultured and wild-harvested abalone produced in Japan, Taiwan, USA,
Australia and New Zealand in 1991 (Britz 1991).

Country Wild-harvested Cultured abalone

abalone (tonnes/anmnn) (tonnes/annum)

Japan 5000 360

Taiwan not available 250

USA 373 60

Australia 5000 commercial

production in
experimental stage

New Zealand 1147 commercial

production in
experimental stage

Mexico ±600 commercial

production in
experimental stage

South Africa 615 commercial

production in
experimental stage

Muscular relaxation and anaesthesia can be achieved by various mechanisms (Lefkowitz et

al. 1991, Hondeghem & Miller 1992, Neal 1992, Watanabe & Katzung 1992). Firstly, by
means of neuromuscular blocking drugs which compete with acetylcholine (ACh) (a
neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction) to bind to its post-ganglionic receptors.
These competitive drugs reduce the end-plate depolarizations produced by ACh to a
magnitude below the threshold for muscular action potential generation and so cause flaccid
paralysis. Secondly, by way of local anaesthetics which block the conduction of impulses
along nerves. Thirdly, by way of calcium chelating agents or excess magnesium which
inhibits the release of ACh into the synaptic cleft by blocking the influx of extracellular
calcium into the nerve terminal. This influx of calcium through voltage-dependent channels
in to the nerve terminal is essential for the release of ACh into the synaptic cleft at the neuro-
muscular junction .

5
Anaesthetics are also very important in fish culture to produce a wide range of desired effects
that vary from mild sedation to complete loss of equilibrium and insensitivity (Marking &
Meyer 1985). Anaesthetics are commonly used on fish to aid in spawning, transporting,
tagging, marking, surgery and stocking (Sagara & Ninomiya 1970, Marking & Meyer 1985).
A wide range of anaesthetics are used in fish. These include tricaine methanesulfonate
(MS-222), quinaldine, carbon dioxide (CO:z), carbonic acid, sodium bicarbonate (NaHC03),
2-phenoxyethanol, methyl pentynol, benzocaine, etodimate, metomidate, chlorotone,
chlorobutanol, halothane, methoxyflurane, sodium thiamylal, phenthiazamine, propanidid,
salt (sodium chloride), electricity, nicotine and tobacco juice (Booke et al. 1978, Ferreira et
al. 1979, Post 1979, Marking & Meyer 1985, Gilderhus & Marking 1987, Gilderhus 1989,
Iwama et al. 1989, Mattson & Riple 1989, Gilderhus 1990, Parma de Croux 1990, Gilderhus
et al. 1991). Of these, only MS-222, C~ gas and NaHC03 are currently registered by the
U.S . A. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the use as anaesthetics in fish cultured for
human consumption (Schnick et al. 1979, Gilderhus et al. 1991, Stefan 1992). MS-222 is
used at a concentration of 15 to 40 ppm active ingredient during live transportation of fish,
depending on the species (Collins 1990). The fish cannot, however, be sold for human
consumption for 21 days after exposure to the anaesthetic (Collins 1990, Gilderhus et al.
1991). Quinaldine, used at a concentration of 15 to 30 ppm active ingredient during live
transportation, may only be used on non-food fish . NaHC03 can be used at concentrations
of 142 to 642 ppm for five minutes as a means of introducing C~ into the water to
anaesthetize fish (Stefan 1992). CO2 gas can be used for anaesthetic purposes in cold and
warm water fish . In Canada, no anaesthetics are approved for use with food fish (prince et
ai. 1995).

Anaesthetics are used in invertebrate culture for immobilization, surgery on bivalves, pearl
insertion in pearl oysters, opening of oyster and scallop shells and sampling of abalone
popUlations (Fujioka 1964 cited in Sagara & Ninomiya 1970, Prince & Ford 1985, Hahn
1989d, Heasman et ai. 1995). Several substances have been used to induce anaesthesia in
invertebrates. Magnesium sulphate (MgSO.), magnesium chloride (MgCI:z) , urethane,
veterinary Nembutal (sodium pentobarbitone), menthol, chloral hydrate, benzocaine, eucaine
hydrochloride have been used in bivalve molluscs such as the European flat oyster, Ostrea
edulis (Culloty & Mulcahy 1992) and scallop, Pecten fumatus (Heasman et al. 1995) .
MgSO., MgCI2 , MS-222, chloral hydrate, ethanol, urethan, ether, halothane, enflurane and
isoflurane have been used in freshwater and marine gastropod molluscs (Kaplan 1969,

6
Girdlestone et al. 1989). MgCI 2 , isobutyl alcohol, methyl pentynol and chloretone have been
used for cephalopods (Messenger et al. 1985) and lobster, Homarus americanus (Foley et
al. 1966).

Several anaesthetics have been evaluated for abalone aquaculture (Hahn 1989d). Potassium
chloride (Hamada 1965 cited in Sagara & Ninomiya 1970) and chlorpromazine (Enomoto
1969 cited in Sagara & Ninomiya 1970) were shown to be unsuccessful anaesthetics. Sagara
and Ninomiya (1970) investigated the anaesthetic effect of ethyl carbamic acid, MgS04'
chloral hydrate and sodium diethylbarbituric acid on juvenile H . gigantea. They found ethyl
carbamic acid (0.5 and 1 % solutions) to be the best anaesthetic for H . gigantea. However,
carbamic acid is a known carcinogen, which makes it unsafe. MgS04 (20 and 30% solutions)
was found to be safe for H. gigantea, but the time required for complete anaesthesia was
considered by them to be too long (12 minutes). Chloral hydrate had a rapid onset of action,
but recovery times were too long. Moreover, the animals could only be exposed to chloral
hydrate for 5 minutes whereafter they had to be returned to clean seawater to prevent high
rates of mortality. Sodium diethylbarbituric acid (2 % solution) showed potential, but recovery
times were too long (viz. 2.5 hours). CO2 has also been tested for juvenile abalone
(Sugiyama & Tanaka 1982). Diethyl carbonate and benzocaine (ethyl p-aminobenzoic acid)
have also been found to be successful anaesthetics for small abalone (prince & Ford 1985,
Hahn 1989d). Benzocaine is currently used for abalone anaesthesia in Japan, New Zealand
and Australia (Hahn 1989d, Tong et al. 1992, Anonymous 1994). However, there are several
problems surrounding the use of benzocaine for abalone anaesthesia. High mortalities have
been observed by some abalone farmers in South Africa and benzocaine is insoluble in water
and has to be dissolved in alcohol prior to its use.

The efficacy of anaesthetics differ from species to species and an anaesthetic which results
in mortalities in one species might be very effective and not lethal in another. Therefore,
even though MgS04 was not considered to be ideal for scallops, H. gigantea or lobster it was
one of the substances considered for H. midae in this study.

Restrictions on the use of anaesthetics in aquaculture relate not only to the ineffectiveness of
the substances, but also to the legality of their use (Marking & Meyer 1985). In the
development of an anaesthetic, the discovery of an effective compound is relatively easy
compared with meeting the requirements of the U.S.A. FDA for its registration. Since most

7
anaesthetics are absorbed through the gills, residues are likely to accumulate in the tissue
unless allowance is made for adequate depuration time. The FDA requires that any compound
used to anaesthetize fish destined for human consumption must either be excreted or
metabolized before fish are consumed. Abalone farmers must be aware of the registration
status of chemicals and avoid the use of unregistered ones, as this may seriously jeopardise
the international marketing of their product.

The aim of this study was to find a suitable, alternative muscular relaxant or anaesthetic to
benzocaine for mass anaesthesia of H. midae. The following conditions were set; (i) the
substance should have no short term detrimental effect on abalone, (ii) should have no long
term sub-lethal effects on growth and (iii) there should be no residues in abalone muscle
tissue which could be harmful to the consumer. Residues of the substance in animals should
preferably be inactive, if at all present, by the time it reaches the consumer (Brown 1989,
Larocque et al. 1991). Furthermore, the substance should be easily obtainable and relatively
inexpensive.

Four anaesthetics and muscular relaxants were selected and their in vitro effect on isolated
H . midae tarsal muscle was investigated (Chapter 2). These were procaine hydrochloride,
MgS04 (interferes with the release of ACh from the nerve terminal), EDTA (ethylenediamine
tetra-acetic acid which is a calcium chelating agent) and 2-phenoxyethanol (mechanism of
action not well documented). Procaine, a local anaesthetic, is safe for medicinal use by
humans. It is available over-the-counter as Salusa 45 tablets (50 mg procaine hydrochloride
per tablet) and therefore easily obtainable. It is used for the treatment of fatigue in elderly
people due to its antidepressant properties in the central nervous system. MgS04 commonly
known as epsom salts, is an unscheduled laxative. It is also used as a fertiliser as well as in
the food industry and is easily obtainable. EDTA is a chelating agent which precipitates
calcium (Reynolds 1982). This is a pure chemical reaction and should have no significant
adverse effects on the consumer. 2-Phenoxyethanol has been used widely in fish (Ross &
Ross 1984, Marking & Meyer 1985, Gilderhus & Marking 1987, Yamamitsu & Itazawa
1988, Iwama et al. 1989, Mattson & Riple 1989, Teo et al. 1989, Teo & Chen 1993).
Although it is not classified as a hazardous substance its MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet)
from Sigma Chemicals Corporation (U.S.A.lCanada) states that it is harmful if swallowed
and can cause ocular and respiratory irritation (M.A. Carelaru, Sigma Chemicals
Corporation, St. Louis, U.S .A., pers. comm., T. Hall, Whitehead Scientific Laboratories,

8
Cape Town, pers. comm.). Safety precautions also require the user to wear protective
clothing. The aim of this investigation was to identify the most affective anaesthetic agents.

Since abalone, like any other aquatic species, would be subjected to frequent size sorting the
next stage of the project was to develop a size-related dosage table for MgS04,
2-phenoxyethanol, EDTA and procaine hydrochloride (Chapter 3). Two additional anaesthetics
were also evaluated. These were benzocaine and CO2 , The efficacy of anaesthetics can vary
widely with temperature (Gilderhus & Marking 1987). This necessitated the development of
a temperature-related dosage table for MgS04 and CO2 , since these two chemicals proved to
be most effective (Chapter 4). Abalone have very slow growth rates. To evaluate the long
term effects of intermittent anaesthesia on growth rate, an eight month growth trial was
undertaken with 2-phenoxyethanol and MgS04 (Chapter 5). This was followed by an
investigation into the effect of MgS04 on the ultrastructure of the muscle tissue (Chapter 6).
The principle reason for undertaking this was to establish whether anaesthesia affects flesh
texture which in turn, would affect marketability. Since residues of anaesthetic substances
used in aquaculture should preferably be inactive, if at all present, by the time the product
reaches the consumer, it was necessary to test for MgS04 residues in the muscle tissue
(Chapter 7) . Finally, given the nature of on-farm activities, it was deemed necessary to
determine the length of time that abalone could be exposed to MgS04 before short or long
term effects became manifest (Chapter 8). The study is summarized in Chapter 9.

9
 CHAYfER2
THE IN VITRO EFFECTS OF FOUR ANAESTHETICS ON ISOLATED TARSAL
MUSCLE OF HALIOTIS MIDAE

INTRODUCTION
The pedal musculature of abalone is composed of two functionally and structurally distinct
regions: the columellar muscle (or the right shell muscle) and the tarsal muscle (or the foot),
surrounded by the epipodium. The foot is connected to the shell by means of the columellar
muscle (Fretter & Graham 1962, Trueman & Brown 1985, Frescura 1990). The columellar
muscle is responsible for effecting major body movements and changes in shape and posture:
protraction, retraction, twisting, elevation and lowering of the shell and clamping down onto
the substratum. The tarsal muscle is involved in the fine movements of locomotion and food
manipulation. The locomotor waves are restricted to the outer edges of the foot and do not
pass through the centre portion of the sole where the columellar muscle inserts into it. The
tarsal muscle is also responsible for adherence onto the substratum (Trueman & Brown 1985,
Frescura 1990). Both of these muscles also play an essential role in righting the body after
falling over by moving the foot and epipodium in a flexible manner, attaching itself in part
to the substratum and pulling the shell over the top.

Histologically these two regions consist of muscle bundle fibres ensheathed in collagenous
connective tissue (Voltzow 1990, Frescura 1990). The columellar muscle rises up as a stout
muscular pillar from the centre of the muscular plaque of the foot (Crofts 1929). The
columellar muscle consists mainly of thick dorso-ventral muscle bundles which form the long
axis of this muscle. In addition, it contains muscle bundles that are orientated perpendicular
to the long axis in at least two directions, i.e. radial and circular. The radial muscles are
prevalent in the centre, and the circular muscles around the periphery of the columellar
region. The tarsal muscle consists of bundles of fibres that are arranged in a three-
dimensional network of interconnecting contractile fibres. Sagittal and transverse sections
through the foot of H. kamtschatkana showed that the thick muscle bundles of the tarsal
region are adjacent to the columellar region (Voltzow 1990). From this it is evident that the
tarsic region surrounds the columellar region anteriorly, posteriorly and laterally and the
columellar muscle inserts on the sole of the epithelium in the central core of the foot. At the
ventral and lateral extremities of the foot the tarsal and columellar muscle bundles branch
into smaller bundles. These branching systems do not appear to include the ventral surface

10
of the sole. Instead, this portion of the foot contains isolated or obliquely transverse muscle
fibres .

The tarsal muscle contains finer branched muscle bundles and a larger proportion of
collagenous connective tissue than the columellar muscle (Voltzow 1990, Frescura 1990).
The columellar muscle consists of bundles of muscle fibres wrapped in thin connective tissue
sheaths (Voltzow 1990). Virtually no other extracellular connective tissue is present. In the
tarsic region, the connective-tissue sheaths become thicker. The bundles of muscle fibres in
the tarsic region branch and change direction as they extend from their origin to their
insertions. The bundles become finer and finer as they approach the periphery of the foot and
become more deeply embedded in the connective tissue of the ventral and lateral extremities.
Connective tissue is an essential element of pedal function. The increased volume fraction
of connective tissue at the periphery of the foot probably provides the increased flexibility
of this region, because the action of each muscle fibre can be amplified by the passive action
of the connective tissue around it. The columellar and tarsic regions receive blood from
separate branches of the anterior aorta. The dorsal surface of the foot is the most extensively
vascularized area.

The tarsal muscle is not as solid as the columellar muscle. The columellar muscle functions
as a muscular hydrostat with tightly packed muscle bundles of different orientation
antagonising each other (Trueman & Brown 1985, Frescura 1990). The tarsal muscle,
however, is a hydrostatic system in which the role of body fluid is intermediate between that
of a classic hydrostatic cavity and muscular-hydrostat (Voltzow 1990). The tarsal muscle also
has an increased prevalence of sarcolemmal cisternae which enables it to relax more rapidly
than the columellar muscle.

Apart from their functional and structural differences, the tarsos also differs physiologically
from the columellar region in that it has larger mitochondrial numbers which suggests that
it is possibly more oxidative than the columellar region. Clamping down of the shell is a
more spasmodic activity whereas adherence onto and movement over the substratum are
gradual, smooth actions. However, without the transmission of impulses and therefore action
potentials along nerve and muscle cells, muscular contraction cannot take place (Bowman &
Rand 1980, Lefkowitz et at. 1991, Katzung 1992). Transmission of nerve impulses between
synapses, the junctions between neighbouring nerve cells as well as between nerve cells and

11
muscle cells are modulated by neurotransmitters (Bowman & Rand 1980, Nicaise &
Amsellem 1983).

The following neurotransmitters have been identified in molluscs: Acetylcholine (ACh) ,

serotonin (5-hydroxytryptarnine), dopamine, glutamate, the neuropeptide FMRFamide and
some peptides (Fretter & Graham 1962, Bullock 1965, Jones 1983, Muneoka & Twarog
1983, Nicaise & Amsellem 1983, Walker 1986, Russell & Evans 1989, Frescura 1990). The
location and effect of some neurotransmitters have been outlined in Table 2.1 . Some of these
play an essential role in muscle activity. ACh is known to stimulate muscle contraction in
molluscs (Welsh & Smith 1949, Sugi & Yamaguchi 1976, Frescura 1990). It is also known
to activate ACh receptors in mammalian smooth muscle (Lefkowitz et al. 1991, Katzung
1992).

Carbachol, a synthetic ester of choline, on the other hand, is a direct-acting cholinoceptor

stimulant. This means that it mimics the action of ACh on its receptors, and therefore also
causes muscular contraction (Bowman & Rand 1980, Taylor 1991, Watanabe & Katzung
1992). It also possesses a weak inhibitory action on ACh uptake into the nerve terminal and
thereby increases the availability of ACh in the neuromuscular junction (Bowman & Rand
1980). Carbachol has been shown to produce muscle contraction in Mytilus edulis (Muneoka
et al . 1979) .

It was hypothesized that anaesthesia or muscle relaxation would interfere with the functioning
of ACh in abalone muscle. Therefore, the aim of this investigation was, firstly, to test the
effect of ACh and Carbachol on whole abalone columellar and/or tarsal muscle contraction
for further use in isolated organ experiments. Secondly, the contractile response of different
sections of abalone tarsal and columellar muscle to carbachol was determined in order to
study differences in the contractility of these muscles. Thirdly, the effect of four chemicals
(magnesium sulphate (MgSO.), 2-phenoxyethanol, procaine hydrochloride and
ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid (EDT A», was tested on isolated abalone tarsal muscle to
evaluate their potential as suitable anaesthetics or muscular relaxants for abalone. The
advantages of these chemicals as potential abalone anaesthetics have been outlined in Chapter
I.

12
Table 2.1. The effect of some neurotransmitters on molluscan cells.

Neurotransmitter Location Effect

ACh Heart""'" Inhibition

Buccal retractor muscle' Relaxation
Columellar muscle' Contraction

Heart1,3,6.,1,8,9,10,11,12
Serotonin Cardioregulation
Excitation
Positive inotropic and
chronotropic effect
Increase in aortic systolic,
diastolic and pulse pressure
Adductor muscle" Relaxation
Gill" Relaxation
Cilia ls Excitation

Dopamine Excitation and

inhibition
Gill" Contraction

FMRFamide Circulation l6 Regulation of blood pressure

Heart l 6.,17 Inhibition

, Welsh & Smith (1949) , Bullock (1965) ) Hill & Welsh (1966)
• Jones (1983) , Frescura (1990) • Muneoka & Twarog (1983)
7 Russell & Evans (1989) • Hill (1958) , Hill & Thibault (1968)
10 Hill (1974) II Liebeswar ef al. (1975) " Krajniak & Bourne (1989)
" Salanki ef al. (1980) " Ruben & Lukowiak (1984) " Walker (1986)
16 Krajniak & Bourne (1987) 17 Wells (1983)

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Abalone and a limpet species, Patella oculus, were collected along the East Cape Coast of
SOttth Africa and held in a recirculating system at Rhodes University. The animals were
acclimated to laboratory conditions for a period of one month.

The first step of this investigation was to find a suitable neurotransmitter which would
stimulate abalone muscle contraction. A preliminary study was therefore performed to test
the contractile response of whole tarsal and columellar muscle to ACh. To achieve this,
0. 182 g ACh chloride was dissolved in 10 ml of seawater to make up a 1 x 10.2 MACh
solution, which was either used undiluted or if lower concentrations were required, the
necessary dilutions were made by dissolving the required amount of undiluted ACh solution

13
in seawater. Fresh ACh solutions were made when required. Three solutions were made up
from the stock solution, viz. 1.0 x 10.5 M, 1 X 104 M and 1.0 x 10.3 M. This range spans
the concentrations which Frescura (1990) used to stimulate columellar muscle contraction in
three limpet species, P. oculus, P. vulgata and P. barbara. The musculature of intact abalone
was bathed in the three ACh solutions (1.0 x 10.5 M, 1 x 104 M, 1.0 x 10.3 M and undiluted
(1 x 10.2 M) solution, by distributing it from a syringe over the surface of the columellar and
tarsal muscle regions. The response was visually observed for 10 minutes (n = 3). No
visible contraction of columellar or tarsal muscle was observed.

Since ACh is very soluble in water it was initially hypothesized that the ACh solution was
unstable (Reynolds 1982). To eliminate this possibility an identical trial was undertaken on
whole limpet, P. oculus, tarsal muscle with the undiluted ACh (1 x 10.2 M) solution. It
caused muscular contraction in the three test individuals which indicated that it had not been
hydrolysed in solution and was stable. Lack of activity in H. midae could thus indicate that
the organism is either insensitive to ACh or has the ability to metabolize externally applied
ACh very rapidly or that ACh is not absorbed by the organism.

Once it had been established that the ACh had not been hydrolysed in the solution, and that
it stimulated muscular contraction in P. oculus, but not in H. midae, ACh was excluded from
further investigations. The next step was to find an alternative substance to stimulate
muscular contraction in H. midae. As already mentioned, carbachol is a
parasympathomimetic or cholinergic agonist which mimics the actions of ACh on its
receptors (Reynolds 1982, Taylor 1991, Watanabe & Katzung 1992) . It has also been shown
to produce muscle contraction in M. edulis (Muneoka et al. 1979). The next step was to
investigate the effect of carbachol on whole H. midae tarsal and columellar muscle. The
tarsal and columellar muscle was bathed with an undiluted carbachol solution (1 x 1(J3 M)
by distributing the solution with a syringe over the surface of these muscles (n = 3). The
response of the columellar and tarsal muscle was visually observed for 10 minutes. It caused
noticeable contractions of both muscles and was thus used to stimulate H. midae muscle
contraction in all further investigations.

To determine the effect of the four anaesthetics on the contraction of isolated H. midae
muscle, it was first necessary to evaluate the carbachol induced contractile response of
different sections of abalone tarsal and columellar muscle. Once it had been established

14
which sections exhibited the strongest contractile response to carbachol, the effect of the four
anaesthetics could be tested to evaluate their potential as suitable anaesthetics for abalone.

The apparatus used to determine the contractIle responses of different isolated sections of H.
midae muscle tissue consisted of an isometric transducer coupled to a strain gauge
(Bioscience, Palmer & George Washington, U.K.), chart-recorder (Rikadenki), waterbath
(Metrohm), aerator and a glass chamber with a tap attached to a clamp stand (Figure 2.1 &
2.2). The chart-recorder displayed the electrical output from the strain gauge which was
proportional to the contractile tension developed by the muscle. The chart-recorder deflection
was calibrated by suspending a 1 g weight from the transducer and adjusting the displacement
thus produced by 97.5 %. The glass chamber held the muscle preparation and the bathing
solution. Krebs-Henseleit was initially selected as a physiological solution. However, this
solution produced spontaneous muscular contraction and could therefore not be used for
abalone. Based on the work of Frescura (1990) seawater was consequently selected as a
physiological solution. All measurements were made at 18°C.

The following sections of the columellar and tarsal muscle were used to determine which
section responds with the strongest and most noticeable contraction to carbachol: dorso-
ventral, sagittal and transverse sections of the columellar muscle, and transverse and sagittal
sections of the outer ventral surface of the tarsal muscle. The required excisions were made
and the preparations mounted individually as follows. Cotton loops were tied securely to both
ends of the tissue pieces. One loop was hooked around the aerator inside the organ chamber
and the other end was attached to the lever on the transducer. The chamber was filled with
50 ml of pure, filtered seawater (1 micron nylon mesh) and the muscle preparation was left
to equilibrate for 2 hours. After two hours had elapsed, 1.0 ml of a 1.0 x 10.3 M carbachol
solution was added to the chamber containing 50 ml of seawater to give a final chamber
concentration of 2.0 x 10-5 M carbachol.

After evaluating the contractions of the different sections, the sagittal section of the outer,
ventral surface of the tarsal muscle was selected as being the most suitable for evaluating the
effect of the four anaesthetics on carbachol-induced contractions.

In the actual experiments, fresh muscle preparations were mounted as explained above and
left to equilibrate for 2 hours. A single dose of carbachol (l ml of a 1.0 x 10-3 M solution)

15
Figure 2.1. Apparatus for investigating the effect of four chemicals on isolated Haliotis midae tarsal muscle.
a, Aerator; c, chart recorder; i, isometric transducer; 0, organ bath; s, stopper; w, waterbath; ww, waste wash.

s)MET?IC TR~"SDCCER

I I
-
I
:::: j

I
1 I
CL~\{P STAlND

.>,ERA1DR ~I
'iVAITR
BAT"'d
.. ~ i I
Iii
SCLE-ijI ~
M
U
BX[l!~r
ORGA.N - -'"

d
R ~CO?DE:R s:D~~~C ~-:).. \
~ ...

I =-= '
I

,
~I bd =
II

••
I
! "
W
\~ASH
I
I
~

,
I 1
18
•C

Figure 2.2. Schematic diagram of apparatus for investigating the effect of four chemicals on isolated Haliotis
midae tarsal muscle.

l6
was then added to the bath containing 50 ml of seawater, which gave a final concentration
of 2.0 x 10.5 M carbachol. When the muscle contraction reached its peak after 2.5-3 min,
the chart-recorder was stopped and the chamber was emptied and refilled with seawater to
ensure that no traces of carbachol remained. Once the muscle had relaxed back to baseline,
another carbachol contraction was induced in the same manner and the whole process
repeated. The two contractions served as a control or base line against which all further
responses were compared.

To test the effect of MgS04 on carbachol-induced contractions, a solution of 5 g MgS04

dissolved in 100 ml filtered seawater was made up. The chamber was emptied and refilled
with 50 ml of the MgS04 solution to give a final chamber concentration of 2.03 x 10.1 M
MgS04. One minute later, a single dose of carbachol (1.0 ml of a 1.0 x 10.3 M carbachol
solution) was added to the chamber to give a final chamber concentration of 2.0 x 10.5 M
carbachol and the contraction of the muscle recorded in the presence of MgS04 for three
minutes. After three minutes the chamber was emptied and the tissue rinsed with three
changes of pure, filtered seawater to remove all chemicals. The muscle section was given a
one hour rest period with three changes of pure, filtered seawater every 20 min. To
determine any changes in the contractility of the muscle, two control contractions were then
executed with carbachol alone. The same procedure as above was repeated with the muscle
preparation using 0.5 ml.100·! mI2-phenoxyethanol, 2 g.lO(J! ml procaine hydrochloride and
1 g.100·! ml EDTA (final chamber concentrations of 3.62 x 1(J2 M, 7.33 X 10.2 M and 2.44
x ·2 M respectively). EDTA is insoluble in seawater and was therefore first dissolved in 20
ml distilled water before making the solution up to 100 ml with filtered seawater. Once
again, two control carbachol contractions were executed between each administration after
the muscle was allowed a 1 hour rest period with periodic (every 20 min) changes of filtered
seawater. If the control carbachol contractions, obtained between the administration of the
chemicals, did not differ from the initial control curves, further contractions were compared
with the initial contraction curves. However, if they changed, the new deflection was taken
as the maximum and further contractions were comparaed with these new controls. The entire
procedure described above was replicated with a fresh piece of muscle tissue.

RESULTS
Dorso-ventral, sagittal and transverse sections of the columellar muscle responded poorly to
carbachol (Table 2.2). The same was true for transverse sections of the tarsal muscle. The

17
only excisions that responded with acceptable contractions to carbachol were the sagittal
sections of the outer, ventral surface of the tarsal muscle.

Carbachol contractions C1 to C. in the two replicates were all within 5 % (viz. 96.85 % to
99.40%) and C7 to C. within 5% (viz. 72.88% to 75.60%) of each other, indicating that
there was no change in the contractility of the two muscle preparations and that no residual
chemicals remained in the tissue (Table 2.3). Although muscle tissue vitality decreased from
99% to 72 % (see also Figure 2.3) during the two experimental trials, it was more than
adequate to test the inhibitory effect of the various chemicals.

Table 2.2. The response of different sections of Holiolis midae columellar and tarsal muscle to carbachol.

Muscle Section Observed response

Columellar Dorsa-ventral Weak contraction

Columellar Sagittal Weak contraction
Columellar Transverse Weak contraction
Tarsal Sagittal Strong contraction

Tarsal Transverse Weak contraction

Table 2.3. The mean percentage peak heights of the control carbachol induced contractions obtained in the two
replicates.

Carbachol induced contraction Mean percentage height of response curve

c, 99.40+0.61

97.42+2.58
98.79.±1.29
c, 93.40 + 2.49
c, 96 .31.±2.50

C, 96.85 + 1.09
C, 75 .60.±1.37

C, 74.00+ 1.27
c, 72.88+ 1.36

18
 Figure 2.3. Inhibition of carbachol-induced contractions of isolated Halio/is midae tarsal muscle tissue in the presence of MgSO" 2-phenoxyethanol, procaine hydrochloride
and EDTA. (SW = seawater, CARB = carbachol , C = control carbachol response-curve). Each tissue rinse (SW) included three changes of pure, filtered seawater every
5 min except for those indicated with an asterisk which included three changes of pure, filtered seawater every 20 min.

z
0H
Z W
0 Q f-<
C1 C2 H C3 C4 Cs C6 ;:z C7 C8 H C9
E-<
H
(Xl

~§
I':
~......
!Xl
SW
@ sw sw o-l
Of-<
8 sw
sw ~ , ...... Uf-<
~ sw W
~iXl
t t ~
H
t t ;il@
(Xl

E-< /.. t -t Q@ ~
o-l
E-< W H ~.
.....
'l) J I r I ~ ;>< W
~ f-< ~

r
p.. OW z:~ r-
~
z- o-lp.. ~o-l
~

,
0
U) ~ '"'
p..O
~
Ue::
O~
~
f-<
0 p::O Q
~\ U p..U W
~ I

!J ~ t ~ ~, t
*SW *SW *SW

~ ~

t t t t t 1 t
CAIOl CARn CAlm
t t t t t t
CARn CARn CAlUJ CARll CAlm CARn CARB CARB CAlill CARn
All four chemicals inhibited the contractile effect of carbachol on isolated sagittal sections
of the outer, ventral surface of the tarsal muscle. Treatment with 2-phenoxyethanol, procaine
hydrochloride and EDTA completely eliminated the muscular contraction produced by
carbachol. Howe ver, when carbachol was added in the presence of MgS04 , the inhibitory
effect was only 50% in relation to the carbachol induced contractions. The possible reasons
for this are considered in the discussion.

DISCUSSION
The observation that ACh did not stimulate contraction in whole abalone muscle is either a
consequence of insufficient absorption into the tissue through the skin, or hydrolysis in the
tissue and thus rendered inactive. It is known that the poor absorption and distribution of
ACh is principally a factor of its low lipid solubility (Watanabe & Katzung 1992). In
mammals ACh is hydrolysed by two cholinesterases and large amounts must be infused
intravenously to achieve levels which are high enough to produce detectable effects in
mammalian muscle (Bowman & Rand 1980, Lefkowitz et al. 1991, Katzung 1992). The first
type of cholinesterase is acetylcholinesterase which is present in large quantities in the
synapses. The second type is butyrocholinesterase or pseudocholinesterase, found in blood
plasma, skin, liver and other tissue. The poor absorption rate and/or rapid hydrolysis of ACh
as described above, possibly provides an explanation why it did not stimulate contraction in
whole abalone muscle. However, given that ACh did cause contraction of limpet muscle
would suggest that abalone could have higher levels of cholinesterase than limpets.
Carbachol, on the other hand, is completely resistant to hydrolysis by cholinesterase and has
a longer duration of action than ACh (Taylor 1991, Watanabe & Katzung 1992). This would
support the suggestion that higher cholinesterase levels are present in abalone than in limpet,
and that this could be the principle reason why ACh did not effect contractions of abalone
muscle.

The only muscle tissue sections that visibly responded to carbachol were sagittal sections bf
the outer, ventral surface of the tarsal muscle. The probable reason for this is the higher
prevalence of sarcolemmal cisternae in this muscle which allows for rapid relaxation and
increased flexibility (Voltzow 1990), coupled with the smaller thick filament and muscle cell
diameter which increases the speed of contraction (Voltzow 1990, see also Chapter 6).

20
MgSO., 2-phenoxyethanol, procaine hydrochloride and EDTA inhibited muscle contraction
in isolated H. midae tarsal muscle tissue. Procaine hydrochloride impairs nerve transmission
by acting both pre- and postjunctionally (Bowman & Rand 1980). It is very likely that
2-phenoxyethanol also exerts its effect in this manner. EDTA labilizes excitable membranes
by decreasing the availabilty of calcium ions. These three chemicals therefore caused
"flaccid" paralysis of the muscle. MgSO., on the other hand, only interferes with ACh
release from the nerve terminal (Bowman & Rand 1980) and therefore simply effected partial
relaxation of the muscle, manifested by the partial inhibition of muscle contraction. Overall,
the results showed that each of these chemicals has potential for abalone anaesthesia and
therefore warranted further evaluation.

21
 CHAPTER 3
THE SIZE RELATED EFFECTS OF MAGNESIUM SULPHATE,
2-PHENOXYETHANOL, PROCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE, ETHYLENEDIAMINE
TETRA-ACETIC ACID, BENZOCAINE AND CARBON DIOXIDE ANAESTHESIA

INTRODUCTION
In vitro investigation into the effect of magnesium sulphate (MgS04), 2-phenoxyethanol,
procaine hydrochloride and ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) on isolated Haliotis
midae tarsal muscle indicated that all four chemicals have potential as abalone anaesthetics
(see Chapter 2). This information provided a baseline for establishing the in vivo anaesthetic
potential of these chemicals on different size classes of H. midae. Two additional
anaesthetics, carbon dioxide (C02) and benzocaine, were also included in this evaluation as
they are also known to induce anaesthesia in abalone (Sugiyama & Tanaka 1982, Hahn
1989d, Tong et al. 1992, Anonymous 1994).

The efficacy of an anaesthetic is subject to its ability to meet the requirements of the abalone
farmer. It was necessary therefore to first establish guideline criteria for the evaluation of
efficacy. It is well known that mechanical removal of abalone from any substratum can
damage the animals, resulting in mortality. The fundamental criteria were to discover an
anaesthetic medium, and to develop a protocol, that would result in mortality-free
anaesthesia. The second consideration was the rate of anaesthesia. Consultation with some
members of the industry revealed that an acceptable anaesthesia rate for industrial purposes
would be between 5-20 minutes (C . Claydon, Sea Plant Products, Hermanus, pers. comm.).
It was also argued by industry that a shorter exposure time would be advantageous as
presumably there is less time for the build-up of residues in the tissue. This is not only
important during the culturing process, but also immediately prior to exportation as the
animals would have to be anaesthetized for grading purposes before being shipped to their
final destination.

The development of a size-related dosage table was the primary objective of this
investigation. This would provide the abalone farmer with important information such as the
time required for specific concentrations to effect anaesthesia and the concentrations required
for different size classes of abalone. Effective concentration also affects costs which is an
important consideration in the commercial situation.

22
MATERIALS AND METIIODS
Three size classes (5-15, 20-50 and 60-90 mm shell length (SL» were selected for this study.
The small animals (5-15 mm SL) were obtained from the Sea Plant Products hatchery in
Hermanus, while larger animals (20-50 and 60-90 mm SL) were collected along the Eastern
Cape Coast. Prior to the initiation of the experiments, the animals were acclimated to
laboratory conditions for a period of one month. During the acclimation period the animals
were kept at a temperature of 18 °C and a salinity of 35 ppt. All experiments were conducted
at this temperature and salinity.

The effect of a range of concentrations of MgS04, 2-phenoxyethanol, procaine hydrochloride,

EDTA and benwcaine as well as a range of flow rates of a C~ : ~ gas mixture were
evaluated. Initial concentrations for each size class were selected on a trial and error basis.
The final concentrations tested were based around the initial test concentrations, depending
on the rate of anaesthesia. The gas mixture that was selected for this study
(11.3% CO2 : 88.7% O2) was based on that used in fish (Itazawa 1983, Yoshikawa et al.
1988a, 1988b, Yokoyama et al. 1989).

The following replicate trials were undertaken: four replicates for each concentration of
MgS04, EDTA, and 2-phenoxyethanol for each of the three size classes; four replicates for
each concentration of benzocaine for the two smaller size classes (5-15 and 20-50 mm SL)
and three replicates for each concentration of benzocaine for the largest size class
(60-90 mm SL); three replicates for each flow rate of CO2 for each of the three size classes
and four replicates for each concentration of procaine hydrochloride for the two smaller size
classes (5-15 and 20-50 mm SL). The trials were undertaken in plastic buckets containing 5
litres of continuously aerated seawater. Ten animals were placed in each bucket and allowed
to attach to the sides. To obtain the required dose ranges, the chemicals were either
administered on a weight basis (MgS04 and procaine hydrochloride) or on a volumetric basis
(2-phenoxyethanol, EDTA and benzocaine). EDTA is insoluble in seawater and was therefore
first dissolved in distilled water (1:20) prior to mixing it with seawater. Benzocaine was
dissolved in 95% ethanol (1:8) prior to mixing it with seawater (Reynolds 1982, Tong et al.
1992). Once all the animals were firmly attached to the substratum, the seawater was poured
out and replaced with the anaesthetic solution.

23
Anaesthesia with CO 2 was induced by bubbling the gas, via a diffuser, through the water.
The flow rate through the experimental chamber was controlled with a Messer Griesheim
gas-flow regulator. O2 and pH levels in the seawater were measured before commencing each
run and one ~ anaesthesia had been complete. The time taken for each animal to be
completely anaesthetized was noted to the nearest I +0.5 sec. Complete anaesthesia was
defined as the inability of the abalone to adhere onto the side or bottom of the experimental
chamber. To terminate anaesthesia, the animals were transferred to a bucket containing fresh,
aerated seawater and placed upside down on the bottom of the container. The time taken for
each animal to recover was noted. Recovery was defined to be complete when the abalone
turned right side up.

As the disodium salt of EDTA was used a separate experiment was conducted to evaluate the
effect of different concentrations of EDTA on the salinity of the seawater. The concentrations
of EDT A used to anaesthetize the animals were dissolved in distilled water and made up to
the required volume with seawater. The salinity of the seawater was measured before and
after EDTA had been added. Three replicates were undertaken for each concentration.

Statistical analysis
To test the effect of concentration, or flow rate in the case of COz on anaesthesia and
recovery rate, data were subjected to One-Way Analysis of Variance, with the main effects
being concentration or flow rate. Means were compared using Tukey's Multiple Range Test
at 5 % error probability. Homogeneity of variances were tested with Bartlett's Test. When
required, the natural logarithm transformation was used to stabilise the variances. Simple
regression procedure was used to obtain the best model to predict the anaesthesia rate for the
three most suitable chemicals as a function of concentration or flow rate. The model with the
highest T-value for the slope, the highest F-ratio and most random residual pattern was
chosen to be the best fit. When the models were found to be unsuitable for predicting
anaesthesia rate as a function of concentration or flow rate, the data were subjected to the
Kruskal-Wallis One-Way Analysis by Ranks procedure. This procedure was used to analyze
whether the distribution of anaesthesia rate varies with concentration.

The pH, O2 levels and salinities measured during the CO2 and EDT A trials, were subjected
to One-Way Analysis of Variance, with the main effects being flow rate (COz) and
concentration (EDT A). Means were compared using Tukey's Multiple Range Test at 5%

24
error probability. Homogeneity of variances were tested with Bartlett's Test (Zar 1984).

RESULTS
Exposure to different concentrations of MgSO., 2-phenoxyethanol, procaine hydrochloride,
EDTA and benzocaine, and continuous bubbling of the CO2 gas mixture at different flow
rates all resulted in complete anaesthesia in all three abalone size classes. The mean time to
effect complete anaesthesia, mean recovery rate, percentage recovery and percentage survival
at each of the concentrations and flow rates are shown in Tables 3.1 to 3.3. One-Way
Analysis of Variance showed that there was an inverse relationship between concentration
or flow rate and rate of anaesthesia; the higher the concentration the more rapid the rate of
anaesthesia. Statistical differences between mean anaesthesia rates for different concentrations
or flow rates are shown in Tables 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 using different superscripts (p<0.05).
The only instance in which there was not an inverse relationship between effective
concentration and rate of anaesthesia was for the smallest size class subjected to different 2-
phenoxyethanol and MgSO. concentrations (see Table 3.1) . There is no pharmacological
explanation for this phenomenon.

Abalone size was also positively correlated with effective concentration or flow rate; higher
concentrations were required for larger animals. Statistical differences in recovery rates at
different concentrations are shown in Tables 3. 1,3.2 and 3.3 . There were no apparent trends
in the recovery rates within the size classes. However, higher concentrations and flow rates
were required for larger animals which resulted in longer recovery times. All the animals
anaesthetized with MgSO., 2-phenoxyethanol and CO2 recovered once they were placed in
fresh seawater. Half of the small abalone (5-15 mm SL) treated with procaine hydrochloride
at a concentration of 0.5 g.100 ml- l did not recover from anaesthesia. All the medium size
animals (20-50 mm SL) treated with the same concentration of procaine hydrochloride
recovered, but died after 48 hours. Because of the high mortalities recorded at a
concentration of 0.5 % in the two smaller size classes, no further experiments were
undertaken with procaine hydrochloride. Post-recovery mortalities were also recorded in the
EDT A treatments. All the animals in the 60-90 mm SL groups treated at a concentration of
5.0 g. IOO ml- l died after 48 hours (Table 3.2). Mortalities were also recorded in the
benzocaine treatments, during and after anaesthesia (Table 3.3) .

25
Table 3.1. The mean rate of anaesthesia, recovery, percentage recovery and percentage survival of three size
classes of Haliotis midae after exposure to MgSO, and 2-phenoxyethanol. Standard deviations of the means are
also presented. Different superscripts indicate significant differences in mean anaesthesia and recovery rates at
p <O.OS (Note: although the same superscripts were used to denote statistical differences or similarities, the
anaesthesia and recovery rates were analyzed separately and should be interpreted as such).

MgSO,

Size (mm SL) Cone. Mean rare Mean Perrentage Percentage

g.l00 mi" of recovery recovery survival
anaesthesia rare
(min) (min)

5-IS 2 25 .0±IS.S' S.S±3.9" 100 100

3 4.9+4.9' 14.S±S.7' 100 100
4 2.0±2.2"" 9.2+4.9" 100 100
6 * 0.S+1.2' 6 . 1±3 .6' 100 100
S *2.0+2.1"" S.9+4.1' 100 100
10 0.3+0.3' 2.9+2.0' 100 100

20-S0 6 IS.S±S.S' 26. S±4. 0" 100 100

S 1O.9±7.2' 22.9+7 .9" 100 100
10 S.0+S.3' 21.S+S.2" 100 100
12 6.6+4.5" IS.O±S.S' 100 100
14 S.2+S.0'" 24.0±10.2· 100 100
16 3.S+2.3'" Il.S±4.7' 100 100
IS 2.4+2.0" S.0+3.3' 100 100

60-90 14 47.S+ 19.3' 134.S±IS.6' 100 100

16 3S.7+9.6' 77.2 + 27.4' 100 100
IS 30.3±IS.2J SS.3±14.6' 100 100
20 25.0±13.2! 112.S±2S.5i 100 100
22 9.3±4.9' 3S .2+20.2' 100 100
24 3.S+2.7' 22. 1+13.0' 100 100

2-phenoxyethanol ml .100 mi"

S-15 0.05 * 0.S±0.7 m 2.6+0.Sm 100 100

0.1 * 1.6±0.7' 4.S±2.7' 100 100
O. IS O.S±O.4' 3.1+2. lm 100 100
0.2 0.2+0.1' 2.4+ I.Sm 100 100

20-S0 0.05 4. 1±1.4' 7.6±3.0" 100 100

0.1 4.S+2.2' 13.6±6.S" 100 100
0.2 I.S±1.I ' 13.2±S.I"" 100 100
0.3 1.l±0.9' 23.6+13 . 1' 100 100
0.4 0.4+0. 1' 23 .1±9.S' 100 100
0.5 0.4+0.S' 21.1 + 12.3'" 100 100

60-90 0.1 7.0+3.7" 17.2+6.S' 100 100

0.3 2.9+2.3' 46 .0+24.6' 100 100
O.S 1.l± 1. 0" 39 .9 + 14.S' 100 100
0.7 O.S+O.5" 42.9+23.9' 100 100
+: Deviations from inverse relationship between concentration and rate of anaestbesia.

26
Table 3.2. The mean rate of anaesthesia, recovery, percentage recovery and percentage survival of three size
classes of Haliotis midae after exposure to EDTA and two size classes after exposure to procaine hydrochloride.
Standard deviations of the means are also presented. Different superscripts indicate significant differences in
mean anaesthesia and recovery rates at p < 0.05 (Note: although the same superscripts were used to denote
statistical differences or similarities, the anaesthesia and recovery rares were analyzed separately and should be
interpreted as such) .

EDTA
Size (mm SL) Cone. Mean rate Mean Percentage Percentage
g.100 mi·' of recovery recovery survival
anaesthesia rate
(min) (min)

5-15 0. 1 2.3.±2.6' 5.0+3.4' 100 100

0.3 0.7 +0.5' 1.6 + 1.2' 100 100
0.5 0.3.±0.2' 0.9+0.4' 100 100
1.0 0.2+0.1' 3.0+ 1.3' 100 100

20-50 0.5 5.8.±4.2' 5.8.±2.1' 100 100

1.0 3.5 +2.5' 10.0+3 .8' 100 100
2.0 2. 1.± 1. 5' 8.9.±3.5' 100 100
3.0 0.7 + 0.7' 10.4+3.6' 100 100

60-90 1.0 7. 1 +4.4' 14.7,±4.4' 100 100

3.0 4.9.±2.6' 22. 6.±6. 3' 100 100
5.0 1.7+1.2' 29.4+ 11.0' 100 0

Procaine hydrochloride g.100 mi"

5-15 0.5 3.2+4.3 26.2+20.8 50 0

20-50 0.5 2.2 + 1.8 7.5+2.8 100 0

Statistical differences in pH and O2 levels were recorded during the CO 2 anaesthesia trials
(Table 3.4). At each of the flow rates, except at 6 l.min·t for the 5-15 mm SL H. midae, a
mean pH change of 2+0.05 and a mean O2 level change of 25+0.8 mg.!·t was noted. The
mean pH and O2 level change at the 6 l.min· t flow rate for the 5-15 mm SL H. midae was
1.71 and 17.4 mg.!·t respectively.

The use of the disodium salt of EDT A resulted in an increase in salinity of the seawater at
all concentrations (Table 3.5).

The predicted anaesthesia rate as a function of concentration or flow rate for the three most
suitable anaesthetics (MgS04' 2-phenoxyethanol and CO 2), are shown in Figures 3.1 to 3.8.
Anaesthesia rate could not be predicted as a function of concentration for the smallest size

27
class (5-15 mm SL) anaesthetized with 2-phenoxyethanol. However, Kruskal-Wallis analysis
showed that there were significant differences between the mean anaesthesia rates (p < 0.05).
These statistical differences in mean anaesthesia rates are confirmed by One-Way Analysis
of Variance (Tables 3.1 and 3.3).

Table 3.3. The mean rate of anaesthesia, recovery, percentage recovery and percentage survival of three size
classes of HaUotis midae after exposure to benzocaine and a CO,: 0, gas mixture (11.3% : 88.7%). Standard
deviations of the means are also presented. Different superscripts indicate significant differences in mean
anaesthesia and recovery rates at p<0.05 (Note: although the same superscripts were used to denote statistical
differences or similarities, the anaesthesia and recovery rates were analyzed separately and should be interpreted
as such).

Benzocaine

Size (nun SL) Cone. Mean rate Mean Percentage Percentage

g.IOO ml-l of recovery recovery survival
anaesthesia rate
(min) (min)

5-15 0.0003 1.1.±0.8' 1.4.±0.7" loo loo

0.0005 1.0+0.6' 0.6+0.4' loo loo
0.001 0.9+0.5' 1.4+0.6b loo loo
0.oo3 0.6+0.3' 1.6.±0.7b 100 loo
0.oo5 0.2+0.lb 1.7+0.7" loo loo

20-50 0.oo5 2.4.± 1. 9' 5.2 + 2.1' 100 100

0.01 2.1.±1.6'" 6.4.±3.2" 100 100
0.02 1. 6 + 1. 3"" 9.9.±7.:l" 100 loo
0.04 1. O.±O. 9'" 8.1.±5.4d 100 80
0.06 0.8+0 .6' 7.4+2.9" 100 73

60-90 0.05 9.2.±3.I' 84.0+20.6' loo 87

0. 1 7.7.±2.I' > 4{)()()1 90 27
0.2 3.7+2.4> 315.5+64.8 b loo loo

CO, Flow rate

ol
"min
5-15 3 5.9.±4.4b 3.0.±2.8' loo 100
4 3.1+2.3b 2.7.±2.6' loo loo
5 1. 6.± 1.3' 1.8+ 1. 7' loo loo
6 0.6+0.& 1.1 +0.6' 100 100

20-50 2 10.2+8.7' 3.8+ 1.<Ji 100 100

3 5.6.±4.1" 4.0.±2.Oi loo 100
4 2.7.±1.7' 0.6.±0.3' 100 100
5 1.2.± 1. 0" 0.8+0.5' loo loo
6 1.1 +0.9" O.9.±0.5' 100 loo
7 0.8+0.7'" 0.7+0.4' 100 100

60-90 6 12.6.±9.6" 5.7+3 .5' 100 100

8 8.5.±3 .6" 2.8+2.7'" 100 100
10 4.5.±2.S" 2.6.±1.6m loo 100
12 2.6+2. 1" 1.9+ 1. 3m 100 100

28
Table 3.4. The mean pH and 0, levels measured in the test tanks before and after anaesthesia of three size
classes of three size classes of Haliotis midae with a CO, : 0, gas mixture (11.3% : 88.7%). Different
superscripts indicate significant differences in mean pH and 0, level cbanges at p<0.05.

Size Flow Mean total exposure time Mean 0, Mean pH

(rnrn rate to tbe gas mixture concentration
SL) (I .min-') (min) (mg.I-')

Start End Change Start End Change

of run of run of run of run

5-15 3 13.62 8.67 34.00' 25.33° 7.91 5.91" 2.01'

4 7.06 8.67 33.97' 25.30' 7.88 5.93' 1.95'
5 3.61 8.63 33.77' 25.13° 7.89 5.90" 1.99'
6 1.69 8.47 25.87' 17.40' 7.92 6.21' 1.71'

20-50 2 23.76 8.97 34. 17' 25.20° 7.90 5.86" 2.04'

3 13. 15 8.73 34.00' 25.27° 7.89 5.90" 1.99'
4 5.31 8.83 34.07' 25.23° 7.86 5.86°' 2.00'
5 3.03 8.80 33.90' 25.10° 7.87 5.88" 1.99'
6 2.44 8.67 33.73' 25.07' 7.89 5.90" 1.99'
7 1.98 8.77 33.03' 24.27' 7.88 5.92" 1.96'

60-90 6 30.92 8.77 34.13' 25.37' 7.86 5.88" 1.98'

8 14.08 8.50 34.13' 25.63' 7.92 5.92" 2.00'
10 8.79 8.87 34.40' 25.53' 7.85 5.83' 2.02'
12 6.58 8.53 33.93' 25.40' 7.91 5.88" 2.03'

Table 3.5. Salinity changes in seawater after the addition of different concentrations of EDTA. Different
superscripts indicate significant differences in mean salinity level changes at p<0.05.

Concentration of EDT A Mean salinity of seawater at Mean salinity change of

(g.100 ml-' seawater) end of run (ppt) seawater (ppt)

0.1 35.5' 0.5'

0.3 36.0" 1.0"

0.5 36.5" 1.5"

1.0 37.0"" 2.0"

2.0 38.0'" 3.0'"

3.0 39.0"

5.0 42.0' 7.Qi

Salinity at the start of each run was 35 .0 ppt.

29
 50 40
5.93114 -1.8003
Y= e .X
40 Y= 93.58904 . X-2.22259
30 2
'2' r =0.37
r2 = 0.43 '2'
~ 30 E 20
<D
E
F
20 ~
F
10
10
.
,,
0 ~ 0

2 4 6 8 10 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Concentration (g.1 OOml-1) 1

Concentration (g. 100m1- )

Figure 3.1. The predicted anaeSthesia rates for Figure 3.2. The predicted anaesthesia rates fcc
5-15 mm SL Halialis midae at different 20-50 mm SL Halialis midae at different
concentrations of MgS04 • concentrations of MgSO,.

100 17.3029 -4.96379

Y= e .x
80
r2 = 0.57
C
~ 60
Ql
E 40
F
20
a
14 16 18 20 22 24

Concentration (g.l ooml- 1)

Figure 3 .3. The predicted anaesthesia rates for

60-90 nun SL Halialis midae at different
concentrations of MgS04 •

DISCUSSION
EDTA , procaine hydrochloride and benzocaine failed to meet the efficacy criteria as abalone
anaesthetics in terms of recovery and survival rate. At a concentration of 5.0 g.lOO mi",
EDT A effectively caused anaesthesia in the largest size class, but all the animals died 48
hours after recovery. It was hypothesized that the cause of death might not have been related
to the anaesthetic, but could have been a consequence of the animals being exposed to a rapid

30
 15 30
5.2:2588 • X-3·38684
12
y-e 25 Y = 8 3.45211. X -2.10961
r2 = 0.39
C
E 9 g 20
15
r2 = 0.44
Q) CD
E 6 E
1= 1= 10
3 5
~
Ii
0 0
3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6 7

Row rale O.min-1 ) Row rata Q.mln-1 }

Figure 3.4. The predicted anaesthesia rates for Figure 3.5. The predicted anaesthesia rates fir
5-15 mm SL Halioris midae at different 20-50 mm SL Halioris midae at different
flow rates of an 11.3% CO,: 88.7% 0, gas flow rates of an 11.3 % CO, : 88.7% 0, gas
mixture. mixture.

40
y = e 6.96672, x -2,54561
30
c r2 = 0.32
'E
Q)
20
E
1=
10

0
6 8 10 12

Row rale O.min -1)

Figure 3.6. The predicted anaesthesia rates for

60-90 mm SL Halioris midae at different
flow rates of an 11.3% CO,: 88.7% 0, gas
mixture.

salinity change (Hahn 1989d). At a concentration of 5.0 g.IOO mI" EDTA, the disodium salt
effected a 7 ppt increase in salinity to which the animals were instantaneously exposed . This
may have been the cause of death 48 hours later. Another disadvantage of EDT A is that it
is insoluble in seawater and needs to be dissolved in distilled water (1 :20) and then made up
to the required volume with seawater. EDTA is therefore impractical and unsuitable for
com mercial application.

31
 10 16
y _ 8-1.80203 . X -1.19697 y= e~·8975 . x-1.18813
8
'2
r2 = 0.70 12 r2 = 0.55
E 6
8
~ 4
F
4
2

0 OW-______ L -_ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _~

0.05 0.1 0 .2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 .1 0.3 0.5 0.7

Concentration (ml.l00mI- 1) Concentration (ml.1(X)rrr1)
Figure 3.7. The predicted anaesthesia rates for Figure 3.8. The predicted anaesthesia rates fir
20-50 nun SL Halio/is midae at different 60-90 mm SL Halio/is midae at different
concentrations of 2-phenoxyetbanol. concentrations of 2-phenoxyethanol.

Procaine hydrochloride also resulted in mortalities in the two smallest size classes and was
therefore also regarded to be unsafe for commercial application . Mortalities were also
recorded for benzocaine during and after anaesthesia. Recovery times after benzocaine
anaesthesia were much too long in some instances. For example, the recovery times for 60-
90 mm SL animals anaesthetized with 0.2 and 0. 1 g.100 ml'! benzocaine were in excess of
300 and 4000 min , respectively. These recovery times are not acceptable in a commercial
situation, While no mortalities were observed during and after 0.2 g.100 ml'! benzocaine
anaesthesia, mortalities of 13% and 73% were observed for the 0.05 and 0. 1 g.100 ml'!
benzocaine treatments, respectively. These mortalities confirm the fears of the industry
regarding the efficiency and reliability of benzocaine as an anaesthetic for abalone.

The recovery rates after CO, (11.3 % CO,: 88.7% 0,) anaesthesia at a flow rate of 2 11m in
were compared to the recovery rates reported by Sugiyama and Tanaka (1982) for juvenile
Nordoris discus (8,3-29.8 mm SL). The recovery rates observed in this study were faster than
the recovery rates reported by Sugiyama and Tanaka (1982) for four CO, gas mixtures (25,
50, 75 and 100 % CO,) bubbled through 5 I of seawater at a flow rate of 2 lfmin. The higher
CO2 levels in the gas mixtures used by Sugiyama and Tanaka (1982) would have effected
higher partial pressures of CO2 in the water, resulting in a drop in pH (Spotte 1979).

Intracellular pH is actively regulated and is very sensitive to changes in the external partial
pressure of CO, (Izutsu 1972, Saborowski et at. 1973, Khuri et al. 1974). An increase in

32
external CO 2 concentration has been found to result in a large and rapid decrease in internal
pH (Izutsu 1972, Thomas 1974). Maintenance of intracellular pH is of major importance,
since it provides suitable conditions for the activity of cellular multi-enzyme systems (Malan
et al. 1976). Enzymes exert their activity over a limited range of pH and very often a
definitive optimum pH is required. Moreover, enzymes have pH-sensitive ionising groups
which contribute to the pattern of electrical charge over the enzyme surface, and these
regulate the extent to which the enzyme interacts with any substance whether substrate,
activator, coenzyme or inhibitor. Williams et al. (197Ia, 1971b) found a strong correlation
between decreased intracellular pH, transmembrane resting potential and ion (H+ and Na +)
transport. Decreased intracellular pH influences Na+-K+ activated ATPase which in tum
plays a major role in muscle contraction (Martin 1987). The rate of Ca2+ uptake into
mitochondria is also affected by pH (Martin 1987). A decrease in extramitochondrial pH will
decrease the rate of calcium uptake and in excitable cells such as muscle, calcium influx into
the cell is very important in the regulation of cell function. Since intracellular pH is very
sensitive to changes in the partial pressure of CO2 , the differences in recovery times reported
by Sugiyama and Tanaka (1982) and those reported here were most probably a consequence
of the extent of intracellular pH change. The intracellular pH in the animals anaesthetized
with the 25 , 50, 75 and 100 % CO2 gas mixtures by Sugiyama & Tanaka (1982) was most
likely decreased to a greater extent than in animals anaesthetized with the 11 % CO2 gas
mixture in this study. This probably affected the enzyme systems, and therefore the
transmembranal movement of ions required for muscle contraction to a greater extent in the
animals anaesthetized with the higher concentrations of C~. Thus, when animals are placed
in fresh seawater after low level CO 2 anaesthesia, the enzyme activity (and therefore muscle
activity) is expected to recover more rapidly due to the faster normalization of intracellular
pH levels. This explains the differences between the recovery rates reported by Sugiyama &
Tanaka (1982) and those found in this study, as well as the inverse relationship between
anaesthesia rate and flow rate of the CO2 gas mixture in this study.

Only three of the six chemicals tested, MgSO., 2-phenoxyethanol and the CO2 gas mixture,
met the criteria of an effective abalone anaesthetic as they induced rapid and mortality-free
anaesthesia in all three size classes of H. midae. MgSO., commonly known as epsom salts,
is freely available over-the-counter as a mild laxative for human medicinal use. A minor
disadvantage of MgSO. is that relatively large concentrations were required for anaesthesia.
2-Phenoxyethanol has been used widely in fish (Ross & Ross 1984, Marking & Meyer 1985,

33
Gilderhus & Marking 1987, Yamamitsu & ltazawa 1988, Iwama et ai. 1989, Mattson &
Riple 1989, Teo et ai. 1989, Teo & Chen 1993). It is not classified as a hazardous substance,
although, its MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) from Sigma Chemicals Corporation
(U.S.A.lCanada) states that it is harmful if swallowed and can cause ocular and respiratory
irritation (M.A. Carelaru, Sigma Chemicals Corporation, St. Louis, U.S.A. , pers. comm.
and T. Hall, Whitehead Scientific Laboratories, Cape Town, pers. comm.) . Safety
precautions also require the user to wear protective clothing. CO2 has been used as an
anaesthetic in almost every animal phylum (Ross & Ross 1984). It has also been shown to
be an efficient and cost-effective anaesthetic for fish, as well as for other aquatic organisms,
including abalone (Sugiyama & Tanaka 1982). Other advantages of CO2 is that it leaves no
residues, requires no depuration period and requires no registration, since its use in food fish
is already allowed under the present GRAS (generally regarded as safe) declaration by the
U.S.A. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (Gilderhus & Marking 1987).

In conclusion, the data obtained in this study provides the commercial farmer with important
information. The dosage tables and the predicted concentrations for MgS04 and
2-phenoxyethanol or flow rates for CO 2 (see Figures 3.1 to 3.8) can be used as guidelines
for the effective anaesthesia of different sized animals. The three most suitable chemicals
therefore warranted further consideration as anaesthetics for H . midae. The effect of
temperature on anaesthesia rate as well as the long term physiological effects of regular
anaesthesia will be dealt with in the next chapters.

34
 CRAnER 4
TIlE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE EFFICACY OF MAGNESIUM
SULPHATE AND CARBON DIOXIDE ANAESTHESIA IN HALIOTIS MIDAE

INTRODUCTION
The efficacy of anaesthetics can vary widely with water temperature (Gilderhus & Marking
1987). The general tendency is for anaesthesia to be effected quicker at higher temperatures.
Gilderhus (1989) showed that the efficacy of benzocaine for salmonid fishes (Oncorhynchus
Ishawylscha and O. mykiss) was related to water temperature and fish size; the concentrations
of benzocaine required for effective anaesthesia of these salmonid fish was the highest at the
lowest water temperature and for the largest fish. Similarly, concentrations of benzocaine
required for anaesthesia of Prochilodus linealus and Morone saxatilis were higher at lower
water temperatures and recovery rate in M. saxalilis was more rapid at higher temperatures
(Parma de Croux 1990, Gilderhus et ai. 1991). A faster anaesthesia rate with an increase in
water temperature was also observed in scallops, Pecten Jumatus anaesthetized with chloral
hydrate (Heasman et ai. 1995).

The effect of temperature on the efficacy of anaesthetics is of primary importance in

commercial abalone culture. The temperature at which abalone are cultured can be controlled
to a certain extent with the aid of heating-cooling units. However, considering the quantities
of water involved, maintaining water temperature at a constant level throughout the year
would not be economical. Water temperature in South African abalone hatcheries and pilot
grow-out facilities range from 9°C to 22°C (C. Claydon, Sea Plant Products, Hermanus,
pers. comm . and C. Muller, Marine Growers, Port Elizabeth, pers. comm.).

Given the substantial range of temperatures at which abalone are cultured in South Africa,
it was decided to investigate the effect of a range of temperatures (14, 16, 18 and 20°C) on
the efficacy of magnesium sulphate (MgSO.) and carbon dioxide (CO v as anaesthetics for
three size classes of Haliotis midae. 2-Phenoxyethanol was not considered in this
investigation because it caused mortalities during a growth trial (Chapter 5).

MATERIALS AND METIlODS

Three size classes (5-15, 20-50 and 60-90 mm shell length (SL» of H. midae were selected
for this investigation. The small animals (5-15 mm SL) were obtained from the Sea Plant

35
Products hatchery in Hermanus, while larger animals (20-50 and 60-90 mm SL) were
collected along the Eastern Cape Coast. Prior to the initiation of the experiments, the animals
were acclimatized to laboratory conditions for a period of one month after which animals
from each size class were acclimatee to 14, 16, 18 and 20°C for two weeks. All experiments
were conducted at a salinity of 35 ppt.

The effect of a range of concentrations of MgSO. (Table 4.1) and flow rates of an 11.3 %
CO2 : 88.7% O2 gas mixture (Table 4.2) were evaluated. Initial concentrations were based
on the results described in Chapter 3. Each trial consisted of three replicates of 10 animals.

The trials were undertaken in plastic buckets containing 5 litres of continuously aerated
seawater at the predetermined temperature. Ten animals were placed in each bucket and
allowed to attach to the sides. To obtain the required dose ranges, MgSO. was weighed and
dissolved in seawater. Once all the animals were firmly attached to the substratum, the
seawater was poured out and replaced with the anaesthetic solution at exactly the same
temperature. Anaesthesia with CO2 was induced by bubbling the gas via a diffuser, through
the seawater. The flow rate through the experimental chamber was controlled with a Messer
Griesheim gas-flow regulator. O2 and pH levels in the seawater were measured before
commencing each run and once anaesthesia had been complete. The time taken for each
animal to be completely anaesthetized was noted to the nearest 1+0.5 sec. Complete
anaesthesia was defined as the inability of the abalone to adhere onto the side or bottom of
the experimental chamber. To terminate anaesthesia, the animals were transferred to a bucket
containing fresh, aerated seawater at the same temperature and placed upside down on the
bottom of the container. The time taken for each animal to revive was noted. Recovery was
defined to be complete when the abalone turned right side up.

Statistical analysis
To analyze the effect of MgSO. concentration and CO2 flow rate on anaesthesia and
recovery rates, data were subjected to One-Way Analysis of Variance, with the main effects
being concentration and flow rate. Means were compared using Tukey's Multiple Range Test
at 5% error probability. Homogeneity of variances were tested with Bartlett's Test. When
necessary, the natural logarithm transformation was used to stabilise the variances. Simple
regression procedure was used to obtain the best model to predict anaesthesia rate as a
function of concentration or flow rate at the various temperatures. The model with the

36
highest T -value for the slope, the highest F-ratio and most random residual pattern was
chosen to be the best fit. When the model was found to be unsuitable for predicting
anaesthesia rate as a function of concentration or flow rate, the data were subjected to the
Kruskal-Wallis One-Way Analysis by Ranks procedure.

To test the effect of temperature on anaesthesia and recovery rate, data were subjected to
Multifactor Analysis of Variance, with the main effects being temperature and concentration
or flow rate. Means were compared using Tukey's Multiple Range test at 5% error
probability. Homogeneity of variances were tested with Bartlett's Test. When necessary, the
natural logarithm transformation was used to stabilise the variances.

The pH and O2 levels measured during the CO2 trials, were subjected to One-Way Analysis
of Variance, with the main effects being flow rate. Means were compared using Tukey's
Multiple Range Test. Homogeneity of variances were tested with Bartlett's Test CZar 1984).

RESULTS
Exposure to different concentrations of MgS04 and continuous bubbling of the CO2 gas
mixture at different flow rates resulted in complete anaesthesia in all three size classes at all
temperatures. The mean time to effect complete anaesthesia and recovery at each of the
MgS04 concentrations and C~ flow rates at the various temperatures are shown in Tables
4.1 and 4.2. One-Way Analysis of Variance showed that there was an inverse relationship
between MgS04 concentration and CO2 flow rate and rate of anaesthesia at all four
temperatures, i.e. the higher the concentration or flow rate, the more rapid the rate of
anaesthesia. Statistical differences or similarities between mean anaesthesia rates for different
concentrations and flow rates within the particular temperatures are shown in Tables 4. 1 and
4.2 respectively, using different superscripts (p<0.05) . The size of abalone was also
positively correlated with effective MgS04 concentration and CO2 flow rate. In each case
higher concentrations were required for larger animals.

All the animals anaesthetized with MgS04 and CO2 at the four temperatures recovered once
they were placed in clean seawater. Statistical differences in recovery rates at different
concentrations and flow rates are shown in Tables 4. 1 and 4.2 respectively, using different
superscripts (p < 0.05). With the exception of a slight tendency towards a decrease in
recovery rate with an increase in MgS04 concentration and CO2 flow rate, there were no

37
apparent trends in the recovery rates within size classes. However, higher MgSO.
concentrations and CO2 flow rates were required for larger animals which resulted in
substantially longer recovery times for the larger animals in comparison to recovery times
for smaller animals. This tendency was especially evident when MgSO. was used.

Tables 4.3 and 4.4 show the effect of temperature on mean anaesthesia and recovery rates
for all three size classes of H. midae. The statistical superscripts indicate differences or
similarities between the various temperatures (p < 0.05). In general, there was an inverse
relationship between temperature and rate of anaesthesia, i.e. the higher the temperature, the
more rapid the rate of anaesthesia. There was no statistical difference in the rate of
anaesthesia at 18°C and 20°C for 5-15 and 20-50 mm SL H. midae anaesthetized with CO2 ,

Temperature also had an effect on recovery rate. The general tendency was for recovery
rates to be more rapid at higher temperatures. There was no statistical difference in the rate
of recovery from CO2 anaesthesia at 18°C and 20°C for the two larger size classes. Similarly
there was no statistical difference in the recovery rate from 12 g. l00 mt' MgSO. anaesthesia
of the 20-50 mm SL animals between 16°C and 18°C.

pH and O2 levels recorded during the CO2 anaesthesia trials are shown in Tables 4.5 and 4.6.
Except for the tanks with the two smaller size classes animals subjected to a CO2 flow rate
of 6 I. min" at 18°C and 20°C, and at 20°C, respectively, there were no significant
differences in the O2 concentration levels and pH. The changes in pH level in the seawater
at 14°C and 16°C were slightly higher than the changes in pH level at 18°C and 20°C.

The predicted anaesthesia rate as a function of MgSO. concentration and CO 2 flow rate are
shown in Figures 4.1 to 4.23 . Anaesthesia rate could not be predicted as a function of
MgSO. concentration for the 20-50 mm SL animals at 16°C. However, Kruskal-Wallis
analysis showed that animals were anaesthetized significantly more rapid with 18 g.l00 mt'
MgSO.
than with 12 g.l00 ml-' MgSO. (p < 0.05). These statistical differences were confirmed by
One-Way Analysis of Variance (Table 4.1).

38
 Table 4.1. The mean anaesthesia and recovery rates for three size classes of Haliofis midae after exposure to MgS04 at four temperatures. Standard deviations of the means
also are presented. Different superscripts indicate significant differences in mean anaesthesia and recovery rates at p < 0.05 (note: although the same superscripts were
used to denote statistical differences or similarities, anaesthesia and recovery rates were analyzed separately and should be interpreted as such).

Temp. Size Cone. Mean rate Mean Size Cone. Mean rate Mean Size Cone. Mean rate Mean
·C (mm SL) g.lOO mr' of recovery (mm SL) g.lOO mi" of recovery (mm SL) g.lOO mr' of recovery
anaesthesia rate anaesthesia rate anaesthesia rate
(min) (min) (min) (min) (min) (min)

14 5-15 2 33.9,±14.7' 15.9.±6.4' 20-50 12 15.6.±7.0' 39.2.±8.8,b 60-90 20 23.2+11.6' 80.0.±29.8'

4 6.6.±4.7b 9.9.±4.3b 14 11.3.±5.5,b 39.8+15.2' 22 16.6.±8.0'" 62.8+24.9'
6 4.0.±2.8b 11.1+3.6,b 16 7.8.±4.S"" 32.2+6.2b 24 12.7+7.0" b
8 I. 9.± I. 4' 11.8+6.9 b 18 6.0.±3.3' 18.9.±9.2' 26 8.9.±4S 53.6.±26.6b
48.4+23.3 b

16 5-15 2 30.7.±14.8' 12.0+7.3' 20-50 12 8.3.±6.3' 20.4+6 .6' 60-90 20 17.4+7.9" 35.6.±17.6'
4 3.4.±3.4' 10.8+5.2' 14 6. 6.±4. 7"" 20.9.±10. I' 22 13.7.±6.I' ,
6 2.0.±1.7" 8.6.±4.6'" 16 6.2+4.6" 22.9+11.1' 24 8.3+3.3" 49.3+22.9'
v.> 8 1.2 + 1.1' 6.3.±3.8' 18 4. 1.±3.3' 20.7.±12.8' 26 6.9.±2.4' 26.2.±18.7'
~
,
15.6+ 10.6'

20-50 60-90 14 47.8+ 19.3'

18 5-15 2
3
25.0.±15.8'
4.9+4.9"
8.5.±3.9'
14.5+5.7'
6
8
18.5.±8.8'
10.9.±7.2'
26. 5.±4. 0"
22.9.±7.9" 16 38.7.±9.6'
,134.8.±18.6
4 2. 0.±2. 2'" 9.2.±4.9' 10 8.0+5.3' 21.8+8.2" 18 30.3 +15.2' 77.2.±27.4h
6 O. 8.± 1.2; 6.1.±3 .6' 12 6.6.±4.5" 18.0.±8.5' 20 25.0+ 13.2' 85.3.±14.6h
8 2.0.±2.1 '" 8.9.±4.1' 14 5.2+5.0'" 24.0,±10.2' 22 9.3+4.9" 112.5+28.5
10 0.3.±0.Ji 2.9.±2.0' 16 3.8+2.3'" 11.8.±4.7' 24 3.8+2.1
18 2.4+2.0; 8.0.±3.3h 35.2+20.2;
22.1+13.0'

20 5-15 8.6.±7.I' 2.2.±2.5' 20-50 8 3.0+2.Qi 3.7+3.0; 60-90 18 9.3+5.0 50.0+20.&

2 3.4.±2.7' 2.0.±1.5ij 10 1.7.±0.9' 3.6+ 1.6; 20 7.8.±3.Y' 28.1.±17.6'
3 2.6.±1.8' 0.9.±l.lj 12 1.0+0.5" 2.0.±2.4J 22 6.2+3.0' 23.2.±15.8'
4 1.4+ 1.0' 1.1+0.8" 14 0.8+0.6' 4.3+2.0; 24 3.7+2.0' 18.8+ 11.7'

All animals recovered from anaesthl!sia once they were placed in fresh seawater and no post-recovery mortalities were recorded.
 Table 4.2. The mean anaesthesia and recovery rates for three size classes of Haliotis "'idae after expusure to a CO, : 0, gas mixture (11.3 % : 88.7 %) at four temperatures.
Standard deviations of the means are also presented. Different superscripts indicate significant differences in mean anaesthesia and recovery rates at p < 0.05 (note: although
the same superscripts were used to denote statistical differences or similarities, anaesthesia and recovery rates were analyzed separately and should be interpreted as such).

Temp. Size Flow Mean rate Mean Size Flow Mean rate Mean Size Flow Mean rate Mean
·C (mm SL) rate of recovery (mm SL) rate of recovery (mm SL) rate of recovery
I.min-1 anaesthesia rate I.min-I anaes thesia rate l.min-1 anaesthesia rate
(min) (min) (min) (min) (min) (min)

14 5-15 4 11.6.±8.6' 8.6.±3.4' 20-50 5 21.7.±14.7' 1l.3.±5.3' 60-90 10 31.1.±15.4' 16.9.±5.0'

5 6.7.±4.9" 4.5+4.0b 6 12.1.±5.7 b 5.8.±3.2b 12 22.3.±11.4,b 14.8.±6.1'
6 5. 8.±4. 3"" 2.7.±2.7 b 7 7. 5.±5. 3'" 3.8.±2.2"" 14 17.1 +8.3 b 10.0.±8.2b
7 3.7+3.1' 3.3+3.0 b 8 3.9 +3.6' 3.3 +2.6' 16 10.0+5.3' 6.5 +4.9"

16 5-15 4 6. 5.±5. a' 5.5.±2.9' 20-50 5 1O.8.±5.6' 7.4.±3.3' 60-90 10 17.1.±8.8' 14.6.±4.6'
5 3.6.±2.4· 2.4.±2.0" 6 6.6.±3.7'" 3.3.±3.1' 12 11.8+5.8'" 4.4+3 .0"
6 2.7.±2.2" 1. 4.± 1.2' 7 2.8.±2.O" 2.4.± I. 6.r 14 8.4+5.5" 3.2+2.0"
7 2.2+ 1.9' 1.5+1.1' 8 1.8+2.0' 1.3+1.1' 16 6.7+5.8' 3.4+2.7"
t3
18 5-15 3 5.9.±4.4' 3.0.±2.8' 20-50 2 10.2.±8.7' 3.8.±1.9' 60-90 6 12.6.±9.6' 5.7.±3.5·
4 3.1.±2.3' 2.7.±2.6' 3 5.6+4.1'" 4.0+2.0' 8 8.5+3.6' 2.8.±2.7'
5 !.6.±1.3h 1.8.±!.?' 4 2.7.±1.7b 0.6.±0.3 h 10 4.5.±2.8b 2.6+ 1.6'
6 0.6.±0.6' 1.1.±0.6' 5 1.2.±1.0' 0.8+0.5' 12 2.6.±2.1 b 1.9+ 1.3'
6 1.1.±0.9' 0.9.±0.5 h
7 0.8+0.7' 0.7+0.4'

20 5-15 3 4.0.±2.G; 1. 3.± 1. 3" 20-50 3 5.2+4.Qi 2.1 + 1.5' 60-90 6 8.8.±7.7' 5.4+3.3'
4 3.2.±2.4i 2.4.±3 .0' 4 2.2.±1.5' 0.9.±0.7; 8 6.1.±5.3' 4.3.±3.3'"
5 1.3.±1.1' 1.0.±1.4'" 5 1.2+0.7" 0.6.±0.tY 10 4.1.±2.8' 2.5.±2.1 hl
6 0.5+0.4' 0.6+0.6 h 6 0.9+0.6' 0.6+0.tY 12 1.8+ 1.4i 1.6+0.9'

All animals recovered from anaesthesia once they were placed in fresh seawater and no post-recovery mortalities were recorded.
 Tahle 4.3. The effect of temperature on the mean anaesthesia and recovery rates for three size classes of Haliolis midae after exposure to MgSO,. Standard deviations of
the means are also presented. Different superscripts indicate significant differences in mean anaesthesia and recovery rates at different temperatures at p < 0 .05 (note:
although the same superscripts were used to denote statistical differences or similarities, anaesthesia and recovery rates were analyzed separately and should be interpreted
as such).

Temp Si7.e Cone. Mean rate Mean Size Cone. Mean rate Mean Size Cone. Mean rate Mean
'C (mm SL) g. 100 mI·' of recovery (mm SL) g.100 mI·' of recovery (mm SL) g.100 mI·' of recovery
anaesthesia rate anaesthesia rate anaesthesia rate
(min) (min) (min) (min) (min) (min)

14 S-IS 2 33.9.±14.7' IS.9.±6.4' 20-S0 12 IS.6.± 7.0' 39.2.±8.8" 60-90 20 23.2.±11.6' 80.0.±29.8'
4 6.6.±4.7' 9.9.±4.3' 14 11.3.±S.S" 39.8.±IS.2' 22 16.6.±8.O" 62.8+24.9"
6 4.0.±2.8' 11.1.±3.6" 16 7.8.±4.S'" 32.2+6.2' 24 12.7.±7.0'" 53.6.±26.6'
8 1.9+1.4' 11.8+6.9' 18 6.0+3.3' 18.9+9.2' 26 8.9+4.5' 48.4+23.3'

16 5-1S 2 30 .7.±14.8' 12.0.±7.3' 20-50 12 8.3.±6.3' 20.4 + 6.6' 60-90 20 17.4.±7.9' 35.6.±17.6'"
4 3.4.±3.4' 10.8+5.2' 14 6. 6.±4. 7" 20.9.±1O. 1' 22 i3.7.±6.I' 49.3+22.9'
6 2.0.±1.7" 8.6.±4.6"' 16 6.2.±4.6" 22.9.±1l.l' 24 8.3.±3.3' 26.2+ 18.7'
-I'-
~
8 1.2 + 1.1' 6.3+3 .8" 18 4.1+3.3' 20.7 + 12.8' 26 6.9+2.4' 15.6+ 10.6'

18 5-15 2 25.0.±15.8' 8.5.±3.9' 20-50 8 10.9+7.2' 22.9+7.9" 60-90 18 30.3.±15.2' 85.3+14.6'

3 4. 9.±4. 9" 14.5.±5.7' 10 8.0.±S.3' 21. 8.±8. 2" 20 25. 0.±i3. 2' 112.5+28.5'
4 2.0,±2.2N 9.2.±4.9' 12 6.6.±4.5" 18.0.±8.5' 22 9.3.±4.9' 35 .2+20.2'
6 O. 8.± 1.2' 6.1.±3.6' 14 5.2.±5.0'" 24. O.± 10.2' 24 3.8+2.7' 22.1.±13.0'
8 2.0,±2.IN 8.9.±4.1" 16 3.8.±2.3&h 11.8.±4.7'
18 2.4+2.0' 8.0+3.3'

20 S-15 2 3.4+2.7j 2.0.±1.5' 20-50 8 3.0+2.0' 3.7.±3.0' 60-90 18 9.3.±5.Oi 50.0+20.6'

3 2.6+1.8' 0.9.±1.l' 10 1.7.±0.9i 3.6.±!.6h 20 7.8+3 .31' 28.1+ 17.61
4 1.4.±I.Oi 1.l.±0.8N 12 1.0.±0.S" 2.0.±2.4' 22 6.2+3.0' 23 .2.±15.Si
14 0.8+0.6' 4.3+2.0' 24 3.7+2.0' 18.8+1!.7j
 Tahle 4.4. The effect of temperature on the mean anaesthesia and recovery rates for three size classes of Haliotis midae after exposure to a CO2 : O2 gas mixture
(11.3 % : 88.7 %). Standard deviations of the means are also presented. Different superscripts indicate significant differences in mean anaesthesia and recovery rates at
different temperatures at p < 0.05 (note: although the same superscripts were used to denote statistical differences or similarities, anaesthesia and recovery rates were
analyzed separately and should be interpreted as such).

Temp. Size Flow Mean rate Mean Size Flow Mean rate Mean Size Flow Mean rate Mean
·C (mm SL) rate of recovery (mm SL) rate of recovery (mm SL) rate of recovery
I.min·t anaesthesia rate l.min"' anaesthesia rate l.min°· anaesthesia rate
(min) (min) (min) (min) (min) (min)

14 5-15 4 11.6.±.8.6' 8.6.±.3.4' 20-50 5 21.7.±.14.7' 1I.3.±.5.3' 60-90 10 31.1 + 15.4' 16.9.±.5.0'
5 6.7.±.4.9b 4.5 + 4.0b 6 12.1+5.7 b 5.8.±.3.2' 12 22.3.±.11.4'" 14.8.±.6.I'
6 5. 8.±.4. 3"" 2.7 .±.2. 7' 7 7.5.±.5.3"" 3.8.±.2.2"" 14 17.1+8.3' 1O.0.±.8.2'
7 3.7+3 . 1' 3.3+3.0b 8 3.9+3.6' 3.3+2.6' 16 10.0+5.3' 6.5+4.9"

16 5-15 4 6.5.±.5.a' 5.5.±.2.9' 20-50 5 10.8.±.5.6' 7.4.±.3.3' 60-90 10 17.1.±.8.8' 14.6.±.4.6'

5 3.6.±.2.4' 2.4.±.2.0' 6 6.6.±.3.7'" 3.3+3.1' 12 11.8+5.8" 4.4.±.3.a'
6 2.7.±.2.2" 1.4+ 1.2' 7 2.8.±.2.()<' 2.4+ 1.6" 14 8.4+5.5'" 3.2.±.2.a'
.j:>. 7 2.2+ 1.9' 1.5+1.1' 8 1.8+2.0' 1.3+1.1' 16 6.7+5 .8' 3.4+2.7'
tv
18 5-15 3 5.9.±.4.4' 3.0.±.2.!r 20-50 3 5.6.±.4.1'" 4.0 +2.0' 60-90 6 12.6.±.9.6' 5. 7.±.3 S
4 3.1.±.2.3' 2.7.±.2.6' 4 2.7.±.1.7 h 0.6.±.0.3 h 8 8.5.±.3.6' 2.8.±.2.7'
5 1.6.±.!.3h 1. 83 _1.7" 5 1.2+ 1.0' 0.8.±.0.5 h 10 4.5.±.2.8h 2.6+ 1.6'
6 0.6.±.0.6h 1.1.±.0.6' 6 1.I.±.0.9' 0.9+0.5 h 12 2.6+2.lh 1.9.±.!.3'
7 0.8+0.7' 0.7 +O.4h

20 5-15 3 4.0.±.2.8' 1. 3.±.1. 3" 20-50 3 5. 2.±.4. 0'" 2.1.±.1.5' 60-90 6 8.8.±.7.7i 5.4.±.3.3"
4 3.2+2.4' 2.4.±.3.0· 4 2.2.±.1. 5h 0.9.±.0.7 b 8 6 . 1+5.3' 4.3+3.3"'
5 1.3.±.1.lh 1. O.±. 1. 4" 5 1.2+0.7' 0.6.±.0.6 h 10 4.1.±.2.8 i 2.5+2.1'
6 0.5 +O.4h 0.6+0.6h 6 0.9+0.6' 0.6+0.6h 12 1.8 + 1.4' 1.6+0.9'
Table 4.5. The mean pH and 0, levels measured in the test tanks before and after anaesthesia of three size
classes of HaUotis midae at 14'C and 16'C with a Co, : 0, gas mixture (11.3% : 88.7%). Different
superscripts indicate significant differences in mean pH and 0, level changes at p<0.05.

Temp. Size Flow Mean total Mean 0, Mean

'c (nun SL) rate exposure time to concentration pH
I.mino1 the gas mixture mg.I·'
(min)

Start End Change Start End Change

of run of run of run of run

14 5-15 4 28.64 9.10 34.50' 25.40' 7.86 5.75 1 2.11~

5 15.50 8.87 34.43' 25.57' 7.82 5.75 1 2.06~

6 12.47 9.03 34.53' 25.50' 7.85 5.76 1 2 . 09~

T 9.08 8.97 34.50' 25.53' 7.84 5.77'" 2.07"

14 20-50 5 47.86 9.20 34.77' 25.57' 7.91 5.81 .... 2. 1051

6 21.34 9.13 34.70' 25 .57' 7.89 5.80'" 2.09'1
7 16.74 9.13 34.57' 25.43' 7.81 5.76 1 2 .05'
8 11.94 9.00 34.50' 25.50' 7.82 5.78'" 2.05'

14 60-90 10 60.11 8.47 33.87' 25.40' 7.95 5.79'" 2.16"

12 44.00 8.57 33.60' 25 .03' 7.92 5.801mo 2.12"
14 30.37 8.63 33.73' 25.10' 7.93 5.821mo 2.11'1
16 18.64 8.47 33.70' 25.23' 7.89 5.77 1 2 .14'1

16 5-15 4 17.36 9.17 34.53' 25.37' 7.86 5.79'" 2.08"

5 7.84 9.13 34.60' 25.47' 7.87 5.80'" 2.07"
6 7.44 9.23 34.57' 25.33' 7.89 5.82"'" 2.07"
7 6.40 9.03 34.10' 25.07' 7.87 5.81'" 2.06 ft

16 20-50 5 21.84 9.03 34.33' 25.30' 7.87 5.78'" 2.09'1

6 14.54 9.00 34.63' 25.63' 7.89 5.79'" 2.10"
7 6.65 9.00 34.27' 25.27' 7.87 5.83'" 2.04'
8 5.87 8.80 34.20' 25.40' 7.88 5.85"'" 2.04'

16 60-90 10 33.59 8.53 33.73' 25.20' 7.95 5.861mo 2.09'1

12 21.02 8.90 34.27' 25.37' 7.92 5.80"" 2.12'1
14 16.45 8.53 33 .80' 25.27' 7.96 5.87"" 2.10"
16 16.12 8.57 33.73' 25.17' 7.95 5.841mo 2.11 "

DISCUSSION
Both MgSO. and the CO, gas mixture proved to be effective anaesthetics for H. midae over
the entire range of temperatures. Both the chemical and the gas mixture met the criteria of
an effective abalone anaesthetic at all temperatures as they induced rapid and mortality-free
anaesthesia in all three size classes. It is suggested that the inverse relationship between
MgS04 concentration and CO, flow rate and the rate of anaesthesia at all temperatures was
probably due to a more rapid absorption rate of the anaesthetic at the higher concentrations

43
Table 4.6. The mean pH and 0, levels measured in the test tanks before and after anaesthesia of three size
classes of Haliotis midae at 18°C and 20°C with a CO, : 0, gas mixture (11.3 % : 88 .7 %). Different
superscripts indicate significant differences in mean pH and 0, level changes at p < 0 .05.

Temp Size Flow Mean total Mean 0, Mean

°C (mm SL) rate exposure time to concentration pH
ol
l.min the gas mixture mg.l·'
(min)

Start End Change Start End Change

of run of run of run of run

18 5·15 3 13.62 8.67 34.00' 25.33' 7.91 5.91- 2.01'

4 7.06 8.67 33 .97' 25.30' 7. 88 5.93° 1.95'
5 3.61 8.63 33.77' 25 . 13' 7.89 5.90- 1.99'
6 1.69 8.47 25.87' 17.4()i 7.92 6.21' 1.71 q

18 20-50 2 23.76 8.97 34.17' 25.20f 7 .90 5.86""" 2.04'

3 13.15 8.73 34.00' 25.27 f 7.89 5.90- 1.99'
4 5.31 8.83 34.07' 25.23' 7.86 5.86""" 2.00'
5 3.02 8.80 33.90' 25.lO f 7.87 5.88"'" 1.99'
6 2.44 8.67 33 .73' 25.07 f 7.89 5.90"" 1.99'
7 1.98 8.77 33 .03' 24.27' 7. 88 5.92= 1.96'

18 60-90 6 30.92 8.77 34.13' 25.37 f 7.86 5.88"'" 1.98'

8 14.08 8.50 34. 13' 25 .63 f 7.92 5.92= 2.00'
10 8.79 8.87 34.40' 25.53' 7.85 5.83"'" 2.02'
12 6.48 8.53 33 .93' 25.40' 7.91 5. 88"'" 2.03'

20 5-15 3 8. 17 8.83 34.13' 25.30' 7. 89 5.89 imD 2.00'

4 6.99 8.87 34.10' 25.23' 7. 87 5.89""" 1.98'
5 3.35 8. 83 34.10' 25.27' 7.84 5.88"'" 1.96'
6 1.29 9.07 27.73' 18.67' 7.87 6.22' 1.64'

20 20-50 3 12.02 9.07 34.33' 25.27 f 7.88 5.91= 1.97'

4 4.73 9.13 34.17' 25.03' 7.89 5. 89- 2.00'
5 2.38 8.83 33.77' 24.93' 7.89 5. 89= 2.00'
6 1.98 9. 17 31.33' 22. 17' 7.88 5.98' 1.90'

20 60-90 6 22.48 8.70 34.13' 25.43' 7.82 5.82""" 2.00'

8 15.14 8.93 34.50' 25.57' 7.94 5.90"" 2.04'
10 8.60 8.87 34.23' 25.37' 7.89 5.881mo 2.01'
12 4.07 8.67 33 .77' 25 . 10' 7.91 5.88 1mn 2.03'

and flow rates. As expected, there was an inverse relationship between temperature and rate
of anaesthesia. The rate of anaesthesia was more rapid at higher temperatures. Therefore,
higher MgS04 concentrations and CO2 flow rates were required at the lower temperatures.
It was hypothesized that the inverse relationship between rate of anaesthesia and temperature
was due to an increase in metabolic and heart rate. In fish, metabolic rates have been shown
to increase with an increase in temperature (Pickering 1992, Teo & Chen 1993) and heart

44
 80 60
50 = e 4.7676
60 y _ e4.80874. X-2.16497 Y . X-2.67831
C
~ 40
,2 _0.64 ~
40
30
,2 = 0.52
'E" 0>
E
1= 1= 20

~
20
10
0 0 I

2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
-1
Concentration (g.1DCmI ) Concentration (g.100m1- 1)

Figure 4.1. The predicted anaesthesia rates for Figure 4.2. The predicted anaesthesia rates for
5-15 mm SL Haliotis midae at different 5-15 mm SL Haliotis midae at different
concentrations of MgSO, at 14 'c, concentrations of MgSO, at 16'C.

50 30
25
40 Y = 8 3.58004 . x-2.22269 Y = a 1.61191. X -1 .1325
C ,2 = 0.43 C 20
~ 30 ~ ,2 = 0.21
Q> 15
E
1=
20 'E"
1= 10
I
10 5 ~
0 ;
~'I 0
2 4 6 8 10 2 3 4
Concentration (g .1CIOml-1) Concentration (g. 1CIOml )
-1

Figure 4.3. The predicted anaesthesia rates for Figure 4.4. The predicted anaesthesia rates for
5-15 mID SL Haliotis midae at different 5-15 rom SL Haliotis midae at different
concentrations of MgSO, at 18'C. concentrations of MgSO, at 20'C.

rate of abalone has also been shown to increase with an increase in temperature up to a
maximum of approximately 30°C after which it declines sharply to zero beats per minute
(Fujino et ai. 1984, Hahn 1989d). An increase in the metabolic rate and the heart rate at
higher temperatures could possibly lead to an enhanced rate of uptake of the anaesthetic.

The faster recovery rates at higher temperatures was suggested to be a possible consequence
of the higher metabolic and heart rates at the higher temperatures, which probably enhanced

45
 40 40
5.93114 -1 .8003
Y= 9 .X
Y = 99.00921 . X..z·65921
30 30
'2' ~-O.37
S ,2 = 0.32
Q) 20 20
E
F
10 10

0
12 14 16 18 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Concentratlon (g.1OOml-') Concentration (g.100m1-')

Figure 4.5. The predicted anaesthesia rates for Figure 4.6. The predicted anaesthesia Tates faT
20-50 rom SL Haliotis midae at different 20-50 rom SL Haliotis midae at diffeTent
concentrations of MgSO, at 14 ·C. concentrations of MgSO, at 1S·C.

10

8 Y _ e 5.48337 . X-2.238
C'
g 6 [2 = 0.33
Q)
E 4
F
2

0
=------
8 10 12 14

Concentration (g.100ml-')

Figure 4.7. The pTedicted anaesthesia Tates faT

20-50 rom SL Haliotis midae at different
concentTations of MgSO, at 20·C.

the elimination rate of the anaesthetic from the body. Also, less MgSO. was required at
higher temperatures which meant that less had to be eliminated from the body of the animal.

The slightly greater changes in pH noted with CO2 anaesthesia at 14°C and 16°C in
comparison to 18°C and 20°C is a direct result of the greater solubility of CO2 in seawater
at lower temperatures (Strickland & Parsons 1972, Colt 1984). The greater the partial
pressure of CO2 in the seawater, the greater the decrease in pH (Spotte 1979). The
significantly smaller changes in O2 and pH levels at a flow rate of 6 1. min-l at 18°C and

46
 50 30 Y_ e 13.3739 . x~·64265
Y = e 13.4233 . x.(3·48647 25 r2= O.~
40
~ r2 - 0.24 C' 20
.§. 30 g 15
CD
E
1=
20 ~ 10
1=
10 5

0 0
20 22 24 26 20 22 24 26

Concentration (g. 100ml-1 )

Figure 4.8. The predicted anaesthesia rates for Figure 4.9. The predicted anaesthesia rates for
60-90 mIll SL Haliotis midae at different 60-90 mIll SL Haliotis midae at different
concentrations of MgSO, at 14 ·C. concentrations of MgSO, at 16·C.

100 18
17.3029 -4.96379
Y= e .X
Y = e 11.3881 . X .(3.19174
80 15
C
i = 0.57
12 ; r2 - 0.23
C'
.§. 60 g
9
111
F
40 ~
F 6
20
3
0 0
14 16 18 20 22 24 18 20 22 24
1
Concentration (g.1ooml- ) Concentration (g.100m1-1)

Figure 4.10. The predicted anaesthesia rates for Figure 4.11. The predicted anaesthesia rates for
60-90 rom SL Haliotis midae at different 60-90 rom SL Haliotis midae at different
concentrations of MgSO, at IS·C. concentrations of MgSO, at 20·C.

20°C in the 5-15 mm SL size class and at 20°C in the 20-50 mm SL size class were
probably due to the significantly shorter exposure time to the CO2 gas mixture at these flow
rates and temperatures. The expected trend would be for the rate of anaesthesia to be more
rapid at lower temperatures, since the pH changes at lower temperatures were greater.
However, despite the greater change in pH at lower temperatures, there was an inverse
correlation between temperature and anaesthesia rate. The inverse relationship between
temperature and rate of CO2 anaesthesia was probably due to an increase in metabolic and
heart rate at higher temperatures, as suggested above. Therefore, despite the higher partial

47
 40 24
20
30 Y = e 6.1309. X- 2.16003
Y= e 4.20089 . X -1.98236
C C 16
.s.
CD
20
r2 = 0.19 g
Q)
12
r2 = 0.20

E E
1= F 8
10
~ 4 ;
!
, - 1
i
0 0
4 5 6 7 4 5 6 7

Figure 4.12. The predicted anaesthesia rates for Figure 4.13. The predicted anaesthesia rates for
5-15 mm SL Haliotis midae at different 5-15 mm SL Haliotis miiUIe at different
flow rates of an 11.3 % CO, : 88.7% 0, gas flow rates of an 11.3 % CO, : 88.7% 0, gas
mixture at 14°C. mixture at 16°C.

15 10
y = a 6.22588. x-3.38684
12 8 Y = B 4.42245 . X -2.92544
C r2 = 0.39 c
.s. 9 g 6 : r2 = 0.33
~
CD
6 E 4
1= F
3 2
0 0
3 4 5 6 3 4 5 6
Flow rate Q.mln-1 ) Flow rata ( I.min-1 )

Figure 4.14. The predicted anaesthesia rates for Figure 4.15. The predicted anaesthesia rates for
5-15 mm SL Haliotis midae at different 5-15 mm SL Haliotis midae at different
flow rates of an 11.3% CO, : 88.7% 0, gas flow rates of an 11.3 % CO, : 88.7% 0, gas
mixture at 18°C. mixture at 20°C.

pressures of CO2 at lower temperatures, the theoretical increase in metabolic and heart rate
at higher temperatures possibly increased the rate of absorption of CO2 , This in tum may
have resulted in a more rapid decrease in intracellular pH, the effects of which are described
in Chapter 3. The more rapid recovery rates from CO2 anaesthesia at higher temperatures
can possibly be ascribed to a more rapid normalization of enzyme (and therefore muscle)
activity as a direct result of increased metabolic and heart rate. Given the longer exposure
times to higher partial pressures of CO2 at the lower temperatures would probably have

48
 60 25
50 Y = a 9.45562. X -4.05322 20
: y = a 10.5724 . X -5.0876

"2 40 ,2 = 0.42 "2 ,2 = 0.49

.§. g 15
30
~ ~ 10
1= 20 1=

10 5

0 0
6 6 7 8 5 6 7 8

Figure 4.16. The predicred anaesthesia rates for Figure 4.17. The predicred anaesthesia rates for
20-50 mm SL Haliotis midae at different 20-50 mm SL Haliotis midae at different
flow rates of an 11.3 % CO, : 88.7% 0, gas flow rates of an 11.3% CO, : 88.7% 0,
mixture at 14 ·C. gas mixture at 16·C.

30 15
25 y _ a 3.45211 • X-2.10961
12 y = e 3.57117 . X -2.23035
"2 20 ,2 _ 0.44
g ,2 = 0.29
Q) 15
E
1= 10 i

5 i~ :
I ,. 3 '-------- :
0 i
O'-'--_ !!-----+----~
_---"_ _ _~_ ___'_
2 3 4 5 6 7
3 4 5 6
Row rate (I.min-1 ) Row rata (I.mln-')

Figure 4.18. The predicted anaesthesia rates for Figure 4.19. The predicred anaesthesia rates for
20-50 mm SL Haliotis midae at different 20-50 mm SL Haliotis midae at different
flow rates of an 11.3 % CO, : 88.7% 0, gas flow rates of an 11.3% CO, : 88.7% 0,
mixture at 18·C. gas mixture at 20·C.

lowered the internal pH level to a greater extent than in animals exposed to CO2 at higher
temperatures, resulting in the longer recovery rates. Sugiyama and Tanaka (1982) also noted
a decrease in anaesthesia and recovery rates of abalone exposed to CO2 anaesthesia at higher
temperatures.

In conclusion, the data obtained in this study provides the commercial abalone farmer with
information concerning the interrelationships between temperature and concentration of
MgS04 and flow rate of a CO2 gas mixture on the rate of anaesthesia. The dosage tables and

49
 80 40
y = e 8,95886 , X -2,42906 y= e 9 ,79463, X -,3,04606
c
80
r2 = 0,34
30 r2 = 0,26,
SCI) 40 20
E
F
20

o~ ____ ~ ____ ~ ____ ~ Ou-____~______~____~

10 12 14 16 10 12 14 16
Flow rate (I.min- 1 ) Row rate (I.min-')

Figure 4.20. The predicted anaesthesia rates for Figure 4.21. The predicted anaesthesia rates for
60-90 mm SL Haliotis midae at different 60-90 mm SL Haliotis midae at different
flow rates of an 11.3% CO, : 88,7% 0, gas flow rates of an 11.3% CO, : 88,7% 0,
mixture at 14°e. gas mixture at 16·C,

40 30
y = e 6,96672 , X-2,54561 25 Y _ 8 6,20206 , x-I ,93443
30
C r2 = 0.32 '2 20 r2 - 0,17 ,
g S
20 15
E
F
E 10
F
10

0
B 8 10 12
5
0 ------
B 8 10 12
Flow rate O.mln -l) Row rate (I.mln-1 )

Figure 4.22. The predicted anaesthesia rates for Figure 4.23. The predicted anaesthesia rates for
60-90 mm SL Haliotis midae at different 60-90 mm SL Haliotis midae at different
flow rates of an 11.3% CO,: 88,7% 0, gas flow rates of an 11.3% CO, : 88,7% 0,
mixture at 18·C, gas mixture at 20· C,

regression models can be used as guidelines to predict anaesthesia rates for different size
animals as a function of temperature,

The recommended dosage rates described in this, and in the previous chapter, were tested
on a commercial scale at the Sea Plant Products abalone hatchery in Hermanus in April 1995.
CO, anaesthesia was found to be impractical. However, 12 000 juvenile abalone (12-13 mm
SL) were successfully anaesthetized with MgSO. using the size and temperature related
dosage tables developed in this study (H.I. White & C. Claydon, unpublished data).

50
 CHAPTER 5
EFFECTS OF WNG TERM INTERMITTENT MAGNESIUM SULPHATE AND
2-PHENOXYETHANOL ANAESTHESIA ON HALIOTIS MIDAE GROWTH AND
MORTALITY

INTRODUCTION
Finding a chemical which results in mortality-free anaesthesia, does not completely fulfil the
criteria of an effective anaesthetic. Another very important consideration is the long term
sub-lethal effects of regular anaesthesia on growth.

Abalone have very slow growth rates. Depending on ambient temperatures it would
theoretically take between 3 to 4.8 years to rear abalone to 80 mm shell length (SL) (90-100
g) on the South African coast (Hecht 1992). Rapid grow-out to commercial size is therefore
an important financial consideration. Hampering growth even further would be detrimental
to the commercial abalone farmer and it is essential that regular anaesthesia during routine
farming procedures should not have an effect on growth rate.

No information on the effect of anaesthesia on growth of aquatic organisms, except for the
effect of methanesulfonate (MS-222) on cupular growth rate of free neuromasts in the larvae
of three species of cyprinid fish (Mukai & Kobayashi 1992), has been documented to date.
Mukai and Kobayashi (1992) found that the exposure of the fish to MS-222 did not affect the
growth of the cupulae.

In this study, the effect of regular anaesthesia on the growth of three size classes of Haliotis
midae was evaluated. Two chemicals, magnesium sulphate (MgSO.) and 2-phenoxyethanol,
were selected for this growth experiment as both chemicals exhibited good anaesthetic
potential in previous investigations (Chapter 2 and 3). The effect of carbon dioxide (CO:z)
anaesthesia on growth was not included in this study, since it has been shown to be
impractical and too costly for H. midae anaesthesia on a commercial scale (H.I. White and
C. Claydon, unpublished data).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three size classes (5-15, 20-50 and 60-90 mm SL) of H. midae were selected for this study.
The small animals (5-15 mm SL) were obtained from the Sea Plant Products hatchery in

51
Hermanus, while larger animals (20-50 and 60-90 mm SL) were collected along the Eastern
Cape Coast. Prior to the initiation of the experiments, the animals were acclimated to
laboratory conditions at the Port Alfred laboratory for a period of one month.

The animals were reared in 30.5 cm x 31 cm x 38 cm glass aquaria linked to a 5000 I

recirculating system Figure (5 . 1). Twenty percent of the water in the system was replaced
on a daily basis. Biologically filtered seawater was circulated through each aquarium at a
flow rate of 0.6 Vrnin. The water in each aquarium was aerated continuously and temperature
in the system was maintained at 18.6°C+ 1.1 °C, with the aid of a heating-cooling unit,
throughout the eight month growth trial. This temperature simulates the average annual
temperature along the Eastern Cape Coast (port Alfred Marine Laboratory records). Salinity
varied between 33 and 35 ppt (mean 34.6 ppt+0.7 ppt). Photoperiod was controlled at +
12 L: 12 D. The animals were fed with an extruded pellet supplied by Sea Plant Products
in Hermanus (proximate pellet composition is given in Table 5.1). The food was fed at a
ratio of 2 % of body weight for the 5-15 mm SL animals and 4 % of body weight for the 20-
50 and 60-90 mm SL animals at 16hOO every second day.

There were three replicate groups per treatment per size class and three control replicate
groups per size class. Thirty animals were used in each replicate for the 5-15 and 20-50 mm
SL size classes and ten in each replicate for the 60-90 mm SL size class. All animals in the
20-50 and 60-90 mm SL size classes were tagged individually (5-15 mm SL animals were
too small for tagging purposes). Except for the control group the animals were anaesthetized,
weighed and measured monthly over a period of eight months. To induce anaesthesia, the
water supply was turned off and all the water was drained from the aquarium. The
concentrations of MgSO. and 2-phenoxyethanol used to induce anaesthesia in each size class
were selected from Table 3. 1. To obtain the required dosages, MgSO. was weighed and
2-phenoxyethanol volumetrically measured, and dissolved in 4 I of seawater. The anaesthetic
solution was then poured into the appropriate aquarium and once all the animals had been
anaesthetized, the time taken for complete anaesthesia of the all animals in each tank was
noted. The animals were then removed from the tanks and weighed individually to the nearest
0.01 g and shell lengths were measured to the nearest 0.1 mm with a vernier calliper. After
weighing and measuring, the anaesthetic solution in the aquarium was replaced with fresh,

52
Figure 5.1. Photograph of aquaria used to house Haliotis midae during the eight month growth trial. A = water
supply, B = air supply, C = drainage pipes, D = holding tanks.

Table 5.1. Proximate composition of the artificial diet used for Haliotis midae during the eight month growth
trial.

Ingredient %

Protein 34.6
Carbohydrates 43.3
Fat 5.3
Crude fibre 1.2
Ash 5.7
Moisture 10.0

Energy content: 14,9 kJ/g .

53
filtered seawater, the water supply was turned on and the animals were placed upside down
in the aquarium. The total time taken for all the animals in the aquarium to revive was noted .
Recovery was defined to be complete when all the abalone had turned right side up. Animals
from the control group were simply levered off, individually weighed and measured, and
replaced in the aquarium. Mortalities were recorded on a daily basis throughout the eight
month period.

Statistical analysis
The total anaesthesia rates, recovery rates and exposure time to air during monthly
weighing and measuring, were subjected to One-Way Analysis of Variance, with the main
effect being temperature. Means were compared using Tukey' s Multiple Range Test at 5%
error probability. Homogeneity of variances were tested with Bartlett's Test (Zar 1984).

The weights and shell lengths of each treatment and size class were subjected to the Simple
Regression procedure to obtain the best model with which to predict growth rate as a function
of time for each treatment and size class. The model with the highest T -value for the slope,
the highest F-ratio and the most random residual pattern was chosen to be the best fit. To
compare the growth rates between treatments, the data was linearized by using the natural
logarithm transformations of both the x and y variable, since the best fit obtained from the
Simple Regression procedure (the multiplicative model) was not linear. To test for significant
differences in the slopes obtained from the Simple Regression procedure, the data were
subjected to the Multiple Regression procedure after which the residual sum of squares
obtained from the Simple Regression procedure and the error term obtained from the
Multiple Regression procedure, were subjected to the F-test (Zar 1984). The data obtained
from the 2-phenoxyethanol treated animals were not subjected to regression analysis, since
percentage monthly mortalities were too high (Table 5.4, Figures 5.2 to 5.4).

RESULTS
There were no statistical differences in total anaesthesia rates, recovery rates and exposure
time to air during monthly weighing and measuring within all size classes of H. midae treated
with MgSO., except for anaesthesia rates in the largest size class (60-90 mm SL) (Table 5.2).
Mean total anaesthesia rates of the 60-90 mm SL animals treated with 24 g.IOO mI·! MgS04
appeared to decrease with an increase in temperature.

54
Mean total anaesthesia rates in the 5-15 and the 20-50 mm SL animals treated with
2-phenoxyethanol appeared to increase with time (fable 5.3). The mean anaesthesia rates
using 2-phenoxyethanol during the initial weighing and measuring of shell length were
significantly shorter than during the final weighing and measuring exercise.

In the largest size class (60-90 mm SL), mean total anaesthesia rates were not significantly
different from each other for the first four months. However, the mean total anaesthesia rates

Table S.2. The mean total exposure time to MgSO,. mean exposure time to air during weighing and measuring.
and mean total recovery rates after replacement into anaesthetic-free seawater of three size classes of Hatiotis
midae. Standard deviations are presented. Different superscripts indicate significant differences in mean total
anaesthesia rates, recovery rates and exposure to air at p < 0.05.

MgSO,

Cone. Size Month Temp. Mean total Mean total Mean total
g.100 mI-' (rom SL) CC) exposure exposure recovery
time to time to time
anaesthetic air (min)
(min) (min)

4 5-15 1 IS.5 1.74+0.19' 12.34+0.93' 9.12+2.34'

4 2 IS.1 I. 66.±.0.50" 12.00 + !.l0' 12. 16+2.64'
4 3 19.0 1.60.±.0.69' 1l.43.±.0.92" 10.72.±.1.04'
6' 4 16.9 1.11.±.0.16' 14.34+2.98" 9.13+2.54'
4 5 19.2 1.30+0.39' 10.57.±.2.35" 12.24.±.I.S6'
6' 6 17.2 1.27.±.0.09' 10. I 7.±.2. 52" 12. 16.±.3 .93"
4 7 19.5 1.22+0.06' 12.01 + 1.68" 1 I. 37.±. 1.00'
4 S 19.3 1.62+0.52' 9.74+0.75' 7.S1+ 1.02'

14 20-50 1 IS.5 5.2S.±.I.00' 12.23.±.1.01' IS.25+0.94'

14 2 IS.1 5.59+0.56' 12.30+1.70" 11.72+2.S5'
14 3 19.0 6.56+ 1.69' 1O.03.±.0.14" 11.61.±.1.40'
IS' 4 16.9 9.75+2.S4' 13.17.±.4.71' 22.1S+4.76'
14 5 19.2 5.15+2.48' 13.64+4.36' 15.79.±.4.26'
IS' 6 17.2 6.07+ 1.56' 12.50+2.25' 19.72+ 1.51'
14 7 19.5 5.51.±.1.7Sd 1l .25.±.0.S5' 13.45.±.0.8S'
14 S 19.3 5.47 +0.31' 10.15 +2.89' 15.50 + S.42'

24 60-90 1 18.5 19.70+5.15' 13 .3S.±.O.54' 42. 16.±.4.57i

24 2 IS.1 22.44+5.45' 11.93.±.1.30' 40.99+5.61
24 3 19.0 19.6S.±.0.73' 1 I. 33.±.0. 74' 41.35 +6 .2Ji
30' 4 16.9 13.59 +4.65" 10.22+ !.lS' 31.26+ IS.67j
24 5 19.2 15.S1 +4.43" 1O.00+3.S4' 36 . 13.±.13. 17j
30' 6 17.2 S.OS.±.1.02' 9.77.±.1. 72' 25.37 + 14.4&
24 7 19.5 14.96+3.72" 12.24+ 1.39' 35.39+6.9<V
24 8 19.3 17.53+4.97'" 10.69 + 3.03' 33.15 + 11.47j

* Higher concentrations used at lower temperatures.

55
during the last three months were significantly shorter than those during the first four

months. Mean total exposure to air during weighing and measuring in animals treated

with 2-phenoxyethanol did not differ significantly from each other except for the largest size

class (60-90 mm SL). There were also no significant differences in the mean total recovery

times for the 5-15 and 20-50 mm SL animals exposed to 2-phenoxyethanol anaesthesia.

However, mean total recovery rates in the 60-90 mm SL size class appeared to become

increasingly longer during the later months.

Table 5.3. The mean total exposure time to 2-phenoxyethanol, mean exposure time to air during weighing and
measuring, and mean total recovery rates after replacement into anaesthetic-free seawater of three size classes
of HaZiatis midae. Standard deviations are presented. Different superscripts indicate significant differences in
mean total anaesthesia rates, recovery rates and exposure to air at p<0.05.

2-phenoxyethanol

CODC. Size Month Temp. Mean total Mean total Mean total
g.IOO ml·' (mm SL) (0C) exposure exposure recovery
time to time to time
anaesthetic air (min)
(min) (min)

0.05 5-15 1 18.5 1.43,±0.l1' 11.73.±2.62" 32.89+9.49"

2 18.1 1.94+0.14" 12.50+0.65" 31.13.±7.54·
3 19.0 2.30+0.90'" 10.75 + 1.45' 31. 89.±2.44·
4 16.9 2.84+1.13" 11.87+2.00' 38.46+8.27'
5 19.2 2.57.±0.55" 1O.09.±0.8:J< 33.54+6.66'
6 17.2 2.96.±0.61" 9.57 +0.49' 32.64.±7.21·
7 19.5 3.83+0.66' 9.56+0.74' 36.24+3.17'

0.2 20-50 1 18.5 3. 18.±0.36' 12.52 + 1.56' 40.89.±7.69h

2 18.1 4.38+ 1.44" 10.18.±3.21' 38.38 + 11.22h
3 19.0 5.14+0.45" 9.99.±1.22' 34. 82.±6. 86 h
4 16.9 6.79+ 1.46" 8.79.±1.40' 41.59.±4.67 h
5 19.2 7.01 + 1.99" 12. 13.±1.30' 46.81.±7.27 h
6 17.2 7.58 + 2.58" 1O.44.±2.62' 46 .38+8.87 h
7 19.5 9.45 +0.51' 9.18+1.62' 50.64+ 1.10"

0.3 60-90 1 18.5 7.43+ 1.37j 13.05+0.78' 25.09.±1.48 m

2 18.1 5.72+0.52'j 1O.99,±1.34~ 29.95+8.71 m
3 19.0 8.52.±1.42j 10.98,±1.37~ 27.63.±5.83 m
4 16.9 9.85,±4.0~ 7.79.±4.03" 67.61.±44.26
5 19.2 2.34.±0.81' 7 .65.±5.50~ =
6 17.2 1. 86.±0. 39' 1.95,±0.13~ 135.50+5.80'
7 19.5 2. 92.±0. 12'j 1.97.±0.94' 141.30.±3.02"
151.05+1.07"

56
 60

50 .

40 .
?;-

E
E
30 .
;,<!
20 .

10 .

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Month
I!!I Magnesium sulphate 0 Control ~ 2-Phenoxyethanol

Figure 5.2. Percent accumulated monthly mortality of the 5-15 mm SL Haliotis midae exposed to MgSO, and
2-phenoxyethanol anaesthesia during an eight month growth tria!.

80
70

60
50
40
30
20

2 3 4 5 6 7 B
Month
II Magnesium sulphate 0 Control ~ 2-Phenoxyethanol

Figure 5.3. Percent accumulated monthly mortality of the 20-50 mm SL Haliotis midae exposed to MgSO, and
2-phenoxyethanol anaesthesia during an eight month growth trial.

57
 100
90
80
70
2;- 60
g 50
E
~ 40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B
Month
IIilII Magnesium sulphate 0 Control ~ 2-Phenoxyethanol

Figure 5.4. Percent accumulated monthly mortality of the 60-90 mm SL Haliotis midae exposed to MgSO, and
2-pbenoxyethanol anaesthesia during an eight month growth trial.

The mortality of 2-phenoxyethanol treated animals was significantly greater than those in the
control groups and those anaesthetized with MgSO. (Table 5.4 and Figures 5.2 to 5.4). In
the 2-phenoxyethanol treated animals, a maximum percent mortality of 93.33% was
recorded, compared to 13.33% and 6.67% for the control and the MgS04 treated animals,
respectively.

Comparison of the slopes of regression models for monthly shell length and weight increases
in the two smaller size classes (5-15 and 20-50 mm SL) showed that there were no significant
differences in growth between the control group and MgSO. treated animals, except for the
shell length increase in the 5-15 mm SL animals (Figures 5.5 to 5.12). The slope for the
monthly increases in shell length in this size class was significantly higher in MgS04 treated
animals (F = 8.86, p<0.05, df = I, n = 1395). The slopes of the regression models for
monthly increases in weight and shell length of untreated and MgS04 treated 60-90 mm SL
animals could not be compared, even though there was a total increase in shell length and
weight in both control and MgS04 treated animals (Table 5.5). This was due to large
variations in shell length and weight within groups, as well as to the very slow growth rates
in this size class.

58
Table 5.4. The percent accumulated monthly mortality of three size classes of untreated and regularly MgSO,
and 2-phenoxyethanol anaesthetized Haliotis midne.

Control group MgSO. treated group 2-Phenoxyethanol

treated I!!0ul!
Size (mm SL) Month Accumulated percent Accmnulated percent Accumulated percent
mortality mortali!I mortality

5-15 1 0 0 0
2 1.11 0 3.33
3 3.33 2.22 10.00
4 4.44 3.33 14.44
5 5.56 3.33 15.56
6 5.56 3.33 50.00
7 5.56 3.33 54.44
8 5.56 3.33 ..
20-50 1 0 0 0
2 2.22 2.22 24.44
3 5.56 6.67 36.67
4 8.88 6.67 47.78
5 8.88 6.67 48 .89
6 8.88 6.67 68.89
7 8.88 6.67 73.33
8 8.88 6.67 ..
60-90 1 0 0 0
2 6.67 6.67 66.67
3 6.67 6.67 86 .67
4 10.00 6.67 86 .67
5 10.00 6.67 90.00
6 10.00 6.67 93.33
7 13.33 6.67 93 .33
8 13.33 6.67 ..
.. Growth trial discontinued due to high percent mortality in previous months.

DISCUSSION
The increase in mean anaesthesia rates each month in animals treated with 2-phenoxyethanol ,
was hypothesized not to be related to temperature, but rather due to the development of
resistance to the efficacy of the anaesthetic. The increase in recovery rate in animals
anaesthetized with 2-phenoxyethanol was probably due to the a combination of longer
exposure times to the anaesthetic and stress. The latter was confirmed by the high percent
mortality noted for the 2-phenoxyethanol treated animals each month .

In the preliminary trials described in Chapters 2 and 3, 2-phenoxyethanol appeared to have

good abalone anaesthetic potential. However, the increased resistance to the efficacy of the

59
anaesthetic and the high percent mortalities recorded each month (up to 100% in some
replicates) in this experiment, renders this anaesthetic unsuitable for abalone anaesthesia.
2-Phenoxyethanol was therefore not considered in any further investigations. MgSO., on the
other hand, did not affect growth in the 5-15 and the 20-50 mm SL animals. Moreover,
slightly lower mortalities (though not significant) were recorded in the MgSO. treated groups
in comparison to the control groups. Moreover, given that the animals were anaesthetized
at intervals shorter than would normally be the case under commercial culture conditions,
suggests that MgSO. is very suitable for use as an anaesthetic in commercial abalone
culture.

40 40
y _ e2.64318 .(x+1) 0.406BB9 Y = e 2.69B04 .(x+ 1) 0.384096
35
E E
.s
,s
30 §.
LO
30
(J)
20 "§> 25
§ ~
'al 20
~ 10 LO
en
en 15
10
2345678 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Month Month
Figure 5.5. Increase in shell length of Figure 5.6. Monthly increase in shell length of
5-15 rom SL Haliotis midae exposed to untreated 5-15 mm SL Halioti. midae.
MgSO, anaesthesia on a monthly basis.

8 10

6 Y = e-1.17978.(><+1) 1.28176 8 Y = e -1.036 .(x+1)1.23!l82

:§l
6
:c(J)
~ 4

2345678 1 234 5 6 7 8

Month Month

Figure 5.7. Increase in weight of 5-15 rom SL Figure 5.8. Monthly increase in weight of
Haliotis midae exposed to MgSO, anaesthesia untreated 5-15 rom SL Haliotis midae.
on a monthly basis.

60
 60 60
Y = 9 3.48067 .(X+l) 0.0931666 Y= e 3.62585 .(X+l)O.071~
E 50 E 50 I
§. I
§. I
I
! I
.c I ; •
l.-+-+.
~

~
0>
c 40

30 I
l-t-iI I
1 !
--,I
i
~
c
J1
~
40

30
!
I
I
i
!
I
f
.
I : ! en i
;
20 20
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Month Month

Figure 5.9. Increase in shell length of Figure 5.10. Monthly increase in shell length
20-50mm SL HaUotis midae exposed to of untreated 20-50mm SL Haliotis midae.
MgSO, anaesthesia on a monthly basis.

40 40
Y = 91.67429 .(x+l)0.328426 .
y = 92.12651 .(X+1)0.304174
30 30

-
§
..c::
0> 20
§
E0) 20 ;
,;
I
~ ~ I "1,
10 10 I-"'!
0
I :
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Month Month

Figure 5.11. Increase in weight of20-50 mm SL Figure 5.12. Monthly increase in weight
Haliotis midae exposed to MgSO, anaesthesia of untreated 20-50 mm SL Haliotis midae.
on a monthly basis.

However, other aspects need to be considered before any final conclusions regarding its
suitability for commercial application can be made. It is very important that an anaesthetic
should not affect flesh texture or leave residues, and it is also essential to establish the effect
of prolonged exposure to anaesthesia. These aspects will be dealt with in the next three
chapters .

61
 Table 5.5. Initial, final and total increase in shell length and weight of untreated and regularly anaesthetized Haliotis midae after an eight month growth trial. Standard
deviations of the means are also presented.

Control group

Shell length (mm) Weight (g)

Size Initial Final Increase Initial Final Increase

(mm SL) (range) (range) (range) (range)

5-15 13.15.±1.02 30.08+2.83 16.94.±1.81 0.35.±0.08 4.93.±1.21 4. 58.± I. 13

(10.4-14.9) (17.1-36.5) (0.16-0.52) (1.24-8 .24)

20-50 38.90+7.53 44 .96.±5.73 6.06.±1.80 10.44+5.45 18.39.±6.16 7.96.±0.71

(23 .7-51.9) (33 .7-55.2) (1.94-25.33) (7.07-31.58)

60-90 71. 89.±8.09 75.50.±8.53 3.61.±0.43 63. 13.±21.12 78.61.±25.13 15.45.±4.01

(58.0-87.4) (61. 8-92. 1) (30.9-104.39) (42.03-133 .28)
0\
tv
MgSO, treated group

5-15 12.82+0.97 30.42+2.73 17. 60.± 1.76 0.34.±0.08 4.78.±1.18 4.44.±1.10

(9 .9-14.7) (19.9-36.5) (0. 13-0.53) (1.49-7.34)

20-50 33.55 + 6.19 40.80+5.06 7. 25.± 1. 12 6.91.±4.03 12.75+5.32 5.84.±1.29

(20.3-49.5) (29. 1-54.0) (1.32-19.8) (4.94-35.91)

60-90 63.67+6 .57 69 .88.±6.55 6.20.±0.01 45.27+15.71 60.52+ 17.39 15.25+ 1.68
(55.9-78.3) (57 .8-86.2) (23.2-84.3) (32.79-106.34)
 CHAPTER 6
EFFECT OF MAGNESIUM SULPHATE ANAESTHESIA ON ABALONE MUSCLE
ULTRASTRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION
The texture of abalone meat is related to the distribution of proteins within the foot (Olley
& Thrower 1977). The pedal sole is rich in collagen (Voltzow 1990, Frescura 1990), which
renders it noticeably tough compared to the columellar muscle (Olley & Thrower 1977).
Another factor which may influence the texture of abalone meat is the treatment to which the
live animal has been subjected. In this respect it is important that magnesium sulphate
(MgS04) anaesthesia should not affect the ultra-structure of the tarsal or columellar muscle,
since this might effect texture which in turn might affect marketability.

As mentioned in Chapter 2, the musculature of the abalone foot is divided into two
functionally and structurally distinct regions: the tarsal and the columellar muscle (Fretter
& Graham 1962, Trueman & Brown 1985, Frescura 1990). The columellar muscle is
responsible the major body movements and changes in shape and posture: protraction,
retraction, twisting, elevation and lowering of the shell and clamping down onto the
substratum. The tarsal muscle also shares responsibility for adherence onto substratum and
is involved in the fine movements of locomotion and food manipulation.

Frescura (1990) and Voltzow (1990) studied the fine structure of Haliotis spadicea and H.
kamtschatkana pedal musculature, respectively. Both these authors found that the tarsal
muscle contains finer branched muscle bundles and a larger proportion of collagenous
connective tissue than the columellar muscle. The columellar muscle consists of bundles of
muscle fibres wrapped in thin connective tissue sheaths. Virtually no other extracellular
connective tissue is present. In the tarsic region the connective-tissue sheaths become thicker.
The bundles of muscle fibres in the tarsic region branch and change direction as they extend
from their origin to their insertions. The bundles become finer as they approach the periphery
of the foot and become more deeply embedded in the connective tissue of the ventral and
lateral extremities. The tarsal muscle also contains larger numbers of mitochondria than the
columellar muscle.

63
Frescura (1990) measured muscle cell, thick filament, thin filament and mitochondrion
diameter of the columellar muscle of H. spadicea and found it to range between 3 and 6 JLm,
33-75 nm, 6-7 nm and 0.5-0.9 JLm respectively. No measurements of tarsal muscle thick
filament, thin fJ..lament or mitochondrion diameter were recorded by Frescura (1990).

The aim of this investigation was to compare the fine structure of both tarsal and columellar
muscle tissue of untreated H . midae and animals which had regularly been subjected to
MgSO. anaesthesia, on the assumption that such changes would be indicative of changes in
texture.

MATERIALS AND METIIODS

Columellar and tarsal muscle samples were taken from a control group of untreated animals
(n = 3) and from animals which had been exposed to monthly MgSO. anaesthesia over a
eight month period (n = 3). Tissue samples were prepared for transmission electron
microscopy using the following protocol (Cross 1985). The musculature of live H. midae
(70-80 mm shell length (SL)) was flooded with cold 2.5 % glutaraldehyde made up in 0.2
M sodium cacodylate buffer after which pieces of tissue about 2-3 mm' were excised from
the centre of the columellar muscle and tarsal muscle. The tissue samples were then placed
in fresh buffered glutaraldehyde and cut into smaller pieces of about 1 mm3 • Primary
fixation in 2.5 % buffered glutaraldehyde was allowed to proceed for 12 hours at 14°C. The
tissue samples were then rinsed twice for 10 min in cacodylate buffer, followed by secondary
fixation in 1 % osmium tetroxide for 90 min. Following secondary fixation the tissue was
rinsed once more in the cold buffer for 10 min and then dehydrated for 5 min in each of a
30, 50, 70, 80 and 90 % ethanol series, and twice in absolute ethanol. After dehydration,
the tissue was embedded via propylene oxide in an Araldite CY 212/Taab 812 resin mixture
which was polymerized for 36 hours at 60°C. Sections showing gold interference colour
(60-70 nm) were cut using glass knives and stained at room temperature with aqueous uranyl
acetate solution (5 %) for 30 min, followed by Reynold's lead citrate solution for 10 min.
The sections were viewed using a IEOL IEM 100 CXIT transmission electron microscope.

Muscle cell diameter (n = 40), thick filament diameter (n = 600) and thin filament diameter
(n = 400) in columellar and tarsal muscle of treated and untreated animals were measured
and compared to determine any structural changes in animals treated with MgSO•. Peripheral
mitochondrion lengths (n =40) in both types of muscle in the control and MgSO. treated

64
group were also compared. The number of thick and thin filaments per p.m 2 (n = 40) in both
columellar and tarsal muscle of untreated and treated animals were also ('ompared.

Statistical analysis
The diameter of muscle cells, thick filaments and thin filaments, and mitochondria
length in both tarsal and columellar muscle of treated and untreated animals were tested for
significant differences using the Student T-test (p.$..0.05). The test was also used to determine
significant differences in the number of thin and thick filaments in tarsal and columellar
muscle of treated and untreated H. midae (Zar 1984).

RESULTS
Muscle cell diameter in columellar muscle of the control group and MgSO. treated animals
ranged between 3. 1 and 6.21 p.m 2 , and 3.28 and 6.55 p.m 2 respectively (Table 6.1). Cell
diameter of the tarsal muscle sections ranged between 1.11 and 4.28 p.m2 in the control
group, and between 1.03 and 4.14 p.m2 in MgSO. treated animals. All filament diameters
were measured in transverse sections. Thick filament diameter of columellar muscle in
untreated and MgSO. treated animals ranged from 30 to 75 nm in both groups (Table 6.1,
Figures 6.1 to 6.3). Thick filament diameter of tarsal muscle ranged from 25 to 60 nm in
both groups (Table 6.1, Figures 6.4 to 6.6) . Thin filament diameter of tarsal and columellar
muscle ranged from 5.26 to 7.9 nm in both groups (Table 6.1). Filament lengths were not
compared, since these were very difficult to measure as they meandered in and out of the
plane of the sections.

Mitochondria were very scarce and only found at the periphery of cells and not centrally.
This was also observed by Frescura (1990) for H. spadicea. Peripheral mitochondria of
columellar muscle in the control and MgSO. treated group ranged from 0.45 to 1.2 p.m and
from 0.5 to 1.2 p'm in length, respectively (Table 6.1). Peripheral mitochondria of tarsal
muscle were between 0.5 and 1.3 p'm long in the control group and between 0.5 and 1.25
p.m long in MgSO. treated animals (Table 6.1, Figures 6.4 & 6.6).

The number of thick filaments in columellar muscle varied between 23 and 29 per p.m 2 in the
control group and between 23 and 30 per p.m 2 in MgSO. treated animals (Table 6.1). In
tarsal muscle, the number of thick filaments varied between 30 and 43 per p.m2 in the control

65
 Table 6. 1. Comparison of morphological features of columellar and tarsal muscle in untreated Haliotis midae and Haliotis midae treated with MgS04"

Treatment Muscle D" Range DT Range D, Range M Range NT Range N, Range

(I'm) (I'm) (nm) (nm) (nm) (nm) (I<ffi) (I'm)

Control Columellar 4.63 3.1 -6.21 56 .33 30-75 6.59 5.26-7.9 0.82 0.45-1.2 26 23-29 596 521-706

MgSO. Columellar 4.66 3.28-6.55 56 .27 30-75 6.73 5.26-7 .9 0.88 0.5-1.2 26 23-30 609 505-690

Control Tarsal 2.60 1.11-4.28 42.75 25-60 6.16 5.26-7.9 0.81 0.5-1.3 37 30-43 627 521-724

MgSO, Tarsal 2.38 1.03-4.14 42.37 25-60 6. 17 5.26-7.9 0.84 0.5-1.25 38 32-44 631 505-732

D" = mean diameter of muscle cells (n = 40)

DT = mean diameter of thick filaments (n = 600)
D, = mean diameter of thin filaments (n = 400)
'"'" M = mean diameter of peripheral mitochondria (n = 40)
NT = number of thick filaments per I'm' area (n = 40)
N, = number of thin filaments per I'm' area (n = 40)
Figure 6.1. Electron micrographs of transverse and longitudinal sections of Haliotis midae columellar muscle.
A. Untreated at a magnification of X9 280. Scale bar = 1 J.Lm. B. MgSO. treated at a magnification of x9 280.
Scale bar = 1 J.Lm. Note the subsarcolemmal cisternae (ci) and fluid vesicles (fv).

67
Figure 6.2. Electron micrographs of longitudinal sections of Haliotis midae columellar muscle. A. Untreated
at a magnification of x46 400. Scale bar = 0.5 JLm. B. MgSO. treated at magnification of x46 400. Scale bar
= 0.5 JLm. Note the axial striations (arrow), thick filaments (T) and thin filaments (t).

68
Figure 6.3. Electron micrographs of transverse sections of Haliotis midae columellar muscle. A. Untreated at
a magnification of x46 400. Scale bar = 0.5 p.m. B. MgS04 treated at a magnification of x46 400. Scale bar
= 0.5 p.m. Note the subsarcolenunal cisternae (ci), fluid vesicles (fv), thick filaments (T) and thin filaments
(t).

69
Figure 6.4. Electron micrographs of transverse and longitudinal sections of Haliotis midae tarsal muscJe. A.
Untreated at a magnification of xlI 520. Scale bar = 1.0 p.m. B. MgS04 treated at a magnification of x 11 520.
Scale bar = 1 p.m. Note the collagen (c). subsarcolemmal cisternae (ci), fluid vesicJes (fv) and peripheral
mitochondria (m).

70
Figure 6.5. Electron micrographs of longitudinal sections of Haliolis midae tarsal muscle. A. Untreated at a
magnification of x46 400. Scale bar = 0.5 /lm. B. MgSO. treated at a magnification of x46 400. Scale bar =
0.5/lm. Note the axial striations (arrow), collagen (c), subsarcolemmal cisternae (ci), glycogen granules (g),
thick filaments (T) and thin filaments (t) .

71
Figure 6.6. Electron micrographs of transverse sections of Haliotis midae tarsal muscle. A. Untreated at a
magnification of x46 400. Scale bar = 0.5 J.(m. B. MgS04 treated at a magnification of x46 400. Scale bar
= 0.5 J.(m. Note the collagen (c), subsarcolemmal cisternae (ci), peripheral mitochondrion (m), thick filaments
(T) and thin filaments (t).

72
 group and between 32 and 44 per 14m2 in MgS04 treated animals. The number of thin
filaments in columellar muscle varied between 521 and 706 per 14m2 in the control group and
between 505 and 690 per 14m2 in MgS04 treated animals. In tarsal muscle, it varied between
521 and 724 per 14m2 in the control group and between 505 and 732 per 14m2 in M;;S04
treated animals.

There were no significant differences in muscle cell diameter, thick and thin filament
diameter, mitochondrion length, or the number of thick and thin filaments per 14m2 in
columellar and tarsal muscle between the control group and MgS04 treated animals.

DISCUSSION
The mean muscle cell diameters of columellar muscle in the control group and MgS04
treated animals were 4.63 and 4.66 14m2 respectively; and for tarsal muscle, 2.60 and 2.38
14m2 respectively. The mean thick filament diameter of columellar muscle in the control
group and MgS04 treated animals was 56.33 and 56.27 nm respectively, and the mean thick
filament diameter of tarsal muscle was 42.75 nm in ihe control group and 42.37 nm in
MgS04 treated animals.

The smaller diameter of muscle cells and of thick filaments in the tarsal muscle ties in with
the suggestion that it possibly increases the agility and rate of contraction of this muscle in
comparison to the columellar muscle (Frescura 1990, and see Chapter 2). Frescura (1990)
also found that the diameter of the thick filaments of the tarsal muscle of the limpet, Patella
oculus is smaller than that of the thick filaments of columellar muscle. The thick filament
diameter ranges in the columellar muscle of H. midae are similar to those in H. spadicea
(Frescura 1990), viz. between 30 and 75 nm for H. midae and between 33 and 75 nm for
H. spadicea. Frescura (1990) found that the diameter of thin filaments of columellar muscle
in H. spadicea ranged between 6 and 7 nm. The diameter of thin filaments in H. midae
columellar muscle ranged between 5.26 and 7.9 nm which was also similar to the results
obtained by Frescura (1990). The length of the mitochondria in H. midae columellar muscle
is also similar to those of H. spadicea (Frescura 1990), i.e. between 0.45 and 1.2 14m2 in H.
midae and between 0.5 and 0.9 14m2 in H. spadicea.

There were no significant differences in mean muscle cell, thick filament and thin filament
diameter, mitochondria length or the number of thin and thick filaments per 14m2 area in

73
columellar and tarsal muscle of the control group and the MgS04 treated animals. These
results suggest that there was no modification of muscle tissue in animals treated with
MgS04·

In conclusion, MgS04 has no effect on the ultrastructure and therefore, by implication, on

the texture of H . midae muscle tissue, and can therefore be used for anaesthesia without any
fear of affecting marketability. It is necessary however to still determine the relationship
between muscle fine structure and texture before this conclusion cali be finally accepted.

74
 CHAPTER 7
ANAESTHETIC RESIDUES IN HALIOTIS MIDAE MUSCLE TISSUE AFTER
SHORT TERM AND INTERMITTENT WNG TERM EXPOSURE To\
MAGNESIUM SULPHATE

INTRODUCTION
Restrictions on the use of anaesthetics in fishery operations relate not only to the
effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the chemicals, but also to the legality of their use in food
fish (Marking & Meyer 1985). In the development of an anaesthetic, finding a compound that
is effective is relatively easy in comparison to meeting the requirements of the U.S.A. Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) for registration. The FDA requires that a drug used in
aquaculture should be safe and effective for its intended use (Stefan 1992). This includes
safety to the animal being anaesthetized, the person administering the drug, the consumer of
the product and safety to the environment.

Since most anaesthetics are absorbed through the gills, residues in the tissues are likely to
result unless adequate depuration time is allowed. The FDA requires that any compound used
to anaesthetize fish that may be used for human consumption must be determined to be safe
or inactive, if at all present by the time it reaches the consumer.

Methanesulfonate (MS-222) and carbon dioxide (COv are the only anaesthetics registered for
use on food fish (Schnick et aZ. 1979, Stefan 1992). Restrictions allow concentrations of
15-66 ppm MS-222 for 6-48 h and 50-330 ppm for 1-40 min for sedation and anaesthesia
respectively, and require a 21-day depuration period (Schnick et aZ. 1979, Marking & Meyer
1985). CO2 gas and sodium bicarbonate (142 to 642 ppm for 5 min as a means of introducing
CO2 into the water) are also allowed in aquaculture for anaesthetic purposes (Stefan 1992).
CO2 leaves no residues in animal tissue and does therefore not require a depuration period
(Gilderhus & Marking 1987).

Tests for residues of anaesthetics in aquatic organisms documented to date are limited to two
anaesthetics. These include residues of MS-222 in four salmonids (Walker & Schoettger
1967a, 1967b) and channel catfish, IctaZurus punctatus (Schoettger et aZ. 1967), and residues
of benzocaine in rainbow trout, SaZmo gairdneri (= Oncorhynchus myldss), and large mouth

75
bass, Micropterus salmoides (Allen 1988).

Since muscle is the principle edible tissue in abalone, the aim of this investigation was to test
abalone flesh for residues following magnesium sulphate (MgSO.) anaesthesia. This would
provide an indication of its safety for human consumption and whether a depuration period
is required.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Abalone ranging from 60-90 mm shell length (SL) were selected for this study. Animals were
collected along the Eastern Cape Coast and allowed to acclimatize to laboratory conditions
for a period of one month in our Port Alfred laboratory. Three groups of animals were used
for this study: a control group of untreated abalone (n = 3) , a group (n = 3) of animals
prepared for analysis immediately after exposure to 30 g.l00 mI" MgSO. for 20 min at 18°C
(Treatment 1) and a group of animals (n = 3) which had been exposed to MgS04 anaesthesia
at regular intervals during an eight month growth trial (Treatment 2) . The following protocol
was followed to analyze magnesium levels in columellar and tarsal muscle tissue. Samples
of columellar muscle and tarsal muscle (I cm x I cm) of each group were sectioned and
placed in distilled water. Muscle tissue samples of animals from the growth trial group were
sectioned 24 hours after the last exposure to MgS04 anaesthesia. Each of the tissue samples
were weighed and digested in 1 ml of concentrated nitric acid (55 %) at 80°C for two hours
after which the solutions were diluted to 5 ml with distilled water. The diluted solutions were
centrifuged at 3000 g for 10 min, the supernatant was poured off and stored in test tubes
covered with parafilm at 4°C. Magnesium levels in the muscle tissue samples were analyzed
using atomic absorbtion spectroscopy (Varian Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer,
AAI1275 Series) .

Statistical Analysis
The levels of magnesium measured in columellar and tarsal muscle of treated and
untreated animals were subjected to a One-Way Analysis of Variance. Means were compared
using Tukey's Multiple Range Test at 5% error probability. Homogeneity of variances were
tested with Bartlett's Test (Zar 1984).

76
RESULTS
One-Way Analysis of Variance showed that there were no significant differences in
magnesium levels in muscle tissue between the control group and the treated groups
(p>O.05) (fable 7.1). There were also no significant differences in magnesium levels in
tarsal and columellar muscle sections in the two treated groups and the control group.

Table 7.1. Magnesium levels in 60-90 mm SL HaUotis mUlae columellar and tarsal muscle tissue in a control
group, animals exposed to 30 g.IOO mI· 1 MgSO, at ISoC with no depuration time (Treatment I) and animals
subjected to monthly MgSO, anaesthesia over eight months with a 24 hour depuration period (Treatment 2).
Standard deviations of the means are presented.

Group Muscle Number of H. mUla. Deeuration (h) Mean magnesium levels (eem)

Control Columellar 3 Control 170.80+59.15

Treatment I Columellar 3 0 162.67.±54.S3

Treatment 2 Columellar 3 24 254.72+46.34

Control Tarsal 3 Control 199.38.±40.51

Treatment I Tarsal 3 0 209.11.±52.69

Treatment 2 Tarsal 3 24 16S.99+39.22

DISCUSSION
The levels of magnesium in both columellar and tarsal muscle tissue of H. midae
intermittently exposed to MgSO. over an eight month period, after a depuration period of 24
hours, and animals exposed to MgSO. immediately prior to analysis, approached those of
background magnesium levels in the control group. These results suggest that MgSO. does
not leave any residues in tarsal or columellar muscle tissue of H. midae, even when animals
are anaesthetized with 30 g.l00 ml· l MgSO. for 20 min immediately prior to analysis.

In conclusion, MgSO. is recommended for use as an abalone anaesthetic since it leaves no

residues in the muscle tissue, requires no depuration period for elimination of residues and
is therefore safe for human consumption. Moreover, MgSO. is used in the food industry and
for medicinal purposes.

77
 CHAPTER 8
PROWNGED EXPOSURE OF HALlOTlS MIDAE TO MAGNESIUM
SULPHATE ANAESTHESIA

INTRODUCTION
A prerequisite of the U.S.A. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is that a drug used in
aquaculture should be safe to the animals (Stefan 1992). Mortality-free anaesthesia is also an
important financial consideration in aquaculture. It is therefore important to know how long
animals can be exposed to an anaesthetic without any mortalities, and whether the animals
can survive the anaesthetic exposure times required during commercial farming practices.

Sagara and Ninomiya (1970) revealed that ethyl carbamic acid (0.5 and I %) did not
adversely affect juvenile abalone, Haliotis gigantea, when they remained in these
concentrations for up to 24 hours. However, when exposed to a 20% and 30% magnesium
sulphate (MgSO.) solution they started dying 3 and 2 hours after exposure, respectively.
Exposure for 10 minutes or longer to a I % chloral hydrate solution was also lethal to
juvenile H. gigantea.
The aim of this investigation was to evaluate the effect of prolonged exposure of three size
classes of H. midae to MgSO. anaesthesia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three size classes of H. midae were used for this study. The small animals (5-15 mm shell
length (SL» were obtained from the Sea Plant Products hatchery in Hermanus, while larger
animals (20-50 and 60-90 mm SL) were collected along the Eastern Cape Coast. Prior to the
initiation of the experiments, the animals were acclimated to laboratory conditions for a
period of one month. During the acclimation period, the animals were kept at a temperature
of 18 0 C and a salinity of 35 ppt. All experiments were conducted at this temperature and
salinity.

In the first experiment the abalone from all three size classes were exposed to MgSO.
anaesthesia for 20 and 40 minutes. The concentrations of MgSO. used for the three size
classes (5-15, 20-50 and 60-90 mm SL) were 4, 14 and 24 g.IOO ml· 1 MgSO., respectively.
These concentrations were selected from Table 3. 1 and were the same as those used during
the growth trial described in Chapter 6.

78
Each trial was undertaken in triplicate in plastic buckets containing 5 1 of continuously
aerated seawater. Ten animals were placed in each bucket and allowed to attach to the sides.
Once all the animals were firmly attached to the substratum, the seawater was poured out and
replaced with the anaesthetic solution. The animals were exposed to the anaesthetic solution
for the desired time period, after which anaesthesia was terminated by transferring the
animals to a bucket containing fresh, aerated seawater. The animals were placed upside down
on the bottom of the container and the time taken for each animal to recover was noted.
Recovery was defined to be complete when the abalone turned right side up. Daily mortalities
were recorded for two months after exposure to the anaesthetic.

In the second experiment the medium size abalone (20-50 mm SL) were exposed to
14 g.l00 ml-! MgS04 for 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 hours . The same protocol as described above was
followed in this experiment. Three replicates of ten animals were used in each treatment. The
animals were monitored for two months after exposure to the anaesthetic and daily mortalities
were recorded.

Statistical analysis
To test the effect of prolonged exposure on recovery rate, the data were subjected to
One-Way Analysis of Variance, with the main effect being exposure time. Means were
compared using Tukey's Multiple Range Test at 5% error probability. Homogeneity of
variances were tested with Bartlett's Test (Zar 1984).

RESULTS
All the abalone in the three size classes exposed to their respective MgS04 concentrations for
20 and 40 minutes recovered once they were placed in fresh seawater. However, One-Way
Analysis of Variance showed that recovery rates increased significantly with an increase in
exposure time to the anaesthetic (Table 8.1 & 8.2). These trends were especially evident in
the 20-50 mm SL size class (Table 8.2). The recovery rates of larger animals were also
significantly longer than the recovery rates of smaller animals (Table 8.1).

No mortalities were recorded in any of the size classes exposed to MgS04 anaesthesia for 20
or 40 minutes (Table 8.1). Similarly, no mortalities were recorded in the 20-50 mm SL size
class which were anaesthetized with the 14 g.IOO mt-! MgS04 solution after exposure times
of 1 to 6 hours (Table 8.2). However, after an exposure time of 8 hours, 6.67% post-

79
recovery mortalities were recorded.

DISCUSSION
Prolonged exposure of 5-15,20-50 and 60-90 mm SL H. midae to 4, 14 and 24 g.l00 mtl
MgS04 respectively, showed that these animals can be exposed to the anaesthetic for up to
40 minutes without any concern of post-recovery mortalities. The increased recovery rates
at longer exposure times have no implications for the commercial abalone farmer. The
important factor that should be taken into consideration is mortality-free anaesthesia rather
than recovery time.

Table 8.1. The mean recovery rates, percentage recovery and percentage survival of 5-15, 20-50 and 60-90
mm SL Haliotis midae after prolonged exposure to 4, 14 and 24 g.loo ml' MgSO,. Standard deviations of the
means are presented. Different superscripts indicate significant differences in recovery rates at p<0.05.

Size Cone. Exposure Mean recovery Percentage Percentage

(rom SL) (g.100 ml") time (min) rate (min) recovery survival

5-15 4 20 13.41 +5.01' 100 100

40 25.31+5.[(1- 100 100

20-50 14 20 33.28+ 13.08" 100 100

40 50.41 + 10.58' 100 100

60-90 24 20 38.91±19.49' 100 100

40 89.43 +20.01' 100 100

Table 8.2. The mean recovery rates, percentage recovery and percentage survival of 20-50 mm SL Haliotis
midae after prolonged exposure to 14 g.loo mi" MgSO•. Standard deviations of the means are presented.
Different superscripts indicate significant differences in recovery rates at p <0.05.

Size Cone. Exposure Mean recovery Percentage Percentage

(rom SL) (g.100 ml·l ) time (h) rate (min) recovery survival

20-50 14 I 74.40±14.84' 100 100

2 103.09+18.96' 100 100
4 171.66 + 37 .24" 100 100
6 246.20+50.89' 100 100
8 365.22+97.67' 100 93.33

80
Prolonged exposure of the 20-50 mm SL size class to 14 g. l00 m!"1 MgS04 revealed that the
animals can be exposed for up to 6 hours to the anaesthetic without any mortalities. These
exposure times are quite extreme and should theoretically never be encountered in the
commercial situation, although it is encouraging to know that the animals can be exposed to
MgS04 for such times before mortalities occur.

The results of Sagara & Ninomiya (1970) for MgS04 anaesthesia in H. gigantea confirms
an earlier suggestion (Chapter 1) that the efficacy of an anaesthetic appears to be species
specific. Therefore an anaesthetic which causes mortalities in one species might be very
effective and not lethal in another.

In conclusion, it can be safely said that MgS04 anaesthesia would not cause any mortalities
in H. midae in terms of commercial farming exposure times. These results also confirm
earlier observations that MgS04 is indeed a very suitable anaesthetic for commercial abalone
farming.

81
 CHAPTER 9
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Farming practices such as size-sorting, maintenance of proper densities, transfer between

tanks, system maintenance and harvesting require the periodic removal of abalone from their
holding tanks (Hahn 1989d, Tegner & Butler 1989, Shepherd et al. 1992, Tong et al. 1992).
Abalone possess a large muscular foot which functions as an adhesive organ, allowing it to
pull the shell down tightly onto the substratum (Fretter & Graham 1962, Barnes 1987).
Moreover, dislodgement by mechanical means often results in injury and subsequent death
due to lack of a blood coagulation system (Cox 1962, Armstrong et al. 1971, Genade et al.
1988, Hahn 1989d). The routine use of anaesthetics during culturing during is therefore
generally and internationally accepted as being part and parcel of abalone farming.

Benzocaine is the only anaesthetic currently used in commercial abalone culture (Tong et al.
1992, C. Claydon, Sea Plant Products, Hermanus, pers. comm .). However, recent reports
by the industry on mortalities resulting from benzocaine anaesthesia (C. Claydon, Sea Plant
Products, Hermanus, pers. comm. and C. Muller, Marine Growers, Port Elizabeth, pers.
comm.), suggested the need for the isolation of a safer alternative anaesthetic.

The efficacy of an anaesthetic used in aquaculture is subject to its ability to meet the
requirements of the farmer. The fundamental criteria for this study was therefore to discover
an anaesthetic medium and to develop a protocol that would result in mortality-free
anaesthesia in Haliotis midae. However, restrictions on the use of anaesthetics in aquaculture
relate not only to the effectiveness of the substances, but also to the legality and safety of
their use (Marking & Meyer 1985). It is important to be aware of the registration status of
chemicals and to avoid the use of unregistered ones. The U.S.A. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) requires that a drug used in aquaculture should be safe and effective
for its intended use (Stefan 1992). This includes safety to the animal, the person
administering the drug, the consumer of food products derived from the animal and safety
to the environment. These were the reasons why short term detrimental effects, long term
sub-lethal effects on growth, effects on muscle ultrastructure and therefore flesh texture,
residues in muscle tissue and the effect of prolonged exposure were examined. Availability
and cost were also taken into consideration.

82
Four chemicals were initially selected and their effect on isolated H. midae tarsal muscle was
investigated. These were magnesium sulphate (MgSO.), ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid
(EDTA), 2-phenoxyethanol and procaine hydrochloride. Procaine was selected because it is
safe for human medicind use and is available over-the-counter as Salusa 45 tablets (50 mg
procaine hydrochloride per tablet). MgS04 was chosen because it is an unscheduled laxative
and easily obtainable. It is also widely used in the food industry, and has been used as an
anaesthetic in other molluscs (Kaplan 1969, Culloty & Mulcahy 1992, Heasman et al. 1995) .
EDTA was chosen because it is a calcium chelating agent and it was argued that its calcium
precipitation formation would have no significant adverse effect on the consumer.
2-Phenoxyethanol was tested because it has been used widely in fish (Ross & Ross 1984,
Marking & Meyer 1985, Gilderhus & Marking 1987, Yamamitsu & ltazawa 1988, Iwama
et al. 1989, Mattson & Riple 1989, Teo et al. 1989, Teo & Chen 1993). All four chemicals
inhibited contraction of isolated H. midae tarsal muscle which suggested that they all had
potential as abalone anaesthetics.

Once the anaesthetic potential of the four chemicals had been established, it was necessary
to develop a size-related dosage table for each of these chemicals. The criteria which had to
be satisfied included mortality-free anaesthesia and an acceptable rate of anaesthesia.
Consultation with the industry revealed that an acceptable anaesthesia rate for industrial
purposes would be between 5 and 20 minutes (C. Claydon, Sea Plant Products, Hermanus,
pers. comm.). Size-related dosage tables were also developed for two additional anaesthetics,
namely benzocaine and carbon dioxide (CO,). Only three of the six chemical, MgSO.,
2-phenoxyethanol and CO2 , met the criteria of an effective abalone anaesthetic. The other
three chemicals caused mortalities and were regarded as unsuitable.

The efficacy of an anaesthetic can vary widely with temperature (Gilderhus & Marking 1987)
and since the temperatures at which abalone are cultured in South Africa range between 9
and 22°C the effect of temperature on the efficacy of MgSO. and CO2 for the three size
classes of H. midae had to be evaluated. The results clearly showed that higher
concentrations of MgSO. and flow rates of CO2 are required at lower temperatures. 2-
Phenoxyethanol was not included in this evaluation, since its use resulted in mortalities
during an experiment to determine the effect of regular anaesthesia on growth.

83
Abalone have very slow growth rates (Newman 1968, Wood 1993) and since uninterrupted
growth to marketable size is an important fmancial consideration in a commercial farming
situation, the long term sub-lethal effects of regular MgSO. and 2-phenoxyethanol anaesthesia
on growth of the three size classes of H. midiJe was evaluated. The effect of COz anaesthesia
on growth was not evaluated as it was shown to be impractical for H. midae anaesthesia on
a commercial scale (H.I. White & C. Claydon, unpublished data) . While 2-phenoxyethanol
appeared to be an effective abalone anaesthetic during the initial investigations, the increased
resistance to anaesthesia and the high percent monthly mortalities noted during the growth
trial led to the conclusion that it is unsuitable and unsafe for commercial application. Also,
even though it is not classified as a hazardous substance, its MSDS (Material Safety Data
Sheet) (Sigma Chemicals Corporation, U.S.A.lCanada) states that it is harmful. This
narrowed the potential list of abalone anaesthetics down to MgSO. as it was found not to
affect growth and did not result in significant mortalities.

It is important that anaesthetics used during aquaculture should not affect the texture of
muscle tissue, since this would in turn affect marketability. MgSO. anaesthesia did not affect
the ultrastructure and by implication flesh texture of H. midiJe. The use of MgSO. should
therefore not affect its marketability.

Since most anaesthetics are absorbed through the gills, residues in the tissue are likely to be
found unless adequate depuration time is allowed. The FDA requires that any compound used
to anaesthetize fish produced for human consumption must either be excreted or metabolized
before it is consumed or the residues must be determined as being safe to the consumer
(Marking & Meyer 1985). MgSO. did not leave any residues in H. midae muscle tissue. It
is therefore a safe anaesthetic for abalone produced for human consumption.

It is also important for the abalone farmer to know how long animals can be exposed to an
anaesthetic before mortalities occur. All three size classes of H. midae (used in this study)
can be safely exposed to MgSO. anaesthesia at the required size and temperature related
dosages for periods in excess of those required for routine farming procedures. In fact
juvenile H. midae can be safely exposed to 14 g.IOO ml· t MgSO. for up to 6 hours.

From these investigations it can be confidently concluded that MgSO. is superior to all the

84
anaesthetics that have been evaluated or used for H. midae to date. MgSO. also fulfIls the
safety requirements of the FDA. It is safe for the abalone, the farmer and the consumer. It
also does not affect flesh texture and leaves no residues in the muscle tissue. MgSO. is
generally considered to be a non-toxic substance and is poorly absorbed by humans following
oral administration (Reynolds 1982). Thus even if any magnesium were to be present in the
muscle tissue by the time the product reaches the consumer, the residue levels would
probably be so low that they would be completely harmless. MgSO. is an over-the-counter
laxative, is generally used in the food industry and in agriculture, and is easily obtainable.

As mentioned in Chapter 4, MgSO. has also been successfully used at a commercial scale
(H.I. White & C. Claydon, unpublished data). Juvenile H. midae (12-13 mm shell length
(SL» were effectively anaesthetized with 4 g.IOO mt l BP grade MgS04 heptahydrate (epsom
salts) at 14°C. All the animals recovered from anaesthesia within 20 minutes and no post-
recovery mortalities were recorded. It is important for farmers to note that BP (biochemically
pure) grade MgSO. should be used, since it contains less impurities than technical grade
MgSO•. Chemical impurities in technical grade MgSO. include chloride, calcium, iron,
arsenic and lead, some of which such as Fe, As and Pb could accumulate in the flesh. Given
that abalone in South Africa are farmed in baskets submerged in raceways (ten baskets per
4.5 m3 raceway) (C.Claydon, Sea Plant Products, Hermanus, pers. comm.), the quantity of
MgSO. required for anaesthesia, and therefore cost, can be significantly reduced by placing
a 1 m3 container containing the MgSO. solution on a trolley and simply placing a number of
baskets in the container at one time. If necessary, the solution can be used for the rest of the
baskets in that raceway.

Even though CO 2 was very effective in the laboratory, it was not effective for H. midae
anaesthesia on a commercial scale (H.I. White & C. Claydon, unpublished data) and the
costs are prohibitive.

In conclusion, the objective of this study has been met in that a suitable anaesthetic for
commercial scale application for H. midae farming has been isolated. The data have
demonstrated that H. midae can be effectively anaesthetized with MgSO. at regular intervals
throughout the grow-out period without fear of long term sublethal effects on growth. It also
does not affect the marketability of the flesh, requires no depuration period and its use does
not propose any threat to the health of the consumer, the abalone farmer nor to the

85
environment. The data also provides the abalone farmer with adequate information with
regards to dosages required for different size animals at different temperatures.

86
 REFERENCES

Allen, J.L. 1988. Residues of benzocaine in rainbow trout, largemouth bass, and fish meal.
Prog. Fish-Cult., 50(1): 59-60.

Anonymous 1994. Opening up new horiwns for abalone. Aust. Fish., 53(1): 17-19.

Armstrong, D.A. , Armstrong, J.L., Krassner, S.M. & Pauley, G.B. 1971. Experimental wound
repair in the black abalone, Haliotis cracherodii. J. Invertebr. Pathol., 17: 216-227.

Barkai, R. & Griffiths, C.L. 1986. Diet of the South African abalone Haliotis midae. S. Afr.
J. Mar. Sci., 4: 37-44.

Barkai, R. & Griffiths, C.L. 1987. Consumption, absorption efficiency, respiration and
excretion in the South African abalone, Haliotis midae. S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci. , 5:
523-529.

Barnes, R.D. 1987. Invertebrate Zoology, 5 th ed., pp. 342-392. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
International devision, Orlando, FL 32887.

Booke, H.E., Hollender, B. & Lutterbie, G. 1978. Sodium bicarbonate, an inexpensive fish
anesthetic for field use. Prog. Fish-Cult., 40(1): 11-13.

Bowman, W.C . & Rand, M.I. 1980. Textbook 0/ Pharmacology, 2nd ed., pp. 5.17, 9.1-9.36,
10.31, 16.35, 17.31. Scientific Publications, Oxford.

Britz, P.J. 1991. Global status of abalone culture. In: Perlemoen/arming in South Africa.
Proc. Workshop Maricult. Assoc. sthn. Afr. (Ed .) P. Cook., pp. 20-26.

Britz, P.I., Hecht, T., Knauer, I. & Dixon, M.G. 1994. The development of an artificial feed
for abalone farming . S. Afr. J. Sci., 90: 7-8.

Brown , J.H. 1989. Antibiotics: their use and abuse in Aouaculture. World Aquacult., 20(2) :
34-43 .

BuliJck, T.H. 1965. Mollusca: Gastropoda.In : Structure and function in the Nervous Systems
0/ Invertebrates. Vol. 2. (Eds.) T.H. Bullock & G.A. Horridge, pp. 1283-1386. W .H.
Freeman & Company, San Fransisco.

Chew, K.K. 1984. Recent advances in the cultivation of Molluscs in the Pacific United States
and Canada. Aquaculture, 39: 69-81.

Coilins, C . 1990. Live-hauling warm water fish. Aquacult. Mag., July/August: 70-76.

Colt, I. 1984. Computation of dissolved gas concentrations in water as functions of

temperature, salinity, and pressure. Am . Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ., 14: 1-154.

Cook, P. (Ed.) 1991. Perlemoen Farming in South Africa. Proc. Workshop Maricult . Assoc.
sthn. Afr., pp. 1-56.

87
Cox, K.W. 1962. California abalones, family Haliotidae. Calif. Dep. Fish Game, Fish. Bull.,
118: 1-113.

Crofts, D.R. 1929. Haliotis. Liverpool Mar. Bioi. Comm . Mem., No. 29: 1-174.

Crofts, D.R. 1937. The development of Haliotis tuberculata, with special reference to
organogenesis during torsion. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B, Bioi. Sci., 228:
219-269.

Cross, R.H.M. 1985. The Preparation of Biological Materialfor Electron Microscopy, 29 pp.
Electron Microscopy Unit, Rhodes University, Grahamstown.

Culloty, S.C. & Mulcahy, M.F. 1992. An evaluation of anaesthetics for OUrea edulis (L.).
Aquaculture, 107: 249-252.

Dixon, M.G. 1992. The Effect of Temperature and Photoperiod on the Digestive Physiology
of the South African Abalone Haliotis midae. MSc thesis , Rhodes University, 85 pp.

Fallu , R. 1991. Abalone Farming , 195 pp. Fishing News Books, Oxford, England.

Ferreira, J.T., Smit, G.L., Schoonbee, H.J. & Holzapfel, C.W. 1979. Comparison of anesthetic
potency of benzocaine hydrochloride and MS-222 in two freshwater fish species. Prog .
Fish-Cult., 41(3): 161-163.

Field, J.G., Jarman, N.G. , Dieckmann, G.S . , Griffiths, C.L., Velimirov, B. & Zoutendyk, P.
1977. Sun, waves, seaweed and lobsters: the dynamics of a West Coast kelp-bed. S.
Afr. J. Sci . , 73: 7-10.

Foley, D.M., Stewart, J.E. & Holley, R.A . 1966. Isobutyl alcohol and methyl pentynol as
general anesthetics for the lobster, Homarus americanus Milne-Edwards. Can. J . Zool.,
44: 141-144.

Fujino, K., Yamamori, K. & Okumura, S. 1984. Heart-rate responses of the Pacific abalone
against water temperature changes. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish., 50(10): 1671- 1675.

Frescura, M. 1990. Aspects of the structure and function of some gastropod columellar
muscles (Mollusca) . Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
Doctor of Philosophy of Rhodes University, 175 pp.

Fretter, V. & Graham, A. 1962. British Prosobranch Molluscs . Their Functional Anaromy and
Ecology, 755 pp. Ray Society, Bartholomew Press, Dorking.

Genade, A.B., Hirst, A.L. & Smit, C.J. 1988. Observations on the spawning, development and
rearing of the South African abalone, Haliotis midae Linn . S. Afr. J . Mar. Sci . , 6: 3-12.

Gilderhus, P.A. 1989. Efficacy of benzocaine as an anesthetic for salmonid fishes . N. Am. J .
Fish . Manage., 9: 150-153.

88
Gilderhus, P.A. 1990. Benzocaine as a fish anesthetic: efficacy and safety for spawning-phase
salmon. Prog. Fish-Cult., 52: 189-191.

Gilderhus, P.A., Lemm, C.A. & Curry Woods III, L. 1991. Benzocaine as an anesthetic for
striped bass. Prog. Fish-Cult., 53:' 105-107.

Gilderhus, P.A. & Marking, L.L. 1987. Comparative efficacy of 16 anesthetic chemicals on
rainbow trout. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage., 7: 288-292.

Girdlestone, D., Cruickshank, S.G.H. & Winlow, W. 1989. The actions of three volatile
general anaesthetics on withdrawal responses of the pond-snail Lymnaea stagnalis (L.).
Compo Biochem. Physiol., 92C(1): 39-43.

Hahn, K.O. 1989a. Survey of the commercially important abalone species in the world. In:
Handbook of Culture of Abalone and Other Marine Gastropods. (Ed.) K.O. Hahn, pp.
3-11. CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.

Hahn, K.O. 1989b. Handbook of Culture of Abalone and Other Marine Gastropods, 348 pp.
CRe Press Inc., Boca Raton, FI01:Jda.

Hahn, K.O. 1989c. Abalone aquaculture in Japan. In: Handbook of Culture of Abalone and
Other Marine Gastropods. (Ed.) K.O. Hahn, pp. 185-194. eRC Press Inc., Boca Raton,
Florida.

Hahn, K.O. 1989d. Biotic and abiotic factors affecting culture of abalone. In: Handbook of
Culture of Abalone and Other Marine Gastropods. (Ed.) K.O . Hahn, pp. 113-134.
eRe Press Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.

Heasman, M.P., O'Connor, W.A. & Frazer, A.W.J. 1995. Induction of anaesthesia in the
commercial scallop, Pectenfumatus Reeve. Aquaculture, 131: 231-238 .

Hecht, T. , 1992. Abalone Aquaculture. A new salt water cash crop is nearing reality. S. Afr.
Comm. Mar. Mag., August: 32-36.

Hecht, T. 1994. Behavioural thermoregulation of the abalone, Haliotis midae, and the
implications for intensive culture. Aquaculture, 126: 171-181.

Hecht, T. & Britz, P.L 1990. Aquaculture in South Africa. History, Status and Prospects.
Aquaculture Association of South Africa, Pretoria, 58 pp.

Hecht, T. & Britz, P.J. 1992. The current status, future prospects and environmental
implications of mariculture in South Africa. S. Afr. J. Sci., 88: 335-342.

Hill, R.B. 1958. The effects of certain neurohumors and of other drugs on the ventricle and
radula protractor of Busycon canaliculatum and on the ventricle of Strombus gigas.
Bioi. Bull. , Woods Hole, 115: 471-482.

Hill, R.B. 1974. Effects of 5-hydroxytryptamine on action potentials and on contractile force
in the ventricle of Dolabella auricularia. J. Exp . Bioi. , 61: 529-539.

89
Hill, R.B. & Thibault, W.N. 1968. The relation of neurohumors to autorhythmicity of the
isolated ventricle of Strombus gigas (Gastropoda, Prosobranchia). Camp. Biochem.
Physiol., 24: 19-30.

Hill, R.B. & Welsh, J.H. 1966. Heart, Circulation and Blood Cells. In: Physiology of
Mollusca. Vol. II. (Eds.) K.M. Wilbur & C.M. Yonge, pp. 125-174. Academic Press,
New York.

Hooker, N . . & Morse, D.E. 1985. Abalone: the emerging development of commercial
cultivation in the United States. In: Crustacean and Mollusk Aquaculture in the United
Stales. (Eds.) J.V. Hunter & E. Evan Brown, pp. 365-414. AVI Publishing Company
Inc., Westport, Connecticut.

Hondeghem, L.M. & Miller, R.D. 1992. Local Anesthetics. In: Basic and Clinical
Pharmacology. 511> ed. (Ed.) B.G. Katzung, pp. 363-370. Appleton & Lange, East
Norwalk, Connecticut.

ltazawa, Y. 1983. An attempt to apply anesthesia induced by carbon dioxide to transportation

of live fish . Proc. 2'"'. North Pacific Aquacult. Symp., September 1983, Tokyo and
Shimizu, Japan, pp. 109-125.

Iwama, G.K., McGeer, J.C. & Pawluk, M.P. 1989. The effects of five fish anaesthetics on
acid-base balance, hematocrit, blood gases, cortisol, and adrenaline in rainbow trout.
Can. J. Zool., 67: 2065-2073.

lzutsu, K.T. 1972. Intracellular pH, H ion flux and H ion permeability coefficient in bullfrog
toe muscle. J. Physiol., Lond., 221: 15-27.

Jones, H.D. 1983. The circulatory systems of Gastropods and Bivalves. In: The Mollusca. Vol.
5: Physiology, Part II. (Eds.) A.S.M. Saleuddin & K.M. Wilbur, pp. 189-238.
Academic Press, New York.

Kaplan, H .M. 1969. Anesthesia in invertebrates. Fed. Proc. , 28: 1557-1569.

Katzung, B.G. 1992. Introduction to Autonomic Pharmacology. In: Basic and Clinical
Pharmacology. 511> ed. (Ed.) B.G. Katzung, pp. 69-81. Appleton & Lange, East
Norwalk, Connecticut.

Klluri, R.N., Bogharian, K.K. & Agulian , S.K. 1974. Intracellular bicarbonate in single
skeletal muscle fibres. Pjleug. Arch. Eur. J. Physiol. , 349: 285-294.

Knauer, J. 1994. Development of an Artificial Weaning Diet for the South African Abalone,
Haliotis midae (Haliotidae : Gastropoda). MSc thesis, Rhodes University, 141 pp.

Krajniak, K.G. & Bourne, G.B. 1987. Effects of FMRFamide on the intact and isolated
circulatory system of the pinto abalone, Haliotis kamtschatkana. J. Exp. Zool., 241:
389-392.

90
Krajniak, K.G. & Bourne, G.B. 1989. The effects of 5-hydroxytryptamine on the isolated and
intact circulatory system of the pinto abalone, Haliotis kamtscluukana, and its presence
in cardiac and non-cardiac tissues. Compo Biochem. Physiol. , 94C(2) : 561-566.

Larocque, L., Schnurr, M., Sved, S. & Weninger, A. 1991. Drug residues in animal tissues:
determination of oxolinic acid residues in salmon muscle tissue by liquid
chromatography with fluorescence detection. 1. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. , 74(4):
608-611.

Lefkowitz, R.J . , Hoffman, B.B. & Taylor, P. 1991. Neurohumoral Transmission: The
Autonomic and Somatic Motor Nervous Systems. In: The Pharmacological Basis of
Therapeutics . 8th ed. (Vol. l). (Eds.) A. Goodman Gilman, T.W. Rall, A.S. Nies & P.
Taylor, pp. 84-121. Maxwell Macmillan Pergamon Publishing Corporation, New York.

Liebeswar, G., Goldman, J.E., Koester, J. & Mayeri, E. 1975. Neural control of circulation
in Aplysia-III: Neurotransmitters. 1. Neurophysiol. , 38: 767-779.

Lindberg, D.R. 1992. Evolution, distribution and systematics of Haliotidae. In: Abalone of the
World. Biology , Fisheries and Culture. (Eds.) S.A. Shepherd, M.J. Tegner & S.A.
Guzman del Pr60, pp. 3-17. Fishing News Books, Blackwell Scientific Publications
Inc. , Oxford.

Malan, A., Wilson, T.L. & Reeves, R.B. 1976. Intracellular pH in cold-blooded vertebrates
as a function of body temperature. Respir. Physiol., 28: 29-47.

Manahan, D. T. & Jaeckie, W.B. 1992. Implications of dissolved organic material in seawater
for the energetics of abalone larvae Haliotis rufescens: a review. In : Abalone of the
World. Biology, Fisheries and Culture. (Eds.) S.A. Shepherd, M.J. Tegner & S.A.
Guzman del Pr60, pp.95-106. Fishing News Books, Cambridge.

Marking, L.L. & Meyer, F.P. 1985. Are better anesthetics needed in fisheries? Fisheries,
10(6): 2-5 .

Martin , B.R. 1987. Metabolic Regulation, a Molecular Approach, pp. 66-82, 125-126.
Blackwell Scientific Publications Inc., Oxford.

Mattson, N.S. & Ripie, T.H. 1989. Metomidate, a better anesthetic for cod (Gadus morhua)
in comparison with benzocaine, MS-222, chlorobutanol, and phenoxyethanol.
Aquaculture, 83: 89-94.

McShane, P.E. 1992. Early life history of abalone: a review. In: Abalone of the World.
Biology, Fisheries and Culture . (Eds.) S.A. Shepherd, M.J. Tegner and S.A. Guzman
del Pro6, pp. 120-138. Fishing News Books , Cambridge.

McShane, P.E. & Smith, M.G. 1988. Measuring abundance of juvenile abalone, Haliotis rubra
Leach (Gastropoda: Haliotidae) ; Comparison of a novel method with two other
methods. Aust. 1. Mar. Freshwater Res., 39: 331-336.

91
Messenger, LB., Nixon, M. & Ryan, K.P. 1985. Magnesium chloride as an anaesthetic for
cephalopods. Compo Biochem. Physiol., 82C(1):203-205.

Mukai, Y. & Kobayashi, H. 1992. Cupular growth rate of free neuromasts in three species of
cyprinid fish. Bull. lpn. Soc. Sci. Fish., 58(10): 1849-1853.

Muneoka, Y. & Twarog, B.M. 1983. Neuromuscular transmission and excitation -contraction
coupling in molluscan muscle. In: The Mollusca. Vol. 4: Physiology, Pan I. (Eds.)
A.S.M. Saleuddin & K.M. Wilbur, pp 35-76. Academic Press, New York.

Muneoka, Y., Twarog, B.M. & Kanno, Y. 1979. The effects of zinc ion on the mechanical
responses of Mytilus smooth muscle. Compo Biochem. Physiol., 62C: 35-40.

Neal, M.J. 1992. Medical Pharmacology at a Glance, 20d ed., pp 16-19. Blackwell Scientific
Publications.

Newman, G.G. 1966. Movement of the South African abalone Haliotis midae. Investl. Rep.
Div. Sea Fish . S. Afr., 56: 1-19.

Newman, G.G. 1967. Abalone Research in South Africa. Fish. Bull. S. Afr., 4: 28-34.

Newman, G.G. 1968. Growth of the South African abalone, Haliotis midae. Investl. Rep. Div.
Sea Fish . S. Afr., 67: 1-24.

Newman, G.G. 1969. Distribution of the abalone (Haliolis midae) and the effect of
temperature on productivity. Invest!. Rep. Div. Sea Fish. S. Afr., 74: 1-7.

Nicaise, G. & AmseUem, J. 1983. Cytology of muscle and neuromuscular junction. In: The
Mollusca. Vol. 4: Physiology, Pan I. (Eds.) A.S.M. Saleuddin & K.M. Wilbur,
pp. 1-33. Academic Press, New York.

Olley, J. & Thrower, S.J. 1977. Abalone - an esoteric food. In: Advances in Food Research,
Vol . 23. (Eds .) C.O. Chichester, LM. Mark & G.F. Stewart, pp. 143-186. Academic
Press, New York.

Parma de Croux, M.J. 1990. Benzocaine (ethyl-p-aminobenzoate) as an anaesthetic for

Prochilodus linealus, Valenciennes (pisces, Curimatidae). J. Appl. Ichthyol., 6:
189-192.

Pickering, A.D. 1992. Rainbow trout husbandry: management of the stress response.
Aquaculture, 100: 125-139.

Post, G. 1979. Carbonic acid anesthesia for aquatic organisms. Prog. Fish-Cult., 41(3):
142-144.

Prince, A.M.J., Low, S.E., Lissimore, T.J., Diewert, R.E. & Hinch, S.G. 1995. Sodium
bicarbonate and acetic acid: an effective anesthetic for field use. N. Am. J. Fish.
Manage., 15: 170-172.

92
Prince, J.D. & Ford, W.E. 1985. Use of anaesthetic to standardize efficiency in sampling
abalone populations (genus Haliotis; Mollusca: Gastropoda). Aust. J. Mar. Freshwater
Res., 36: 701-706.

Reynolds, J.E.F. 1982. Mamndale, The Extra Phannacopoeia, 28th ed., pp. 384, 626-627,
899-923, 1037-1038, 1288. The Pharmaceutical Press, London.

Ross, L.G. & Ross, B. 1984. Anaesthetic and sedative techniquesjor fish, pp. 21-22. Institute
of Aquaculture, University of Sterling, Scotland.

Ruben, P. & Lukowiak, K. 1984. Modulation of the Aplysia gill withdrawal reflex by
dopamine. 1. Neurobiol. , 14: 271-284.

Russell, C.W. & Evans, B.K. 1989. Cardiovascular anatomy and physiology of the black-lip
abalone, Haliotis ruber. 1. Exp. Zool., 252(1): 105-117.

Saborowski, F., Scholand, C.H. , Lang, D. & Albers, C. 1973. Intracellular pH and CO2
combining curve of hypertrophic cardiac muscle in rats. Respir. Physiol., 18: 171-177.

Sagara, J. & Ninomiya, N. 1970. On the tear-off of young abalone from the attachment by
four anesthetics (ethyl carbamic acid, magnesium sulfate, chloral hydrate and sodium
diethylbarbituric acid). Aquiculture, 17(2): 89-95.

Salanki, J., Hiripi, L. & Volina, F. 1980. Negative feedback regulation of serotonin release
in molluscan ganglion . In : Neurotransmitters in Invenebrates. Vol. 22: Advances in
Physiological Science. (Ed.) K.S. Rozsa, pp. 407-420. Pergamon, Oxford.

Schnick, R.A . , Meyer, F.P. & Van Meter, H.D. 1979. Announcement of compounds registered
for fishery uses. Prog . Fish-Cult., 41: 36-37.

Schoettger, R.A., Walker, C.R. , Marking, L.L. & Julin, A.M. 1967. MS-222 as an anesthetic
for channel catfish : its toxicity, efficacy, and muscle residues. U.S. Bur. Spon Fish.
Wildl. Invest. Fish Control, 17: 3-14.

Shepherd, S.A. & Steinberg, P.O. 1992 . Food preference of three Australian abalone species
with a review of the algal food of abalone. In: Abalone of the World. Biology,
.Fisheries and Culture . (Eds.) S.A. Shepherd, M.J. Tegner & S.A. Guzman del Pr60,
pp. 169-181. Fishing News Books, Cambridge.

Shepherd, S.A., Tegner, M.J. & Guzman del Pr60, S.A. 1992. Abalone of the World . Biology,
Fisheries and Culture, 608 pp. Blackwell Scientific Publications Inc., Oxford.

Spotte, S. 1979. Seawater Aquariums: The Captive Environment, pp. 73-91. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York.

Stefan, G.E. 1992. FDA regulation of animal drugs used in aquaculture. Aquacult. Mag . ,
September/October: 62-67 .

93
Strickland, J.D.H. & Parsons, T.R. 1972. A practical Jumdbook of seawater analysis, 310 pp.
Ottawa, Fisheries Research Board of Canada.

Sugi, H. & Yamaguchi, T. 1976. Activation of the contractile mechanism in the anterior
byssal retractor muscle of Mytilus edulis. J. Physiol., Lond., 257: 531-547.

Sugiyama, M. & Tanaka, Y. 1982. Application of CO2 anesthetic method for the exfoliation
of young abalone from collector. Bull. Nat. Res. Inst. Aquacult. , 3: 37-44.

Tarr, R.J.Q. 1992. The abalone fishery of South Africa. In: Abalone of the World. Biology,
Fisheries of Culture. (Eds.) S.A. Shepherd, M.J. Tegner & S.A. Guzman del Pr60, pp.
438-447. Fishing News Books, Cambridge.

Taylor, P. 1991. Cholinergic agonists. In: The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. Ed.
B (Vol. I). (Eds.) A. Goodman Gilman, T.W. Rall, A.S. Nies & P. Taylor, pp. 122-130.
Maxwell MacmilIanPergamon Publishing Corporation, New York.

Tegner, M.J. & Butler, R.A . 1989. Abalone seeding. In: Handbook of Culture of Abalone and
Other Marine Gastropods. (Ed.) K.O. Hahn, pp. 157-182, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton,
Florida.

Teo, L. & Chen, T. 1993. A study of metabolic rates of Poecilia reticulata Peters under
different conditions. Aquacult. Fish. Manage ., 24 : 109-117.

Teo, L.H., Chen, T .W. & Lee, B.H. 1989. Packaging of the guppy, Poecilia reticulata, for
air transport in a closed system. Aquaculture, 78: 321-332.

Thomas, R.C. 1974. Intracellular pH of snail neurones measured with a new pH-sensitive
glass micro-electrode. 1. Physiol., Lond., 238: 159-180.

Tong, L.J., Moss, G.A ., Redfearn, P. & Illingworth, J. 1992. A manual of techniques for
culturing paua, Haliotis iris, through to the early juvenile stage. N. Z. Fish. Tech. Rep.,
31: 5-21.

Trueman, E.R. & Brown, A.C. 1985. The mechanism of shel1 elevation in Haliotis (Mollusca:
Gastropodal) and a consideration of the evolution of the hydrostatic skeleton in
Mollusca. 1. Zool., Lond., 205: 585-594.

Voltzow, J. 1990. The functional morphology of the pedal musculature of marine gastropods
Busycon contrarium and Haliotis kamtschatkana. Veliger, 33(1): 1-19.

Walker, R.J. 1986. Transmitters and modulators. In: The Mollusca. Vol. 9: Neurobiology and
Behaviour, Pan II. (Ed.) A.O.Dennis Willows, pp. 279-438. Academic Press, New
York.

Walker, C.R. & Schoettger, R.A. 1967a. Method for determining MS-222 residues in fish.
U.S. Bur. Spon Fish . Wildl. Invest. Fish Control, 14: 3-9.

94
Walker, C.R. & Schoettger, R.A. 1967b. Residues of MS-222 in four salmonids following
anesthesia. u.s. Bur. Sport Fish. Wildl. Invest. Fish Control, 15: 3-11.

Watanabe, A.M. & Katzung, B.G. 1992. Cholinoceptor-Activating & Cholinesterase-

Inhibiting Drugs. In: Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. 5th ed. (Ed.) B.G. Katzung,
pp. 82-96. Appleton & Lange, East Norwalk, Connecticut.

Wells, M. 1983. Circulation in cephalopods. In: The Mollusca. Vol. 5: Physiology, Part II.
(Eds.) A.S.M. Saleuddin & K.M. Wilbur, pp. 239-290. Academic Press, New York.

Welsh, I.H. & Smith, R.I. 1949. Laboratory Exercises in Invertebrate Physiology, pp.
112-113. Burgess Publishing Company, Minneapolis.

Williams, I .A., Withrow, C.D. & Woodbury, D.M. 1971a. Effects of ouabain and
diphenylhydantoin on transmembrane potentials, intracellular electrolytes, and cell pH
of rat muscle and liver in vivo. J. Physiol., Lond. , 212: 101-115.

Williams, J.A ., Withrow, C.D. & Woodbury, D.M. 1971b. Effects of nephrectomy and KCI
on transmembrane potentials, intracellular electrolytes, and cell pH of rat muscle and
liver in vivo . J. Physiol., Lond., 212: 117-128.

Wood, A.D. 1993. Aspects o/the Biology and Ecologyo/the South African Abalone, Haliotis
midaeLinnaes, 1758 (Mollusca: Gastropoda) along the Eastern Cape and Ciskei Coast.
MSc thesis, Rhodes University, 161 pp.

Yamamitsu, S. & Itazawa, Y. 1988. Effects of an anesthetic 2-phenoxyethanol on the heart

rate, ECG and respiration in carp. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish., 54(10): 1737-1746.

Yokoyama, Y., Yoshikawa, H. , Ueno, S. & Mitsuda, H. 1989. Application of CO2 -anaesthesia
combined with low temperature for long-term anaesthesia in carp. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci.
Fish., 55(7): 1203-1209.

Yoshikawa, H., Ishida, Y., Ueno, S. & Mitsuda, H. 1988a. Changes in depth of anesthesia of
the carp anethetised with a constant level of CO2 • Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish., 54(3) :
457-462.

Yoshikawa, H., Ishida, Y., Ueno, S. & Mitsuda, H. 1988b. The use of sedating action of CO2
for long-term anesthesia in carp. Bull. Jpn . Soc. Sci. Fish., 54(4): 545-551.

Zar, J.H. 1984. Biostatistical Analysis, 2nd ed., 718 pp . Prentice-Hall Inc., New Iersey, U.S.A .

95
 PUBLICATIONS TO DATE

White, H.I., Hecht T. & Potgieter, B. 1994. The effect of four anaesthetics on Haliotis
midae and their suitability for application in commercial abalone culture. Aquaculture,
in press.

White, H.I. & Hecht, T. 1994. Are magnesium sulphate and carbon dioxide better
anaesthetics than benzocaine for commercial abalone culture? Proc. Aquacult. Assoc.
sthn Afr., in press.

96
 .
"
" ,"'. '. .... .!.

-", -",
", ,
-}
, <, 't.'
,; ,;
',', ,
,'.
",
....
. "
"
",
. .','0" :.;., ,';:- ,
" .,
... ~, ';;"""
., ,; .. >'; -', ,

~.
,
: "
,<
" " ,
>
"',' . ''':.
"
,.
,
; ,

.. "

,~
,T··
,,'
-.. ,

,,"
',' <"
',.

,'
, :~ .-': t ., ," "
"
" ,J. ,. ,.
",
. ':
.,~
, .. • <,.•• ' " '.,'

, , ""

"'. : -, , '.
.' .'"
.. -,'.

" '"
,.,,' .. ., ' .. "
". ",
. :, .. ,'
.~.
-'" "
", . - '~ '.:
"
.<'. ,",
,
'..:......:.. ,. "

THE SOLUTION