Research methodology
Chapter one
What is research?
Research is the process of finding solutions to a problem after a
thorough study and analysis of the situational factors.
Business research
A systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific
problem encountered in the work setting, which needs a
solution. Research provides the necessary information that
guides managers to make informed decisions to successfully
deal with problems.
Steps in research:
1- Knowing where the problem areas exist in the organization
2- Identify as clearly and specifically as possible the problems
that need to be studied and resolved.
3- Gather information, analyze the data, and determine the
factors that are associated with the problem and then
solve it by taking the necessary corrective measures.
The difference between the manager who uses common sense
alone to analyze and make a decision in a given situation, and
the manager who uses scientific method is that the latter does
a systematic inquiry into the matter and proceeds to describe,
explain, or predict phenomena based on data carefully
collected for the purpose.
Types of business research: applied and basic
Applied research: research done with the intention of applying
the results of the findings to solve specific problems currently
being experienced in an organization.
Basic research: research done chiefly to make a contribution to
existing knowledge.
The difference between applied researches is that applied
research is done to solve a problem as for basic research is
done for existing knowledge.
Managers and research
Managers with knowledge of research have an advantage over
those without. Being knowledgeable about research and
research methods helps professional managers to:
1- Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the
work setting.
2- Know how to discriminate good from bad research.
3- Appreciate and be constantly aware of the multiple
influences and multiple effects of factors impinging on a
situation.
4- Take calculated risks in decision making, knowing full
well the probabilities associated with the different
possible outcomes.
5- Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their
influence in a situation.
6- Relate to hired researchers and consultants more
effectively.
7- Combine experience with scientific knowledge while
making decisions.
The manager-researcher relationship
The manager has to inform the researchers what types of
information may be provided to them and, more importantly
which of their records will not be made available to them.
Making these facts clear at the very beginning can save a lot of
frustration for both parties.
Managers who are very knowledgeable about research can
more easily foresee what information the researchers might
require, and if certain documents containing such information
cannot be made available, they can inform the research team
about this at the outset.
While hiring researchers the manager should make sure that:
1- The roles and expectations of both parties are made clear.
2- Relevant philosophies and value systems of the
organization are clearly stated and constraints, if any are
communicated.
3- A good rapport is established with the researchers, and
between the researchers and the employees in the
organization, enabling the full cooperation of the latter.
Internal vs. External Researchers
Some organizations have their own research department. This
department serves as the internal consultant to submit of the
organization that face certain problems and seek help.
Advantages of internal researchers
1- Better acceptance from staff
2- Knowledge about organization , so less time and cost
3- Would be an integral part of implantation and evaluation
of the research recommendation
Disadvantages of internal researchers
1- Less fresh ideas
2- Power, politics, could prevail; consequently the finding
might be less objective and less scientific.
Advantages of external researchers
1- Fresh ideas
2- Went through a lot of problems so have different solutions
3- No one can affect their research, power or politics.
Disadvantages of external researchers
1- Cost a lot of money and time to know the organization
2- Staff might not accept the external researchers
Ethics and business research
Ethics in business research refers to a code of conduct or
expected societal norms of behavior while conducting research.
Ethical conduct applies to the organization and the members
that sponsor the research.
Chapter 2
Scientific research is not based on hunches, experience and
intuition.
Scientific Investigation tends to be more objective than
subjective, it helps managers highlight the most critical factors
at the workplace that need specific attention so as to avoid,
minimize, or solve problem.
Hallmarks of scientific research
The hallmarks are the main distinguishing characteristics of
scientific research.
1- Purposiveness: definite aim or purpose
2- Rigor: the degree of exactitude in research investigation
3- Testability: the ability to subject the data collected to
appropriate statistical tests, in order to substantiate or
reject the hypotheses developed for the research study
4- Replicability: the repeatability of similar results when
identical research is conducted at different times or in
different organizational settings.
5- Precision: refers to the closeness of the findings “reality”
based on a sample.
Confidence: refers to the probability that our estimations
are correct.
6- Objectivity: interpretation of the results on the basis of the
results of data analysis as opposed to subjective or
emotional interpretations.
7- Generalization: the applicability of research findings in one
setting to others.
8- Parsimony: efficient explanation of the variance in the
dependent variable of interest through the use of a
smaller, rather than a larger number of independent
variables.
The hypothetico-deductive method
The hypothetico-deductive method provides a useful,
systematic approach to solving basic and managerial problems.
1- Identify a broad problem area: point out where the
problem is.
2- Define the problem statement: scientific research starts
with a definite aim or purpose to find solution to identified
problem.
3- Develop hypotheses: variables are examined as to their
contribution or influence in explaining why the problem
occurs and how it can be solved.
4- Determine measures: unless the variables in the
theoretical framework are measured in some way, we will
not be able to test our hypothesis.
5- Data collection: after determing how to measure our
variables, data with respect to each variable in the
hypothesis need to be obtained.
6- Data analysis: In data analysis step, the data gathered are
statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were
generated have been supported.
7- Interpretation of data: now we must decide whether our
hypotheses are supported or not by interpreting the
meaning of the results of the data analysis.
Alternative Approaches to research
1- Positivism
Positivist view of the world, science and scientific
research is seen as the way to get the truth.
For positivist, the world operates by laws of cause
and effect that we can discern if we use scientific
approach to research.
They use deductive reasoning to put forward
theories that they can test by means of a fixed,
predetermined research design and objective
measures.
The key approach to positivist researchers is the
experiment, which allows them to test cause-and-
effect relationships through manipulation and
observation.
2- Constructionism
Criticizes the positivist belief that there is an
objective truth.
Constructionists hold the opposite view, namely
that the world is fundamentally mental or mentally
constructed.
They aim to understand the rules people use to
make sense of the world by investigating what
happens in people’s minds
Constructionists are particularly interested in how
people’s view of the world result from interactions
with others and the context in which they take
place.
The research methods of constructionist
researchers are often qualitative in nature.
Focus groups and unstructured views allow them
to collect rich data, oriented to contextual
uniqueness.
3- Critical realism
Is a combination of the belief in an external
reality with the rejection of the claim that this
external reality can be objectively measured?
The critical realist is thus critical of our ability to
understand the world with certainty.
Critical believe that the goal of research is to
progress toward this goal, even though it’s
impossible to reach it.
Critical realist viewpoint, measures of
phenomena such as emotions feelings, and
attitudes are often subjective in nature and the
collection of data is imperfect and flawed.
Critical realist also believes that researchers are
inherently biased.
4- Pragmatism
Pragmatists do not take on a particular position on
what makes a good research.
They feel that research on both objective,
observational phenomena and subjective meanings
can produce useful knowledge, depending on the
research questions of the study.
The focus of pragmatism is on practical, applied
research where different viewpoints on research
and the subject under study are helpful in solving a
business problem.
Pragmatism describes research as a process where
concepts and meanings are generalizations of our
past actions and experiences and of interactions
we have had with the environment.
For the pragmatist these different perspectives,
ideas, and theories help us to gain an
understanding of the world
Pragmatism thus endorses eclecticism and
pluralism.
Chapter 3
Broad problem area:
Identification of the broad problem area through the process
of observing and focusing on the situation. A problem does not
necessarily mean that something is seriously wrong with a
current situation that needs to be rectified immediately. A
problem could also indicate an interest in an issue where
finding the right answers might help to improve an existing
situation. Thus it is fruitful to define a problem as any situation
where a gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal
states.
Preliminary information gathering
Preliminary information gatherings via unstructured interviews,
structured interviews, and/or a review through existing sources
of information, such as news articles, textbooks, conference
proceedings and the internet will help the researcher to narrow
down the broad problem area and to define a specific problem
statement.
1- Background information on the organization and its
environment.
2- Literature, the body of knowledge available to you or what
is already known and written down that is relevant to your
research project.
Background information on the organization
It is important for the researcher or the research team-
especially if an outside agency conducts the research- to be
well acquainted with the background of the company or
organization studied. Such information might include
1- the origin and history of the company
2- size in terms of employees, assets, or both
3- charter- purpose and ideology
4- location- regional, national, or other
5- resources- human and others
6- interdependent relationships with other institutions and
the external environment
7- financial position during the previous five to ten years and
relevant financial data
8- information on structural factors
9- information on the management philosophy
Literature-the body of knowledge available to you
May also help you to think about and understand the problem
better.
Structure your research on work already done, or in other
words to build on the foundation of existing knowledge
Develop the problem statement with precision and clarity
Defining the problem statement
After gathering preliminary information, the researcher is in a
position to narrow down the problem from its original broad
base and define the issues of concern more clearly. It is critical
that the problem statement is unambiguous, specific, and
focused and that the problem is addressed from a specific
academic perspective.
The research proposal
Before any research study is undertaken, there should be an
agreement between the person who authorizes the study and
the researcher as to the problem to be investigated, the
methodology to be used, the duration of the study, and its
costs. This ensures that there are no misunderstandings
The research proposal drawn up by the investigator is the result
of a planned, organized, and careful effort, and basically
contains the following:
1. A working title
2. Background of the study
3. The problem statement:
a- The purpose of the study
b- Research questions
4. The scope of the study
5. The relevance of the study
6. The research design, offering details on:
a- Type of study- exploratory, descriptive and or causal
b- Data collection methods
c- The sampling design
d- Data analysis
7. Time frame of the study, including information on when
the written report will be handed over to the sponsors
8. The budget, detailing the costs with reference to specific
items of expenditure
9. Selected bibliography.
Such a proposal containing the above features is
presented to the manager, who might seek clarification on
some points, or wants the proposal to be modified in
certain respects, or accept it.
Chapter 4
The critical literature review
The purpose of a critical literature review:
A literature review is a step-by-step process that involves the
identification of published and unpublished work from
secondary data sources on the topic of interest, the evaluation
of this work in relation to the problem.
A critical literature review ensures that no important variable
that has in the past been founded repeatedly to have had an
impact on the problem is ignored in the research project.
The exact purpose of a critical literature review depends on the
research approach that is taken in general, a literature review
ensures that:
1- The research effort is positioned relative to existing
knowledge and builds on this knowledge.
2- One does not run the risk of “reinventing the wheel” that
is wasting effort on trying to rediscover something that is
already known.
3- The background is available to enable you to look at a
problem from a specific angle, to shape your thinking and
to spark useful insights on the topic of your research
4- A clearer idea emerges as to what variables will be
important to consider, why they are considered important,
and how they should be investigated to solve the problem
5- The researcher is able to introduce relevant terminology
and to provide guiding definitions of the concepts in the
theoretical framework.
6- The researcher is able to provide arguments for the
relationships between the variables in a conceptual model
7- Testability and replicability of the findings of the current
research are enhanced
8- The research findings are related to the findings of others
How to approach the literature review
The first step of a literature review involves the identification of
the various published and unpublished materials that are
available on the topic of interest, and gaining access to these.
1. Data sources
2. Textbooks
3. Journals
4. Theses
5. Conference proceedings
6. Unpublished manuscripts
7. Reports
8. Newspapers
9. The internet
Evaluating the literature
Accessing the online system and searching for literature in the
area of interest will provide a comprehensive bibliography on
the subject. Because the search for the literature can
sometimes provide as many as 100 more results you will have
to carefully select relevant books and articles.
A good literature review needs to include references to the key
studies in the field.
Documenting the literature review
Documenting the literature review is important to convince the
reader that
1- The researcher is knowledgeable about the problem area
and has done the preliminary homework that is necessary
to conduct the research.
2- A theoretical framework will be structured on work
already done and will add to the solid foundation of
existing knowledge.
Chapter 5
Theoretical framework and hypothesis development
Theoretical framework represents your belief on how certain
phenomena are related to each other and an explanation of
why you believe that these variables are associated with each
other.
The process of building a theoretical framework includes
1- Introducing definitions of the concepts or variables in your
model
2- Developing a conceptual model that provides a descriptive
representation of your theory
3- Coming up with a theory that provides an explanation for
relationships between the variables in your model.
Variables: is anything that can take on differing or varying
values. The values can differ at various times for the same
object or person, or the same time for different objects or
persons.
Four main types of variables
1- The dependent variable: main concern of research
2- The Independent variable: have effect on dependent
variable in a positive or negative way
3- The moderating variable: a great effect and strong
influence between the relation of independent variable
and the dependent variable.
4- The mediating variable: it’s something uncontrollable
from external factors.
Hypothesis development
Hypothesis can be defined as a testable statement which
predicts what you expect to find in your empirical data.
Hypothesis formats
1- If-then statements
2- Directional statements
3- Non-directional statements
4- Null statements
Chapter 6
Elements of research design
Purpose of study
1- Descriptive study: topic with a lot of information and a lot
of people wrote about it. They are done to explain a
certain phenomena
2- Exploratory study: one of the first people to test the topic
with very limited sources and information, in that case you
need to find primary data, create focus groups and
professional interviews
3- Hypothesis testing: mainly studying the relation between
variables
4- Case study: unique, specific field or organization, it’s a
scientific research to find a result to solve a current
problem, but it also might not work in solving any other
problem, it has to be modified first.
Types of investigation
Causal study: it’s a cause and effect relationship kind of study
ex: does smoking cause lung cancer
Correlational study: is a study that can be explained, its just a
statement. Ex: is smoking and cancer related.
Research strategies
1- Experiments
2- Survey research
3- Observation
4- Case studies
5- Grounded theory
6- Action research
7- Mixed methods
Time horizon: cross-sectional vs. longitudinal studies
Cross-sectional studies: a study can be undertaken in which
data is gathered just once perhaps over a period of days or
weeks or months in order to answer a research question.
Longitudinal studies: a researcher might want to study people
or phenomena at more than one point in time in order to
answer the research question. “Collect data many times at
different points in time and it takes time.”
