THĂNG LONG UNIVERSITY

English Department
= = =***= = =

A STUDY ON
THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND THOUGHT

Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nguyen Van Do

Hanoi, February – 2019

 THANG LONG UNIVERSITY
English Department
= = =***= = =

A STUDY ON
THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND THOUGHT

Lê Khánh Ngọc – A24602

Hanoi, February – 2019

 CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 1
I. What is language? .................................................................................... 1
II. What is culture? ....................................................................................... 3
III. What is thought? ...................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 2: LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND THOUGHT ......................... 6
I. How does language relate to culture? ...................................................... 6
1. Introduction .......................................................................................... 6
2. The relationship between language and culture ................................... 6
II. How does culture relate to language? .................................................... 11
1. The relationship of nature, culture, language ..................................... 11
2. Communities of language users ......................................................... 13
3. Imagined communities ....................................................................... 15
III. Language, culture, and thought ............................................................. 16
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis..................................................................... 16
REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 19
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
I. What is language?
Language is a system that consists of the development, acquisition,
maintenance and use of complex systems of communication, particularly
the human ability to do so; and a language is any specific example of such
a system.
Yet another definition sees language as a system of communication that
enables humans to exchange verbal or symbolic utterances. This definition
stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to
express themselves and to manipulate objects in their environment.
Functional theories of grammar explain grammatical structures by their
communicative functions, and understand the grammatical structures of
language to be the result of an adaptive process by which grammar was
"tailored" to serve the communicative needs of its users.

Communication systems used by other animals such as bees or apes are

closed systems that consist of a finite, usually very limited, number of
possible ideas that can be expressed. In contrast, human language is open-
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ended and productive, meaning that it allows humans to produce a vast
range of utterances from a finite set of elements, and to create new words
and sentences. This is possible because human language is based on a dual
code, in which a finite number of elements which are meaningless in
themselves (e.g. sounds, letters or gestures) can be combined to form an
infinite number of larger units of meaning (words and sentences).
However, one study has demonstrated that an Australian bird, the
chestnut-crowned babbler, is capable of using the same acoustic elements
in different arrangements to create two functionally distinct vocalizations.
Additionally, pied babblers have demonstrated the ability to generate two
functionally distinct vocalizations composed of the same sound type,
which can only be distinguished by the number of repeated elements.
Human languages differ from animal communication systems in that they
employ grammatical and semantic categories, such as noun and verb,
present and past, which may be used to express exceedingly complex
meanings.
Human language is also unique in being able to refer to abstract concepts
and to imagined or hypothetical events as well as events that took place in
the past or may happen in the future. This ability to refer to events that are
not at the same time or place as the speech event is called displacement,
and while some animal communication systems can use displacement
(such as the communication of bees that can communicate the location of
sources of nectar that are out of sight), the degree to which it is used in
human language is also considered unique.
Language – as defined above – is an exclusively human property. Among
the characteristics that make a relatively clear distinction between
linguistic and nonlinguistic communication meaningful, two are
particularly important: double articulation and syntax

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II. What is culture?
Culture is the social behavior and norms found in human societies.
Culture is considered a central concept in anthropology, encompassing the
range of phenomena that are transmitted through social learning in human
societies. Cultural universals are found in all human societies; these
include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and
technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing. The concept
of material culture covers the physical expressions of culture, such as
technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture
such as principles of social organization (including practices of political
organization and social institutions), mythology, philosophy, literature
(both written and oral), and science comprise the intangible cultural
heritage of a society.

Look at the following definitions of culture, and consider the

characteristics of culture that they each draw attention to:
‘Culture ... is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
man as a member of society.’
Tyler (British anthropologist) 1870: 1; cited by Avruch 1998: 6

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‘Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior
acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive
achievements of human groups, including their embodiment in artifacts;
the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically
derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values; culture
systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, on the
other, as conditional elements of future action.’
Kroeber & Kluckhohn 1952: 181; cited by Adler 1997: 14
‘Culture consists of the derivatives of experience, more or less organized,
learned or created by the individuals of a population, including those
images or encodements and their interpretations (meanings) transmitted
from past generations, from contemporaries, or formed by individuals
themselves.’
T.Schwartz 1992; cited by Avruch 1998: 17
‘[Culture] is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes
the members of one group or category of people from another.’
Hofstede 1994: 5
‘... the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of
people, but different for each individual, communicated from one
generation to the next.’
Matsumoto 1996: 16
‘Culture is a fuzzy set of basic assumptions and values, orientations to life,
beliefs, policies, procedures and behavioral conventions that are shared
by a group of people, and that influence (but do not determine) each
member’s behavior and his/her interpretations of the ‘meaning’ of other
people’s behavior.’
Spencer-Oatey 2008: 3

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III. What is thought?
Thought encompasses an "aim-oriented flow of ideas and associations that
can lead to a reality-oriented conclusion". Although thinking is an activity
of an existential value for humans, there is no consensus as to how it is
defined or understood.

Because thought underlies many human actions and interactions,

understanding its physical and metaphysical origins, processes, and effects
has been a longstanding goal of many academic disciplines including
philosophy, linguistics, psychology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence,
biology, sociology and cognitive science.
Thinking allows humans to make sense of, interpret, represent or model
the world they experience, and to make predictions about that world. It is
therefore helpful to an organism with needs, objectives, and desires as it
makes plans or otherwise attempts to accomplish those goals.

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 CHAPTER 2: LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND THOUGHT
I. How does language relate to culture?
1. Introduction
Language and culture are intertwined. A particular language usually
points out to a specific group of people. When you interact with another
language, it means that you are also interacting with the culture that
speaks the language. You cannot understand one's culture without
accessing its language directly.

When you learn a new language, it not only involves learning its alphabet,
the word arrangement and the rules of grammar, but also learning about
the specific society's customs and behavior. When learning or teaching a
language, it is important that the culture where the language belongs be
referenced, because language is very much ingrained in the culture.

2. The relationship between language and culture

Using paralanguage
Complex is one term that you can use to describe human communication
since paralanguage is used to transmit messages. Paralanguage is specific
to a culture, therefore the communication with other ethnic groups can
lead to misunderstandings.

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When you grow up in a specific society, it is inevitable to learn the
glances, gestures and little changes in voice or tone and other
communication tools to emphasize or alter what you want to do or say.
These specific communication techniques of one culture are learned
mostly by imitating and observing people, initially from parents and
immediate relatives and later from friends and people outside the close
family circle.
Body language, which is also known as kinesics, is the most obvious type
of paralanguage. These are the postures, expressions and gestures used as
non-verbal language. However, it is likewise possible to alter the meaning
of various words by changing the character or tone of the voice.
Homologous relationship of culture and language
The phrase, language is culture and culture is language is often
mentioned when language and culture are discussed. It's because the two
have a homologous although complex relationship. Language and culture
developed together and influenced each other as they evolved. Using this
context, Alfred L. Krober, a cultural anthropologist from the United States
said that culture started when speech was available, and from that
beginning, the enrichment of either one led the other to develop further.
If culture is a consequence of the interactions of humans, the acts of
communication are their cultural manifestations within a specific
community. Ferruccio Rossi-Landi, a philosopher from Italy whose work
focused on philosophy, semiotics and linguistics said that a speech
community is made up of all the messages that were exchanged with one
another using a given language, which is understood by the entire society.
Rossi-Landi further added that young children learn their language and
culture from the society they were born in. In the process of learning, they
develop their cognitive abilities as well.
According to Professor Michael Silverstein, who teaches psychology,
linguistics and anthropology at the University of Chicago, culture's

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communicative pressure represents aspects of reality as well as connects
different contexts. It means that the use of symbols that represent events,
identities, feelings and beliefs is also the method of bringing these things
into the current context.
Influencing the way people think
If you are familiar with the principle of linguistic relativity, it states that
the way people think of the world is influenced directly by the language
that the people use to discuss it. Anthropologist-linguist Edward Sapir of
the United States said that the language habits of specific groups of people
built the real world. He further added that no two languages are similar in
such a way that they would represent one society. The world for each
society is different. In analysis, this means that speaking a language means
that the person is assuming a culture. Knowing another culture, based on
this principle, is knowing its particular language. Communication is
needed to live the interpretations and representations of that world.
Inter-cultural interactions
What is likely to happen if there is interaction between two cultures? In
today's scenario, inter-cultural interactions are very common.
Communication is necessary for any person who wants to understand and
get along with people whose background and beliefs are greatly dissimilar
from their own.
Cultural identity can be marked by language, although language can be
used to refer to other processes and developments, like when intentions
are explained in the language by a specific speaker. A specific language
refers to a particular cultural group.
Values, basic assumptions, behavioral conventions, beliefs and attitudes
shared by an ethnic group make up what we call culture. This set of
attributes influences the behavior of the individual members of the group
and their interpretations of the meanings of the behavior displayed by each
member.

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The set of attributes of a culture is expressed through language. Language
is also used to point to objects that are unique to a particular culture.
All this means that learning and teaching another language is essential for
international communication and cooperation. The knowledge of other
languages facilitates knowledge of other countries and the specific
cultures of each one.
Transmission of culture and language
Language is learned, which means it can be culturally transmitted. Pre-
school children take on their first language from their exposure to random
words they encounter in and out of their homes. When they reach school
age, they are taught either their first language or another language. If it is
the first language, the children are taught writing and reading, the correct
ways to construct sentences and how to use formal grammar. However,
the initial knowledge of the child about the essential structure and
vocabulary of the first language was learned before the child went to
school.
Conversely, culture is transmitted in a large part, by language, through
teaching. Language is the reason why humans have histories that animals
do not have. In the study of animal behavior through the course of history,
alterations to their behavior were the result of the intervention of humans
through domestication and other types of interference.
The culture of humans on the other hand is as different as the world's
languages. They are likely to change over time. In industrialized countries,
the changes in the language are more rapid.
Culture is not learned by imitation but by oral instruction. There could be
some imitation, if the learner is still young. With language, methods of
social control, products, techniques and skills are explained. Spoken
language offers a vast quantity of usable information for the community.
This helps to quicken new skill acquisition and the techniques to adapt to
new environments or altered circumstances.

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The advent of writing increased the process of culture dissemination. The
permanent state of writing made it easier for information to be diffused.
The process is further hastened by the increase in literacy and the
invention of printing.
Modern techniques for fast communication transmission across the globe
through broadcasting and the presence of translation services around the
world help make usable knowledge to be accessible to people anywhere in
the world. Thus, the world benefits from the fast transference, availability
and exchange of social, political, technological and scientific knowledge.
Assimilation and social differentiation, and language
Through time, variations appeared within a language. Transmission of a
language is self-perpetuating unless there is deliberate interference.
However, it became important for humans to improve their social
hierarchies and social status to advance personally. Thus, many people
cultivate the right dialect with is phonological, grammatical and lexical
features to make themselves better than the rest and get accepted in new
communities.
An example of this phenomenon is the insistence of immigrants from
Europe to speak American English when they decided to move to the
United States. It is because they realized that speaking American English
is the sign of acceptance in their new home country. Unexpectedly, third
generation immigrants now want to get in touch with the language of their
ancestors.
Cultural and linguistic diversity
Culture unifies a community although there is diversity within that unity.
For example, the speech used by the older generation could be different
from the one used by the younger people. Further, different groups may
speak one language, but there would be subsets used by different groups
of people. There could be slight differences in the language used by a
professor compared to the one used by a young office worker. People

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 could use a different form of the same language in online forums, which
would vastly differ from the language used by media and classically
trained individuals.
Language is used in different ways and broadly, the linguistic varieties
could be categorized into geographical (used only in particular parts of the
community), social (varieties used by societal groups based on occupation,
gender and age) and functional (used based on function and situation).
These factors lead to the formation of dialects that add diversity to the
language.

II. How does culture relate to language?

1. The relationship of nature, culture, language
One way of thinking about culture is to contrast it with nature. Nature refers
to what is born and grows organically (from the Latin nascere: to be born);
culture refers to what has been grown and groomed (from the Latin colere: to
cultivate). The word culture evokes the traditional nature/nurture debate: Are
human beings mainly what nature determines them to be from birth or what
culture enables them to become through socialization and schooling?
Emily Dickinson's poem expresses well, albeit in a stylized way, the
relationship of nature, culture, and language. A rose in a flower bed, says the
poem, a generic rose ('The General Rose'), is a phenomenon of nature.
Beautiful, yes, but faceless and nameless among others of the same species.
Perishable. Forgettable. Nature alone cannot reveal nor preserve the
particular beauty of a particular rose at a chosen moment in time. Powerless
to prevent the biological 'decay' and the ultimate death of roses and of ladies,
nature can only make summer when the season is right. Culture, by contrast,
is not bound by biological time. Like nature, it is a 'gift', but of a different
kind. Through a sophisticated technological procedure, developed especially
to extract the essence of roses, culture forces nature to reveal its 'essential'
potentialities. The word 'Screws' suggests that this process is not without

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labor. By crushing the petals, a great deal of the rose must be lost in order to
get at its essence. The technology of the screws constrains the exuberance of
nature, in the same manner as the technology of the word, or printed syntax
and vocabulary, selects among the many potential meanings that a rose might
have, only those that best express its innermost truth—and leaves all others
unsaid. Culture makes the rose petals into a rare perfume, purchased at high
cost, for the particular, personal use of a particular lady. The lady may die,
but the fragrance of the rose's essence (the Attar) can make her immortal, in
the same manner as the language of the poem immortalizes both the rose and
the lady, and brings both back to life in the imagination of its readers. Indeed,
'this' very poem, left for future readers in the poet's drawer, can 'Make
Summer' for readers even after the poet's death. The word and the technology
of the word have immortalized nature.
The poem itself bears testimony that nature and culture both need each other.
The poem wouldn't have been written if there were no natural roses; but it
would not be understood if it didn't share with its readers some common
assumptions and expectations about rose gardens, technological
achievements, historic associations regarding ladies, roses, and perfumes,
common memories of summers past, a shared longing for immortality, a
similar familiarity with the printed word, and with the vernacular and poetic
uses of the English language. Like the screws of the rose press, these
common collective expectations can be liberating, as they endow a universal
rose with a particular meaning by imposing a structure, so to speak, on nature.
But they can also be constraining. Particular meanings are adopted by the
speech community and imposed in turn on its members, who find it then
difficult, if not impossible, to say or feel anything original about roses. For
example, once a bouquet of roses has become codified as a society's way of
expressing love, it becomes controversial, if not risky, for lovers to express
their own particular love without resorting to the symbols that their society
imposes upon them, and to offer each other as a sign of love, say,
chrysanthemums instead—which in Germany, for example, are reserved for
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the dead! Both oral cultures and literate cultures have their own ways of
emancipating and constraining their members. We shall return to the
differences between oral and literate cultures in subsequent chapters.
The screws that language and culture impose on nature correspond to various
forms of socialization or acculturation.
Etiquette, expressions of politeness, social yes and don'ts shape people's
behavior through child rearing, behavioral upbringing, schooling,
professional training. The use of written language is also shaped and
socialized through culture. Not only what it is proper to write to whom in
what circumstances, but also which text genres are appropriate (the
application form, the business letter, the political pamphlet), because they are
sanctioned by cultural conventions. These ways with language, or norms of
interaction and interpretation, form part of the invisible ritual imposed by
culture on language users. This is culture's way of bringing order and
predictability into people's use of language.

2. Communities of language users

Social conventions, norms of social appropriateness, are the product of
communities of language users. As in the Dickinson poem, poets and readers,
florists and lovers, horticulturists, rose press manufacturers, perfume makers
and users, create meanings through their words and actions. Culture both
liberates people from oblivion, anonymity, and the randomness of nature, and
constrains them by imposing on them a structure and principles of selection.
This double effect of culture on the individual—both liberating and
constraining—plays itself out on the social, the historical and the
metaphorical planes. Let us examine each of these planes in turn.
People who identify themselves as members of a social group (family,
neighborhood, professional or ethnic affiliation, nation) acquire common
ways of viewing the world through their interactions with other members of
the same group. These views are reinforced through institutions like the

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family, the school, the workplace, the church, the government, and other sites
of socialization throughout their lives. Common attitudes, beliefs, and values
are reflected in the way members of the group use language—for example,
what they choose to say or not to say and how they say it. Thus, in addition to
the notion of speech community composed of people who use the same
linguistic code, we can speak of discourse communities to refer to the
common ways in which members of a social group use language to meet their
social needs. Not only the grammatical, lexical, and phonological features of
their language (for example, teenager’s talk, professional jargon, political
rhetoric) differentiate them | from others, but also the topics they choose to
talk about, the way і they present information, the style with which they
interact, in other words, their discourse accent. For instance, Americans have
been socialized into responding 'Thank you' to any compliment, as if they
were acknowledging a friendly gift: 'I like your sweater!'—'Oh, thank you!'
The French, who tend to perceive such a compliment as an intrusion into
their privacy, would rather downplay the compliment and minimize its value:
'Oh really? It's already quite old!' The reactions of both groups are based on
the differing values given to compliments in both cultures, and on the
differing degrees of embarrassment caused by personal com¬ments. This is a
view of culture that focuses on the ways of thinking, behaving, and valuing
currently shared by members of the same discourse community.
But there is another way of viewing culture—one which takes a more
historical perspective. For the cultural ways which can be identified at any
one time have evolved and become solidified over time, which is why they
are so often taken for natural behavior. They have sedimented in the
memories of group members who have experienced them firsthand or merely
heard about them, and who have passed them on in speech and writing from
one generation to the next. For example, Emily Dickinson's allusion to life
after death is grounded in the hope that future generations of readers will be
able to understand and appreciate the social value of rose perfume and the
funeral custom of surrounding the dead with fragrant rosemary. The culture
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of everyday practices draws on the culture of shared history and traditions.
People identify themselves as members of a society to the extent that they can
have a place in that society's history and that they can identify with the way it
remembers its past, turns its attention to the present, and anticipates its future.
Culture consists of precisely that historical dimension in a group's identity.
This diachronic view of culture focuses on the way in which a social group
represents itself and others through its material productions over time—its
technological achievements, its monuments, its works of art, its popular
culture—that punctuate the development of its historical identity. This
material culture is reproduced and preserved through institutional
mechanisms that are also part of the culture, like museums, schools, public
libraries, governments, corporations, and the media. The Eiffel Tower or the
Mona Lisa exist as material artifacts, but they have been kept alive and given
the prominence they have on the cultural market through what artists, art
collectors, poets, novelists, travel agents, tourist guides have said and written
about them. Language is not a culture-free code, distinct from the way people
think and behave, but, rather, it plays a major role in the perpetuation of
culture, particularly in its printed form.

3. Imagined communities
These two layers of culture combined, the social (synchronic) and the
historical (diachronic), have often been called the sociocultural context of
language study. There is, in addition, a third essential layer to culture, namely,
the imagination. Discourse communities are characterized not only by facts
and artifacts, but by common dreams, fulfilled and unfulfilled imaginings.
These imaginings are mediated through the language, that over the life of the
community reflects, shapes, and is a metaphor for its cultural reality. Thus the
city of London is inseparable, in the cultural imagination of its citizens, from
Shakespeare and Dickens. The Lincoln Memorial Building in Washington
has been given extra meaning through the words 'I have a dream...' that

15
Martin Luther King Jr. spoke there in 1963. Rose gardens have been
immortalized in the French imagination by Ronsard's poetry. Language is
intimately linked not only to the culture that is and the culture that was, but
also to the culture of the imagination that governs people's decisions and
actions far more than we may think.

III. Language, culture, and thought

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
Finally we come to the celebrated “Sapir-Whorf hypothesis”, so named after
the American linguists Edward Sapir (1884-1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf.
Both Sapir and Whorf worked extensively on American Indian languages and
made important contributions to our knowledge of those languages and also
to linguistic theory. The work most clearly relevant to the hypothesis was
done in the 1930s, towards the end of their respective careers, so their ideas
represent the results of two distinguished lifetime devoted to the serious study
of language and culture, and cannot be dismissed lightly. On the other hand,
it is not at all clear exactly what formulation of the hypothesis Sapir and
Whorf would themselves have accepted, since neither tried to define any such
hypothesis, and both changed their views radically ob relevant matters from
time to time.
Our extreme version of the hypothesis is a combination of extreme relativism
with extreme determinism. It claims that there are no restrictions on the
amount and type of variation to be expected between languages, including
their semantic structures, and that the determining effect of language on
thought is total-there is no thought without language. If we put these two
claims together, we arrive at the conclusion that there are no constraints on
the variation to be found between people in the way they think, especially in
the concepts they form. It also follows that if one can find a way to control
the language that people learn, one would thereby be able to control their
thoughts, as in George Orwell’s novel 1984.

16
So all of these researchers believe that language determines our concepts -
and we can only think through the use of concepts (this is called "linguistic
determinism") - and different language speakers "cut nature up" in different
ways (this is the linguistic relativity hypothesis)
Examples of linguistic relativity:
 "Eskimo words for snow"
 Hopi Indians: use the same word for "insect", "aeroplane" and "pilot"
 Have no tenses for their verbs -
 "Lightning", "flame", "meteor" and "puff of smoke" are all verbs e.g. "it
puff-of-smoked"
 Zuni Indians: use the same word for "yellow" and "orange"
The use of language to describe the colours of the spectrum has been studied
in depth as it provides strict criteria and definitions.
Brown and Lenneberg (1954) compared English with Shone (from Zimbabwe)
and Bassa (from Liberia) and found that colours which have no name in the
language are more difficult to recognise than those which do have a name in
the language.
Regarding the role of language for development and the relationship between
language and thought: According to Piaget, thought comes before language,
which is only one of its forms of expression. The formation of thought
basically depends on the coordination of sensory motor schemes and not of
language. This can occur only after the child has reached a certain level of
mental abilities, subordinating herself, to the thought processes. The language
allows the child to evoke an object or event absent at the communication of
concepts. Piaget, however, established a clear separation between the
information that can be passed through language and processes that do not
seem to suffer any influence of it. This is the case of cognitive operations that
cannot be worked by means of specific training done with the aid of language.
For example, you cannot teach, just using words, to classify, to serialize, to

17
think with reversibility. As for Vygotsky, thought and language are
interdependent processes, from the beginning of life. The acquisition of
language by the child modifies its higher mental functions: it gives a definite
shape to thought, enables the emergence of imagination, the memory usage
and the action planning. In this sense, language, unlike what Piaget postulates,
systematizes the direct experience of children and therefore acquires a central
role in cognitive development, reorganizing processes that are ongoing.
However it has been concluded that, while language acts as a label to help us
remember it may distort our recollection of things seen, or tend to make us
think in a particular way, but it does not determine what we have seen.
Berlin and Kay (1969) determined that there are eleven basic colour
categories: black, white, red, green, yellow, blue, brown, purple, and pink,
orange, grey. English uses all eleven, the Ibibio (from Nigeria) use four and
the Jalé (from New Guinea) use two. However many psychologists think
now that the Whorf hypothesis is exaggerated and the general view is that as
the similarities in the way that different languages interpret colours are
greater than the differences, and as it appears quite easy for cultures with
limited language words to learn new words identifying the "missing" colours
(Rosch 1973), Language has a less significant influence on thought then
Whorf supposed, though it does affect it in superficial ways.

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 REFERENCES
Chapter 1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language
https://www.uio.no/studier/emner/hf/ikos/EXFAC03-
AAS/h05/larestoff/linguistics/Chapter%201.(H05).pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought

Chapter 2
https://www.daytranslations.com/blog/2018/05/the-relationship-between-
language-and-culture-defined-11480/
https://www.daytranslations.com/blog/2018/05/the-relationship-between-
language-and-culture-defined-11480/
http://www.kspu.edu/FileDownload.ashx?id=e93151af-4db2-42a9-b965-
de6948231445
https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/40744764/sociolinguisti
cs.docx?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1551
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disposition=attachment%3B%20filename%3DLanguage_Culture_and_Thou
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d_THOUGHT.pdf

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