Natural vegetation – plants that grow naturally in a place with little or no human interference
Ecosystem – Community of living organisms ( plants , animals and people ) within a physical
environment and interactions between them.
Natural vegetation – Different organisms rely on each other for survival
A biome is a living part of an ecosystem, it refers to both plants and animals found in an ecosystem.
MAJOR TYPES OF VEGETATION :
Forests – The vegetation in a Grasslands – The grassland Deserts – The desert biome
forest biome consists of mainly biome constitutes of mainly consists of mainly sparse
tress and has many varieties of grass and few varieties of vegetation.
plants plants
Tropical rainforest Tropical grassland Hot desert vegetation – scrub
and touch grasses
Temperate desiduous forest Temperate grassland Cold desert vegetation –
mosses and lichens in cold
deserts
Coniferous forest
Climate – Atmospheric conditions of specific place over a considerable period of time
The 3 main climatic zone
Polar Very low temperatures, often below 0 Very low annual precipitation, often
degrees Celsius below 250mm
Temperate Moderate temperatures, ranging from 0 Moderate annual precipitation, ranging
degrees Celsius to 34 degrees Celsius, from 300mm-1000mm
depending on season
Tropical Very high temperatures throughout the High annual precipitation, above
year, 20 degrees Celsius to 30 degrees 1000mm
Celsius
Temperature – How hot or cold a place is
Temperature influences plant growth. Most plants cannot grow where temperature falls below 6
degrees Celsius . In the polar climate, there is a lack of vegetation as the temperatures are usually
below 0 degrees Celsius. Only moss and lichens can grow there as they are able to adapt to these
low temperatures. On the other hand, plants can grow in a tropical climate, where the temperature
is above 20 degrees Celsius . A abundance of plants, especially trees are found there .
Precipitation – water returning from the atmosphere to the Earth’s surface in either 4 forms : rain,
snow, sleet or hail
Plants need water to make food. If there is a lack of water, few plants can grow. Generally, trees
need more water than grasses to grow. Thus, many forests are found at areas with high precipitation
at above 1000millimetres per year. In areas with moderate precipitation, (200mm to 1000mm),
grasslands are common. In areas with low precipitation, Hot desert vegetation (example: Cactus) and
Tundra dominate (mosses and lichens).
TROPICAL RAINFORESTS :
Found in places that experience a tropical equatorial climate. This is a sub-type of the tropical
climate, and is experienced in places very near the equator, specifically between 10 degrees North
and south of the equator. These places experience high temperatures (around 27 degrees Celsius)
and high rainfall (above 1500m) throughout the year. Tropical rainforests are mainly located in the
Amazon Basin in South America, Congo Basin in Africa and parts of Southeast Asia such as Malaysia
and Indonesia. However, not all tropical rainforests are found in areas experiencing tropical
equatorial climate. Other types of vegetation such as mangroves have also adapted to the tropical
equatorial climate.
There are 5 distinct main layers of the tropical rainforests, characterized according to the height of
the trees
Emergent layer - These tall trees reach around 30m to 50m. Their crowns appear above the canopy
layer. They have tall, thick, straight trunks.
Canopy layer – The trees reach around 15m to 30m. They have wide, shallow and umbrella shaped
crowns. Their umbrella shaped crowns from a continuous leaf cover called a canopy, which prevents
sunlight from penetrating into the lower layers of the forests.
Understorey layer – These trees reach around 6m-15m. They have narrower, over-shaped crowns
because most of the sunlight is blocked by the canopy layer. They grow where the gaps in the
canopy allow sunlight to pass through. Young trees of the emergent and canopy layer are also found
in this layer.
Shrub layer – Tree Saplings and woody plants are found in this area. They may grow up to 6m high.
Undergrowth layer – Made of out of mosses, grasses, ferns and fungi. Plant growth is sparse because
very little sunlight reaches this layer. Plants in this layer reach a maximum height of 5m.
Plants in some conditions have adapted to low light condition by growing on tree branches to get
more sunlight. Epiphytes, like the bird’s nest fern and orchids, are examples of such plants These
plants grow on and use trees for support. Rainwater and decaying leaves that collect at the joints of
branches provide epiphytes with water and nutrients.
Lianas are thick woody vins that winds around tree trunks to reach for sunlight. They may grow up to
lengths of 90metres . Both epiphytes and Lianas are not parasitic do not cause harm to their host
trees.
Parasitic plants are also found in the canopy and understorey layers. Unlike epiphytes and lianas,
parasitic plants can cause the death of their host plant. For example, the strangling fig wraps itself
around the trunk of the host tree and competes with the host tree for space, sunlight and nutrients.
The undergrowth layer is sparse and not many plants grow on that layer as little sunlight can pass
through the canopy and reach the forest floor. Only about one percent of the sunlight reaches the
ground. Fungi thrive in the moist and dark area on the forest floor by growing on decomposing fallen
logs and feeding on them. The leaves that fall on the forest floor are called leaf litter. Due to high
temperatures and rainfall, the leaf litter decomposes and quickly forms a layer of humus which
contains a rich amount of nutrients which helps to support the abundant vegetation growth in the
rainforests.
FORESTS TROPICAL MONSOON MANGROVE CONIFEROUS
Diversity of The high year round Fewer species of plants Trees that have adapted Only a few
plant species temperatures and rainfall in as compared to the to the salt water are species of plants
the tropical equatorial tropical rainforests due known halophytes. The 4 grow in the
climate is able to support a to inconsistent rainfall. main species are know as coniferous forests
large variety of plants in the Most trees are the Avicenna, Sonneratia, because not
tropical rainforests. Tropical hardwoods and some Rhizophora , Bruguiera many can adapt
rainforests have the largest are commercially Other plant species the to the low
diversity of plant species of valuable species like sea hibiscus and the temperatures and
all the biomes. Many species teak. Nipah palm. The plants in precipitation
of trees in the rainforests, the mangrove provide
like the kapur, chengal and important resources such
meranti, can be used to as firewood, medicine,
make furniture and other charcoal and construction
objects. materials
Density The tropical rainforests are Plant growth is Like the tropical
very dense which means the abundant in the tropical rainforests, the mangrove
trees grow very close to one monsoon forests but is very dense and
another. This is due to high the trees do not grow as luxuriant due to high
temperatures and rainfall in closely together as the temperature and rainfall.
the tropical equatorial trees in the tropical Mangroves also form a
climate which supports rainforests , hence their dense, continuous canopy
dense abundant vegetation crowns do not interlock as they compete for
growth. to form a continuous sunlight. Hence, little
canopy. More sunlight is sunlight filters from the
able to pass through , canopy to the ground. As
resulting in a dense a result, the undergrowth
undergrowth. is sparse.
Bamboo thickets and
grasses thrive in the
undergrowth layer of as
they have sufficient
sunlight through the
more “ open “ canopy.
Leaves Tropical rainforests are The leaves of the trees A mangrove is evergreen
evergreen as the leaves are deciduous meaning as there is no seasonal
remain green all year round they shed their leaves changes in temperatures
due to the constant high during the dry season to and rainfall in the tropical
rainfall throughout the year. minimise loss of water climate. With high rainfall
The leaves of the trees in the through transpiration. and throughout the year,
tropical rainforests are large The leaves will grow the leaves are broad and
and broad to maximise the again quickly during the have drip tips to allow
surface area for rainy season. Their water to flow off easily.
photosynthesis. Leaf leaves have drip tips to The leaf surfaces are thick
surfaces are waxy, with drip allow water to drain off and leathery to reduce
tips to allow rainwater to easily during the wet water loss through
drain off easily, thus season. Like the transpiration.
preventing harmful bacteria tropical rainforest, this Salt secretors –
growing on them. This adaption prevents the Avicienna, which secrete
protects the plants from growth of harmful excess salt on their leaves
disease as the high bacteria . Some plants which are removed by
temperatures and rainfall like the bamboo have wind / rain.
promote rapid growth of narrow leaves to Ultraflitrators -
bacteria. minimise loss of water Bruguiera, Rhizophora
during the dry season. Sonneratia . They store
excess salt in their old
leaves which then fall off
The plants in the tropical Many of these tree The flowers of these
Flowers and rainforest flowers and species flower and bear plants are generally
fruits produce fruits throughout fruit during the dry colourful to attract
the year due to high season when they are insects to pollinate its
temperatures and rainfall. leafless flowers. The fruits of the
However, the layer below Avicennia are buoyant.
the canopy does not allow When they drop into the
pollination to be carried out water the current carries
by the wind . Therefore, them away to where they
flowers and fruits are take root. The rhizophora
colourful and sweet-smelling however attaches itself to
to attract insects for the parent plant while
pollination and animals for germinating and drop
seed dispersal. directly to the ground to
grow, planting itself using
its sharp tips that help
anchor it to the soft
muddy soil.
Bark and In tropical rainforests , the The thick coarse bark of Due to the water logged
branches trees have developed thin the trees protect the condition, the soil lacks
and smooth barks because trunk from heat and oxygen. The roots of
there is no need for dryness during the dry these trees are specially
protection against cool or season and also helps to adapted to the oxygen
dry conditions withstand extreme heat deprived soil
from natural forest fires Aerial/breathing roots –
which break out Avicienna (pencil like and
occasionally. Their can grow up to 30cm in
branches are located height )and Sonneratia
beneath the trunk (thicker and peg-like )
instead of the top roots are exposed to
because sunlight is able allow them to take in
to reach the lower parts oxygen.n
of the forest
Roots High temp and rainfall cause They have deep roots to
leaf litter to decompose and tap deep into the
form humus rapidly, ground because rainfall
supplying nutrients to the is not regular
topsoil. Hence, the roots of throughout the year.
the trees are shallow and
widely spread out as they do
not need to go deep to
obtain nutrients. Some tall
trees also have thick buttress
roots to support the weight
of the tree
CAUSE 1 : INCREASE IN DEMAND FOR AGRICULTURAL LANDUSE
Due the the Indonesian government’s population resettlement programmes to ease overcrowding in
islands such as Java and Sumatra, many Indonesians resettled in Kalimantan. One source of demand
for agricultural land use comes from the new settlers who grow crops in small holdings Many new
settlers permanently clear forests to establish small holdings, which are small farms that grow crops
such as rice, cocoa, coffee and vegetables. As some of the crops cultivated in small holdings are
grown for sale, some new settlers are motivated by profits to extend their farmland by clearing more
forested areas. Another demand for agricultural land use comes from plantation companies. In
Kalimantan, oil palm is commonly cultivated in plantations as it is relatively cheap to grow and highly
profitable, bringing in high revenue for Indonesia. Over the years, the growth of oil plantations has
caused clearing of extensive areas in Kalimantan rainforests, usually by burning to make way for
plantations.
CAUSE 2 : GROWTH OF SETTLEMENTS
In Kalimantan, as the population increases and settlements become more crowded, more land area
is cleared for housing. In parts of Kalimantan, people are moving from rural areas such as villages to
urban settlements such as town and cities to live and work because there are more employment
opportunities in these areas. This has increased the population in towns and cities, which led to
rainforests being cleared for the expansion of towns and cities / urbanisation. An example of the
effect of urbanisation on the Kalimantan rainforests is the growth of Balikpapan in Kalimantan.
Balikpapan is one of Kalimantan largest cities and has a population of over 400000 in 2005. It is
business centre for many national and international companies dealing with logging , mining and oil
extraction . As a result of the growth of Balikpapan, the settlement of Balikpapan has expanded into
a protected forest adjacent to it, known as the Sungei Wain rainforest. Despite the forests being
protected, its area was reduced by a third from 1997 to 1998.
CAUSE 3 : IMPROVED TRANSPORT NETWORKS
Transport networks like roads and railway tracks are constructed to link settlements to Kalimantan.
For example, the Trans-Kalimantan highway, which is 230 kilometres long, cuts through rainforests
to improve accessibility between the two big cities. The transport networks also allow access to
previously remote forested areas in Kalimantan. Unfortunately, the improved accessibility has made
it easier for people to destroy even more areas of the rainforests
CAUSE 4: GROWTH OF INDUSTRIES
Rainforests are cleared to support industrial activities. Forests are which in natural resources such as
wood and minerals, and the demand for such resources have led to the destruction of the forests.
Logging – trees are cut down and sold as timber
Over the last 30 years, rainforests have suffered from heavy logging. Such heavy logging is result of
the rapid pace at which wood is processed and exported. The timber companies speed up the pace
of logging to ensure that their wood processing facilities are fully utilised. In addition, rapid
deforestation is worsened by illegal logging
Mining – extraction of minerals such as gold, sliver and copper
These minerals are found in the ground underneath the Kalimantan rainforests and can be extracted
through mining. When a mining company discovers minerals in the ground, it will first clear the
vegetation to expose the ground underneath. Machinery is then used to dig up the ground and bring
out the minerals to the surface . This creates a large hole in the ground and mounds of loose soil.
When the loose soil is washed away into the nearby river, it will adversely affect the quality of water.
The use of chemicals such as cyanide in the extraction of gold has led to poisoning of animals when
they are washed into rivers or lakes. Both mining companies and logging companies are given
licences to mine in the Kalimantan rainforests. This has cause a large expanse of the rainforests to be
cleared.
Problem 1 : Loss in biomass
The earth’s biomass refers to the combined weight of all the organisms which is important as it
represents the total amount of food available on Earth, and hence, the ability of the earth to support
life. Tropical rainforests have the highest biomass compared to other vegetation types. Therefore,
deforestation in Kalimantan has contributed greatly to the reduction in the Earth’s biomass as the
rainforests in Kalimantan make up a significant portion of the Earth’s biomass. The reduction of
biomass reduced the ability of Kalimantan rainforests to support various plant life and animal life
because the food chain is adversely affected . In the food chain, green plants use photosynthesize to
proud food. This supports the growth of the plants themselves, as well as provide food for the
herbivores. The herbivores, in turn, are a source of food for the carnivores. When the plants are
removed, they affect the survival of animals higher up in the food chain, as they are the basic source
of food for the animals. The reduction of biomass has adversely affected the amount of nutrients in
the forest ecosystem, which also reduced the ability of the rainforests to support various plant life.
Problem 2: Changes in quantity of water
When trees and other plants are removed, less transpiration takes place. This reduced cloud
formation and results in low rainfall. In Kalimantan, deforestation could have a direct impact on the
amount of rainfall received during 1997-1998, which caused droughts or prolonged dry seasons. On
the other hand, floods can also be cause by deforestation. The removal of forest vegetation could
lead to flooding. In recent years, many floods have occurred in places where deforestation has taken
place. For example, severe floods occurred in 2001 in East Kalimantan cities such as Balikpapan,
which is located near a forest which has been affected greatly by logging activities.
Problem 3 : Changes in quality of water
In areas where deforestation has taken place, the water quality in rivers is generally poor because
the soil is eroded and washed away easily into the nearby rivers. This in turn, increases the sediment
level of the river, making the river water muddy . The increased amount of sediments also changes
the pH level of the water by making it acidic which adversely affects the aquatic life in the rivers of
the Kalimantan rainforests
Problem 4 : Air pollution
When trees and other plants are removed by burning, dust and smoke are released into the air,
causing air pollution. Huge forest fires can cause dust and smoke to be suspended in the air for some
time, resulting in the phenomenon of haze to be experienced in many other areas.
Since the 1990s, haze has been a recurring problem in the Southeast Asian region due to the
widespread burning of rainforests in Sumatra and Kalimantan. On several occasions, the strong
winds have blown smoke and dust particles from the forests into nearby countries such as Singapore
and Malaysia. As a result of the haze, people suffer from health problems such as eye, nose and
throat irritation, cough and lung infections. The haze has also caused everyday activities to cease.
The haze has also inversely affected the tourism industry in the Southeast Asian region. For example,
Flights were cancelled due to the poor visibility and tourists avoided visiting the region.
MINISTRY OF FORESTRY
- Responsible for ensuring a balance between generating revenue for the country through the
sale of forest resources as well as protecting the forests.
- For example, the MOP issues licenses to timber companies which allow them to log in
specific areas of the forests in forms of monitoring, allowing income to be generated as well
as preventing excessive logging
Community involvement
- The MOF also involves local people such as local government, native people and villagers
- For example, local governments are now required by law to manage the forests found in
their own areas, instead of leaving the entire responsibility to the MOP and the central
government , empowering the local governments to enforce laws regarding the forest use
and act swiftly to prevent deforestation.
- For example, the local government can decide how the forests are used and can charge
people or companies in court for the misuse of the forests.
Sustainable management : the careful use of resources, such as forests to allow people to continue
using the resources in future, ensuring sustainable development
POLICY 1 : AFFORESTATION AND REFORESTATION
Afforestation refers to the planting of trees on areas that were originally not planted with forests. In
Kalimantan, afforestation is carried out on agricultural lands that have been abandoned by farmers.
Reforestation refers to the planting of trees on areas that were previously cleared by deforestation.
In most places in Kalimantan, where afforestation and reforestation has been carried out, teak trees
are commonly planted. This is because teak is a commercially valuable timber species that grows
well in tropical rainforests . Secondly, it is fast growing and it takes about 5 years before is is suitable
for logging as compared to the usual 20 years for a tropical rainforest tree. Hence, teak trees can
restore the forest quickly. It also allows replanted forests which consists of teak to be logged at a
sustainable rate. In areas where afforestation and reforestation have take place, it has attracted the
local people’s active participation and significant restorations of the forest has been made possible.
However, while these measures have restored some parts of the forests, they have not restored
large areas of the rainforests and the rates at which the forests are replanted are slower than the
rate at which they are cleared. One reason for the slower rate of afforestation and reforestation is
due to the way in which they were carried out. Incentives were given to the locals to replant the
trees. However, they were not attractive enough for the locals to participate in these projects.
Another concern is that since only teak trees are planted to restore the entire area of the forests, it
will result in a loss in the original biodiversity of the tropical rainforests. The replanted forests, which
consists of only teak trees, cannot support the variety of flora and fauna of the original rainforests.
These replanted forests are therefore, no different from plantations
POLICY 2 : CONTROLLED LOGGING
Controlled logging is encouraged by the MOF to minimise damage in rainforests that are being
logged. As the sale of timber provides income to Indonesia, logging is allowed but controlled. It
involves careful management of forests that are being logged, through measurements such as the
law enforcement, as well as education and research. The MOF has introduced laws to ensure that
forests are carefully logged. Severe penalties such as fines and imprisonment are enforced on
irresponsible timber companies for offences such as illegal logging. The MOF has also arranged for
education and research programmes for timber companies so that they are informed of the
damages cause by logging and what could be done to reduce the extent of the damages. For
example, selective cutting is encouraged as a sustainable method of logging forests. In selective
cutting, commercially valuable trees are first identified and then logged while non-valuable trees are
retained. In this way, much of the forests remains undisturbed. This method is different from clear
cutting, which involves a entire forested area to be logged, including both commercially valuable and
non valuable species, resulting in great wastage and damage.
Success
Selective cutting can allow forests to regenerate. Young trees are able to grow to replace old trees as
overcrowding in the canopy layer is reduced. Moreover, selective cutting minimises soil erosion.
However, measures that have been introduced to control logging activites may not have brought out
the desired outcomes. It is difficult to monitor logging and detect illegal logging activites. This is due
to the lack of manpower and the remoteness of the forested areas, which has allowed illegal logging
to continue undetected. Also, studies have shown that selective cutting may be just as damaging as
clear cutting. This is because a certain plant species might be completely destroyed through selective
cutting. For example, when a selected tree is cut down, it might affect neighbouring trees or the
various plant species growing on them
