Stalking

Stalking is unwanted or obsessive attention by an individual or group towards another person.

Stalking behaviors are related to harassment and intimidation and may include following the
victim in person or monitoring them. The term stalking is used with some differing definitions
in psychiatry and psychology, as well as in some legal jurisdictions as a term for a criminal
offense.

It is virtually any unwanted contact between two people that directly or indirectly
communicates a threat or places the victim in fear can be considered stalking"

The term stalker was initially used by the media in the 20th century to describe people who
pester and harass others, initially with specific reference to the harassment of celebrities by
strangers who were described as being "obsessed".

As time went by, the meaning of stalking changed and incorporated individuals being harassed
by their former partners. Pathé and Mullen describe stalking as "a constellation (pattern) of
behaviours in which an individual inflicts upon another repeated unwanted intrusions and
communications". Stalking can be defined as the willful and repeated following, watching
and/or harassing of another person. Unlike other crimes, which usually involve one act, stalking
is a series of actions that occur over a period of time.

Although stalking is illegal in most areas of the world, some of the actions that can contribute to
stalking can be legal, such as gathering information, calling someone on the phone, sending
gifts, emailing, or instant messaging. They become illegal when they breach the legal definition
of harassment e.g. an action such as sending a text is not usually illegal, but is illegal when
frequently repeated to an unwilling recipient. In fact, United Kingdom law states the incident
only has to happen twice when the stalker should be aware their behavior is unacceptable e.g.
two phone calls to a stranger, two gifts, following the victim then phoning them, etc.

Psychology and behaviors

People characterized as stalkers may be accused of having a mistaken belief that another person
loves them (erotomania), or that they need rescuing. Stalking can sometimes consist of an
accumulation of a series of actions which in themselves can be legal, such as calling on the
phone, sending gifts, or sending emails.

Stalkers may use threats and violence to frighten their victims. They may also engage in
vandalism and property damage or make physical attacks that are mostly meant to frighten. Less
common are sexual assaults.
 In the UK, for example, most stalkers are former partners and evidence indicates that the
mentally ill stalking type of behaviour propagated in the media occurs in only a minority of
cases of alleged stalking. A UK Home Office research study on the use of the Protection from
Harassment Act stated: "The study found that the Protection from Harassment Act is being used
to deal with a variety of behaviour such as domestic and inter-neighbour disputes. It is rarely
used for stalking as portrayed by the media since only a small minority of cases in the survey
involved such behaviour."

Psychological effects on victims

Disruptions in daily life necessary to escape the stalker, including changes in employment,
residence and phone numbers, may take a toll on the victim's well-being and lead to a sense of
isolation.

According to Lamber Royakkers:

"Stalking is a form of mental assault, in which the perpetrator repeatedly, unwantedly, and
disruptively breaks into the life-world of the victim, with whom they have no relationship (or no
longer have). Moreover, the separated acts that make up the intrusion cannot by themselves
cause the mental abuse, but do taken together (cumulative effect)."

Stalking as a close relationship

Stalking has also been described as a form of close relationship between the parties, albeit a
disjunctive one where the two participants have opposing goals rather than cooperative goals.
One participant, often a woman, likely wishes to end the relationship entirely, but may find
herself unable to easily do so. The other participant, often but not always a man, wishes to
escalate the relationship. It has been described as a close relationship because the duration,
frequency, and intensity of contact may rival that of a more traditional conjunctive dating
relationship

Types of victims

Based on their work with stalking victims for eight years in Australia, Mullen and Pathé
identified different types of stalking victims dependent on their previous relationship to the
stalker. These are:

 Prior intimates: Victims who had been in a previous intimate relationship with their stalker. In
the article, Mullen and Pathé describe this as being "the largest category, the most common
victim profile being a woman who has previously shared an intimate relationship with her
(usually) male stalker." These victims are more likely to be exposed to violence being enacted
by their stalker especially if the stalker had a criminal past. In addition, victims who have "date
 stalkers" are less likely to experience violence by their stalkers. A "date stalker" is considered
an individual who had an intimate relationship with the victim but it was short-lived.
 Casual acquaintances and friends: Amongst male stalking victims, most are part of this
category. This category of victims also includes neighbor stalking. This may result in the
victims' change of residence.
 Professional contacts: These are victims who have been stalked by patients, clients, or students
whom they have had a professional relationship with. Certain professions such as health care
providers, teachers, and lawyers are at a higher risk for stalking.
 Workplace contacts: The stalkers of these victims tend to visit them in their workplace which
means that they are either an employer, employee, or a customer. When victims have stalkers
coming to their workplace, this poses a threat not only to the victims' safety but to the safety of
other individuals as well.
 Strangers: These victims are typically unaware of how their stalkers began stalking because
typically these stalkers form a sense of admiration for their victims from a distance.
 The famous: Most of these victims are individuals who are portrayed heavily on media outlets
but can also include individuals such as politicians and athletes

Gender

According to one study, women often target other women, whereas men generally only stalk women.
However, a January 2009 report from the United States Department of Justice reports that "Males were as
likely to report being stalked by a male as a female offender. 43% of male stalking victims stated that the
offender was female, while 41% of male victims stated that the offender was another male. Female victims
of stalking were significantly more likely to be stalked by a male (67%) rather than a female (24%)
offender." In an article by Jennifer Langhinrichsen-Rohling she discusses how gender plays a role in the
difference between stalkers and victims. She says, "gender is associated with the types of emotional
reactions that are experienced by recipients of stalking related events, including the degree of fear
experienced by the victim." In addition, she mentions how gender also affects how police handle a case of
stalking, how the victim copes with the situation, and how the stalker might view their behavior. Next, she
discusses how victims might view certain form of stalking as normal because of how gender influences the
acceptability of certain behaviors. It is also important to note that she mentions how in the United
Kingdom, Australia, and the United States strangers are viewed as more dangerous when it comes to
stalking than a former partner. Media is also important to focus on because media portrays stalking
amongst men as acceptable hence influencing men into thinking it is normal. Since gender roles are socially
constructed, sometimes men don't report stalking. She also mentions coercive control theory, "future
research will be needed to determine if this theory can predict how changes in social structures and gender-
specific norms will result in variations in rates of stalking for men versus women over time in the United
States and across the world."

Types of stalkers

Psychologists often group individuals who stalk into two categories: psychotic and nonpsychotic. Stalkers
may have pre-existing psychotic disorders such as delusional disorder, schizoaffective disorder, or
schizophrenia. Most stalkers are nonpsychotic and may exhibit disorders or neuroses such as major
 depression, adjustment disorder, or substance dependence, as well as a variety of Axis II personality
disorders (such as antisocial, borderline, dependent, narcissistic, or paranoid). Some of the symptoms of
"obsessing" over a person may be characteristic of obsessive compulsive personality disorder. The
nonpsychotic stalkers' pursuit of victims can be influenced by various psychological factors, including
anger, hostility, projection of blame, obsession, dependency, minimization, denial, and jealousy.
Conversely, as is more commonly the case, the stalker has no antipathic feelings towards the victim, but
simply a longing that cannot be fulfilled due to deficiencies either in their personality or their society's
norms.[18]

Mullen et al. (2000) identified five types of stalkers:

 Rejected stalkers follow their victims in order to reverse, correct, or avenge a rejection (e.g. divorce,
separation, termination).
 Resentful stalkers make a vendetta because of a sense of grievance against the victims – motivated mainly
by the desire to frighten and distress the victim.
 Intimacy seekers seek to establish an intimate, loving relationship with their victim. Such stalkers often
believe that the victim is a long-sought-after soul mate, and they were 'meant' to be together.
 Incompetent fixated, despite poor social or courting skills, have a fixation, or in some cases, a sense of
entitlement to an intimate relationship with those who have attracted their amorous interest. Their victims
are most often already in a dating relationship with someone else.
 Predatory stalkers spy on the victim in order to prepare and plan an attack – often sexual – on the victim.
 In addition to Mullen et al., Joseph A. Davis, Ph.D., an American researcher, crime analyst, and university
psychology professor at San Diego State University investigated, as a member of the Stalking Case
Assessment Team (SCAT), special unit within the San Diego District Attorney's Office, hundreds of cases
involving what he called and typed "terrestrial" and "cyberstalking" between 1995 and 2002. This research
culminated in one of the most comprehensive books written to date on the subject. It is considered the
"gold standard" as a reference to stalking crimes, victim protection, safety planning, security and threat
assessment published by CRC Press, Inc., in August, 2001.
 The 2002 National Victim Association Academy defines an additional form of stalking: The
vengeance/terrorist stalker. Both the vengeance stalker and terrorist stalker (the latter sometimes called the
political stalker) do not, in contrast with some of the aforementioned types of stalkers, seek a personal
relationship with their victims but rather force them to emit a certain response. While the vengeance
stalker's motive is "to get even" with the other person whom he/she perceives has done some wrong to them
(e.g., an employee who believes is fired without justification from their job by their superior), the political
stalker intends to accomplish a political agenda, also using threats and intimidation to force his/her target to
refrain and/or become involved in some particular activity, regardless of the victim's consent. For example,
most prosecutions in this stalking category have been against anti-abortionists who stalk doctors in an
attempt to discourage the performance of abortions.
 Many stalkers fit categories with paranoia disorders. Intimacy-seeking stalkers often have delusional
disorders involving erotomanic delusions. With rejected stalkers, the continual clinging to a relationship of
an inadequate or dependent person couples with the entitlement of the narcissistic personality, and the
persistent jealousy of the paranoid personality. In contrast, resentful stalkers demonstrate an almost "pure
culture of persecution", with delusional disorders of the paranoid type, paranoid personalities, and paranoid
schizophrenia.
 One of the uncertainties in understanding the origins of stalking is that the concept is now widely
understood in terms of specific behaviors which are found to be offensive and/or illegal. As discussed
above, these specific (apparently stalking) behaviors may have multiple motivations.
 In addition, the personality characteristics that are often discussed as antecedent to stalking may also
produce behavior that is not stalking as conventionally defined. Some research suggests there is a spectrum
of what might be called "obsessed following behavior." People who complain obsessively and for years,
about a perceived wrong or wrong-doer, when no one else can perceive the injury—and people who cannot
or will not "let go" of a person or a place or an idea—comprise a wider group of persons that may be
problematic in ways that seem similar to stalking. Some of these people get extruded from their
organizations—they may get hospitalized or fired or let go if their behavior is defined in terms of illegal
stalking, but many others do good or even excellent work in their organizations and appear to have just one
focus of tenacious obsession.

Cyber stalking

Cyberstalking is the use of computers or other electronic technology to facilitate stalking. In Davis (2001),
Lucks identified a separate category of stalkers who instead of a terrestrial means, prefer to perpetrate
crimes against their targeted victims through electronic and online means. Amongst college students,
Ménard and Pincus found that men who had a high score of sexual abuse as children and narcissistic
vulnerability were more likely to become stalkers. Out of the women who participated in their study, 9%
were cyberstalkers meanwhile only 4% were overt stalkers. In addition, the male participants revealed the
opposite, 16% were overt stalkers while 11% were cyberstalkers. Alcohol and physical abuse both played a
role in predicting women's cyberstalking and in men, "preoccupied attachment significantly predicted cyber
stalking".

What is criminal harassment?

Criminal harassment is an offence in the Criminal Code.
It is harassing behaviour that includes Stalking. The behaviour must give you good reason to fear for your
personal safety and it must have no legitimate purpose. Generally, the behaviour must happen not just once
but repeatedly. However, where the behavior is overtly threatening, a single incident may be considered
criminal harassment. It is not an excuse for the person to claim that he or she did not intend to frighten you.
Remember, though, some people do have a lawful reason to contact you repeatedly. For example, a debt
collector may call you several times. Although you may not like this contact, it is lawful when done
according to laws regulating collections.
Here are some examples of criminal harassment:
■calling you over and over again, and perhaps hanging up whenever you answer the phone
■contacting you on the Internet or through constant e-mail messages
■following you, your family or friends
■leaving threatening voice messages
■sending you gifts you do not want
■watching you or tracking where you go
■threatening you, your children, family, pets or friends.

These are common examples. Such unwanted behaviour can be frightening and cause emotional distress.
You can take action if this is happening to you.
Who stalks and why?
Stalkers have a variety of personalities and characteristics. Some may have a mental disorder. Experts have
described many types of stalkers, but they mostly fit into two basic categories:
■Stalkers obsessed with a stranger:
Some stalkers fixate on a stranger, sometimes a celebrity. They may believe their conduct will eventually
win the love of their victim. Or they may have delusions that the victim already loves them but cannot
return their affection because of some external influence.
In Canada, about 12% of victims of criminal harassment are harassed by a stranger.
■Stalkers obsessed with someone they know:
Many stalkers know their victims and are trying to control them, whether they are ex-partners, spouses,
acquaintances, co-workers or close friends. About 88% of criminal harassment victims fall into this
category. In many cases, the stalking is an extension
of family violence.
Why me?
Being harassed or stalked is not your fault. The person may claim to love you, but he or she really wants to
control you. You have the right to reject a friendship, separate from a spouse, or break up with a partner.
Just because you know the person does not mean that you must put up with the harassing behavior. You are
not to blame if someone repeatedly bothers you or follows. you around. Remember, what they are
doing is NOT love. It is against the law and you can take action.
Ways to Increase Your Personal Safety
Tell others
■Tell your supervisor and co-workers. Your workplace may have programs to help deal with harassment.
They may be able to screen calls or prevent delivery of unwanted parcels or mail. Ask them never to give
out your personal information.
■Tell your child’s school or day care, and give them copies of any orders that prohibit the non-custodial
parent from contacting the child. If a stranger is stalking you, provide a description of the person, the car,
the licence plates and so on.
■Let all of these people know if you have a court order or peace bond and what conditions apply. Keep
personal information private
■Do not use your social insurance number except for banking and income tax forms. It could help someone
track you down.
■Remove personal details from things you throw out or recycle.
■At work, remove your nameplate and other personal information, if possible. Be safe on the telephone
■Consider an unlisted phone number.
■Carry a cell phone for emergency calls.
■Tell your telephone company about your situation. Ask about tracing calls and security and privacy
features like blocking personal information from call displays. Practice Internet safety
■Be careful about posting personal or private information.
■Check the harassment policies of your Internet Service Provider (ISP).
■Do not use your full name for your user ID, and change your password often.
■Report harassing e-mail or chat room abuse to your ISP. If you know the ISP of the person, tell that ISP
too. They can cut off the person’s account if it is being used to harass others. Ask about tools to block
unwanted communication.
■Do a Web search on cyber stalking. You will find many sites with tips and information. Some can help
track down harassers, document their origin and send reports to you or the police.
Do a home security check
■Ask the police to help you do a home security check.
■Be sure your windows and doors are always locked and use deadbolts.
■Change your locks if the person is an ex-partner.
■Consider security features like motion detectors and an alarm system.
Always be alert and have a plan
■Always think about your safety.
■Ask the court for a copy of any restrictions in a court order.
■If possible, do not walk alone and stay on streets.
■If you are being followed on foot, go somewhere safe (like the nearest store) and call for help.
■Always look around and be aware of what is happening.
■Keep paper and pen on you at all times so you can write down a license number or other details.
■Sit near others when travelling on a bus or subway, and try not to arrive at your stop early. If you do have
to wait around, stay in well-lit areas.
■When travelling in your car, always lock the doors. Plan alternative routes and know how to get to the
police or fire station.
■If you are being followed in a car, drive somewhere safe and honk until someone comes to help you.
■Change the route you travel to work or home often.