BIOTECHNICAL

SLOPE PROTECTION
ANO EROSION CONTROL

ponald H. Gray
Dept. of Civil Engineering
The University of Michigan

Andrew T. Leiser
Dept. of Environmental Horticulture
University of California, Davis

KRIEGER PUBUSHING COMPANY

MALABAR, FLORIDA
 Contents

Preface l v

1. INTRODUCTION l 1
1. 1 Biotechnical or Combined Vegetative-Structural Slope Pro tection l l

1.2 Reasons for Biotechnical Approach l l

1.2.1 Cost Effectiveness l l
1.2.2 Environmental Compatibility l l
1.2.3 Use of Indigenous, Natu ra! Materials l l
1.2.4 Labor-Skill l ntensiveness l l

1.3 Extent and Severity of Soil Erosion and Slope Movemen t Problems l 3
1.3. 1 Soil Erosion l 3
1.3.2 Mass-Movement l 6

1.4 Application of Biotechnical Slope Protection l 7

l .5 Scope and Organization of Book l 8

l .6 References Cited l 9

2. SOIL EROSION ANO MASS- MOVEMENT l 10

2. l Definitions l IO
2. 1.1 Soil Erosion l IO
2. 1.2 Mass-Movement l IO

2.2 Nature of Soi l Erosio n l lO

2.2. 1 Determinants of Rainfall Erosion l il
2.2.2 Determinants of Wind Erosion l 12
2.2.3 T ypes of Water Erosion l 13
2.2.3. 1 Rainfall Erosion l 13
2.2.3.2 Stream C hannel Erosion l 15
2.2.3.3 Groundwater E rosion l 16

2.3 Soil Loss Predictio ns l 16

2.3. 1 Rainfall Erosion l 16
2.3 . 1.1 Rainfall Factor l 16
2.3.1.2 Soil Erodibility Factor l 18
2.3 . 1.3 Slope Lengt h an d Steepness Factors l 18

vii
viii CONTENTS
CONTENTS ix
2.3.1.4 C ropping Management Factor l 20
2.3.1.5 Erosion Contro! Practice Factor l 20 3.6 Consequences of Yegetation Removal on Slope Stabi.lity l 61 .
3.6.1 Relationship between Mass-Mo vement and T1mber Harves tmg l 61
2.4 Evaluation of Soil Loss Reduction Measu res at Construction Sites l 23 3.6.2 Results of Studies in the \Vestern Cascades l 62
2.4.1 Evaluation Fo rmula l 23
2.4.2 Factor C Values for Construction Sites l 24 3.7 Summary and Conclusions l 63
2.4 .3 Factor P Yalues for Construction Sites l 25
2.4.4 Computing System Effectiveness l 25 3.8 References Ci ted l 64
2.5 Nature of Mass-Movement l 25
2.5.1 Types of Slope Movements l 25 4. PRINCIPLES OF BIOTECHNICAL SLOPE PROTECTION l 66
2.5 .2 Causes of Slope Movement l 26
2.5.3 Indicators of Slope Instability l 27 4.1 Elements of System l 66

2.6 Slope Stability Predictions l 29 4.2 Role of Vegetation l 73

2.6.1 Approaches to Analysis l 29
2.6.2 Limit Equilibrium Analysis l 30 4.3 Role of Structure l 74
2.6.3 Shear Strength Parameters l 30 4.3.1 Retaining Structures l 74
2.6.3.1 Total Stress Analysis l 31 4.3 .2 Revetments and Grade Stabilization Structures l 76
2.6.3.2 Effective Stress Analysis l 31
2.6.4 T ranslational Slope Failures l 31 4.4 Compatibility between Engineering and Biologica! Requirements l 81
2.6.4.1 Selection of Soil Parameters l 33
2.6.4.2 Stability of Road Fills l 33 4.5 References Cited l 82
2.6.5 Rotational Slope Failures l 34
.2 .6.5.1 Criticai Height of Road Cuts l 34
2.6.5.2 Stability Analysis by "Method-of-Slices" l 35 5 STRUCTURAL-MECHANICAL COMPONENTS OF BIOTECHNICAL
SLOPE PROTECTION l 83
2. 7 References Cited l 35
5.1 Retaining Structures-General l 83
5 .1 .1 P urpose an d Function of Structure l 83
3. ROLE OF VEGETATION IN THE STABILITY ANO PROTECTION 5 .1 .2 Basic T ypes and Selection Criteria l 83
OF SLOPES l 37 5.1 .3 Stability Requirements l 85
5 . 1.3 . l External Stability l 88
3.1 Hydro-Mechanical Influences of Yegetation l 37 5 . 1.3 .2 Internai Stability l 91
3.1.1 Prevention of Soil Erosion l 37 5.1.4 Standard Designs l 91
3 .1 .2 Prevention of Mass-Movement l 37

3.2 Root Reinforcement l 39 5.2 T oe-Wall Construction l 91

5.2.1 RockBreastWalls l 91
3.2.1 Mechan ics of Root Reinforcement l 39
5.2.2 Gabion Walls l 93
3.2.2 Theoretical Models of Root-Reinforced Soil l 40
5.2.3 Crib Walls i 94
3.2.3 Root Morphology and Strength l 43
5.3 .2.1 Timber Cribs l 95
3.2.4 Root and Fiber Reinforcement Tests l 47
5.2.3 .2 Concrete Crib Walls l 97
3.2.5 Root Reinforcement in Sandy, Cohesionless S1opes l 51
5.2.4 Welded-W ire Walls l 99
3.3 Soil Moisture Modification and Depletion l 53 5.2.5 Reinforced Earth Walls l 104
3.3.1 Soil Moisture Stress and Slope Movement l 53
3.3.2 Soil Moisture Stress in Forested vs . Cutover Slopes l 54 5.3 Revetments l 107
5.3.1 Riprap l 107
3.4 Slope Butlressing and Arching l 155 5.3.2 Gabions l 109
3.4.1 Mechanics of Arching and Buttressing l 55 5.3.3 Articulated, Precast Blocks l 112
3.4.2 Theoretical Mode! of Arching in Slopes l 56 5.3.4 Cellular Grids l 112
3.4.3 Field Evidence for Arching Restrai nt l 57
5.4 Costs of Slope Protection Measures l 114
3.5 Surcharge from Weight of Yegetation l 60 5.4. 1 Cost of Retaining Soil in P iace l 116
3.5.1 Influence of Surcharge on the Stability of " Infinite Slopes" l 60 5.4.2 Cost Comparisons Among Methods l 116
3.5 .2 Estimates of Surcharge from Weigh t of Trees l 60
5.5 References Cited l 120
x CONTENTS
CONTENTS xi

6. VEGETAT IVE COMPONENTS AND REQUIREMENTS l 122

6.6.2 Wa te r Contro! l 142
6.1 ln troduct ion l 122 6.6.2. 1 Sur face Water l 142
6.6.2.2 Energy Dissipat ion l 144
6.2 Constraints: Legai , Economie and Practical l 122 6.6.2.3 Seepage Contro! l 144
6.2.1 Legai and Po litica! Constraints l 122 6.6 .2.4 Protecting Adjacent Areas l 145
6.2 .2 Econo mie contraints l 123
6.7 Planting Techniques l 145
6.3 Si te Analysis l 123 6. 7 . l Direct Seeding l 145
6.3.1 Climate l 123 6. 7 . l. l Grasses an d Forbs l 146
6.3.2 Vegetatio n l 124 6.7.1.2 W oody Species l 147
6.3.2 . 1 Overall vegetation spectrum l 124 6. 7.2 Seed and Seedling Protection l 150
6.3.2.2 Pioneer or Invader Species l 124 6.7.2. 1 lrrigatio n l 150
6.3.2.3 Transitional Species l 124 6. 7.2.2 Thinning Plants l 15 1
6.3.2.4 Subclimax and Climax Species l 124 6. 7.3 Cuttings l 15 1
6.3.2.5 Summa ry l 124 6.7.3. 1 C utting Size l 151
6.3.3 Microsite parameters l 124 6. 7 .3.2 Preparation of Cuttings l 152
6.3.3. 1 Microclimate l 125 6.7. 3.3 Sticking Cuttings l 152
6.3.3.2 Aspect and T opography l 125 6.7.4 Transplants l 152
6.3 .3.3 Site Soils l 125 6.7.4.1 TimeofPlanting l 152
6.3.3.4 Pot Tests to Estimate Fertilizer Requirements of Soils 1 127 6. 7 .4 .2 Planting Tools l 152
6.3.3.5 Adjacent vegetation l 128 6. 7 .4.3 P lanting Ho le l 152
6. 7 .4.4 Fertilizers and Amendment s l 152
6.4 Species Selectio n l 128 6. 7 .4 .5 Planting Procedure l 153
6.4.1 Desirable P lant C haracteristics for Erosion Contro! 1 129
6.4.2 Native vs. lntroduced Species l 129 6.8 Special Meth ods for Structures l 153
6.4.2.1 The Ca se for Native Species l 129 6.8. 1 Crib Walls and Revetments l 153
6.4.2.2 The Case for lntroduced ("Exotic") Species 1 129 6.8. 2 Breast Wa lls l 153
6.4 .3 Plant Geography, Variation a nd Adaptation, and Species 6.8.3 Gabions l 154
Selection l 130 6.8 .4 Tiered Structu res l 154
6.4.4 Pla nt Succession l 130
6.4.5 Nit rogen-Fixing P lant s for Site lmprovemen t l 130 6.9 Afte rcare and Protection l 154
6.4.6 Grasses fo r l nterim Erosion Cont ro! l 13 1 6.9. 1 Significance l 154
6.4.7 Species Mix l 131 6.9.2 Protection fro m Rodents and Browsers l 154
6.4.8 P la nt Lists l 13 1
6.4 .9 Avai labil ity l 132 6.10 Summary l 154

6.11 References Cited l 154

6.5 Seeds and Planting Stocks l 132
6.5.1 Seeds l 132
6. 5.2 Transplants l 133 7. QUASI-VEGETATIVE OR HYBRID SLOPE PROTECTION
6.5.3 Propaga ti on l 133 TECHNIQUES l 157
6.5.3.1 Seed Propaga tion l 133
7. l l ntroducti on l 157
6.5 .3.2 Cutting P ropagati on l 134
6.5.3.3 Growing Media l 135
7.2 Contour-Wattling l 157
6.5.3.4 Containers l 135
7 .2.1 Defini tio n l 157
6.5.3 .5 Sched uling l 136
7 .2.2 Historical Development l 157
6.5.3.6 Ha rdening off l 136 7 .2.3 Generai P rinciples and Description of Method l 158
7.2.3. 1 Function ofWatt li ng l 158
6.6 Site Preparation l 138 7 .2.3 .2 Selection of Wattling Materials l 160
6.6.1 Grading and Shaping l 138 7.2.3.3 Preparation and Ha ndling of Wa ttles l 160
6.6. 1.1 Restoration Projects l 138 7.2.3.4 Sta kes and Staking l 161
6.6. 1.2 C ut Slopes l 139 7.2.3.5 P lacement andCoveringofWattles l 16 1
6.6. 1.3 Fili Slopes l 139 7.2 .3.6 Timing of lnstallation l 162
7.2.3.7 Summary l 162
xii CONTENTS CONTENTS xiii

7.2.4 Installation of Wattling l 162 8.2.3 Height l 180

7 .2.4.1 Si te Survey l 162 8.2.4 Spillway l 181
7 .2.4.2 Slope Preparation l 163 8.2.5 Apron l 181
7 .2.4.3 Staking and T renching l 163 8.2.6 Rock Size and Gradation l 181
7.2.4.4 Placement and Covering of Wattles l 163 8.3 Construction of Check Dams l 182
7 .2.4.5 Planting l 165 8.3.1 Single-Row Post-Brush Dam l 182
7 .2.4.6 Maintenance l 165 8.3.2 Double-Row Post-Brush Dam l 183
7.2.5 Uses or Applications for Wattling l 165 8.3.3 Brush and Rock Dam l 184
7 .2.5 .l Road Fills l 165 8.3.4 Brush and Wire-Netting Dam l 184
7.2.5.2 Road Cuts l 166 8.3 .5 Loose Rock Dam l 185
7 .2.5 .3 Gullied or Slumped Areas l 166 8.3.6 Split Board Dam l 185
7.2.5.4 Eroded Slopes l 167
8.4 References Cited l 187
7.3 Contour Brush-Layering l 168
7 .3.1 Description of Method l 168
9. CASE HISTORIES ANO APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNICAL
7.3.2 lnstallation Procedure l 168
7 .3 .2.1 During Embankment Construction l 168 SLOPE PROTECTION l 188
7 .3.2.2 Remedial Treatment for Eroding Slopes l 170 9.1 lntroduction l 188

7.4 Reed-Trench Terracing l 171 9.2 Case History No. 1- Backshore Slope Protection: Great Lakes Shoreline l 188
7 .4.1 Description of Method l 171 9.2.1 Nature of Great Lakes Shoreline and Magnitude of Erosion Problem l
7 .4.2 Construction Procedure l 171 188
7 .4.3 Terrace Plantings l 172 9.2.2 Shoreline Degradation P rocesses l 189
9.2.3 The Rocky Gap Bluff Stabilization Project l 189
7. 5 Brush Matting l 172 9.2.3.1 Project objectives l 189
7.5.1 Description of Method l 172 9.2.3.2 Project location and site description l 190
7.5.2 Construction Procedure l 173 9.2.4 Plot Treatments and Results l 190
9.2.4.1 Plot No. l: Post-Brush Dam and Willow Staking l 190
7.6 Live Staking l 173 9.2.4.2 Plot No. 6: Crib Wall and Contour Wattling l 192
7 .6. 1 Selection of Species for Li ve Staking l 173 9.2.5 Summary and Conclusions l 195
7 .6.2 P reparation and Handling of Cuttings l 174
7 .6.3 Ti me to Piant Stakes l 175 9.3 Case History No. 2-Watershed Rehabilitation: Redwood National Park l
7 .6.4 How to Plant Stakes l 175 197
7 .6.5 Where to Pian t Stakes l 175 9.3.1 Park Setting l 197
7.6.5.1 Check Dam Reinforcement l 175 9.3. 1.1 Geology and soils l 197
7.6.5.2 Gully-Head Plug Reinforcement l 175 9.3.1.2 Vegetation l 197
7.6.5.3 Gully Erosion Contro! l 176 9.3.2 Erosion and Slope Stability Problems l 197
7.6.5.4 Wattle Staking on Slopes l 176 9.3.3 Watershed Rehabilitation P rogram l 198
7.6.5 .5 Revetment Staking and Reinforcement l 176 9.3.3.1 Objectives and Scope of Program l 198
7 .6.5.6 Breast-Wall Staking l 177 9.3.3 .2 Siteselection l 201
9.3.4 Upper Miller Creek Rehabilitation Test Site l 203
7. 7 References Cited l 177 9.3.4.1 Site Description l 203
9.3.4.2 Rehabilitation Tasks l 204
9.3.4.3 Effectiveness of Erosion Contro! Measures l 205
8. CHECK DAMS FOR GULLY CONTRO L l 178
9.4 Case History No. 3-Cut Slope Stabilization: Lake Tahoe Basin l 209
8.1 Introduction l 178 9.4.1 Location of the Project and the Erosion Problem l 209
8.1.1 Purpose and Function of Check Dams l 178 9 .4.1.1 Objectives of the Project l 209
8.1.2 Porous vs. Nonporous Dams l 178 9 .4.1 .2 Soils of the Project Area l 209
8.1.3 Biotechnical Construction Methods and Materials l 178 9 .4.1.3 Climate of the Project Area l 209
9 .4.1.4 Vegetation of the Project Area l 209
8.2 Generai Design Criteria l 179 9.4.2 Preliminary Research l 209
8.2.1 Check Dam Configuration l 179 9 .4.2.1 Si te and Vegetation Analysis l 209
8.2.2 Spacing l 180 9.4.2.2 Propagation Research l 211

•
xiv CO NTENTS

9.4.2.3 Interim Stabilization Research l 21 1

9.4.2.4 Fall vs. Spring Planting l 213
8.4.2.5 Willow Curtings l 213
9.4.2.6 Fertility Studies l 213
9.4.3 lntegrated Slope Plantings l 215
9.4.3. 1 Site l , 03- ED-89 P.M. 2.04-2. 11 l 216
9.4.3.2 Si te 2, 03- ED-89 P.M. 2.93-2.99 l 216
9.4 .3.3 Sites 3 a nd 4, 03- E D- 89 P.M. 4.30- 4.45 l 2 17
9.4.3.4 G rass Plantings, All Sites l 21 8
9.4.4 CaiTrans Cut, 03 - ED-89 P.M. 2.36-2.52 l 22 1
9.4.5 Costs- Benefits l 222
9.4.6 Summary l 225

9.5 References C ited l 228

APPENOIX l. STANOARO OESIGNS ANO SPECIFICATIONS

FOR STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS l 231

APPENOIX Il. AN ANNOTATEO LIST OF SELECTEO REFERENCES OF

PLANTS FOR EROSION CONTROL l 260

APPENOIX 111. NOMENCLATURE ANO SYMBOLS l 265

INOEX l 267
 Appendix Il
An Annotated List
of Selected References
for Plants for Erosion
Control

References in tbis appendix bave been selected on sbould not be limited to existing lists of plants. Unique
severa! criteria. Emphasis bas been placed on tbose problem sites will occur wbicb will require unique solu-
references dealing with plants for unique and difficult en- tions. Many plant species bave never been adequately
vironments and tbose wbicb may not bave wide distribu- tested or tested at all. Lists sbould be used only as guides
tion in libraries, e.g., government agency reports, and starting points, not as ends in tbemselves. Observa-
bulletins, and circulars. A few references bave been in- tions of native an d introduced species in tbe vicinityoftbe
cluded because of wide geograpbic coverage. Most site to be revegetated sbould always be used in conjunc-
references are relatively recent because mucb of tbe o lder tion witb plant lists.
literature is cited in tbese. Annotations briefly describe tbe contents and par-
Information is readily available for plants adapted to ticular usefulness of tbese references.
areas of adequate summer rainfall, e.g., mucb of tbe
midwest, eastern and soutbern parts of Nortb America, Bennet, O. L., Matbias, E. T., Armiger, W. H ., and
or wbere adequate irrigation is available. Rebder (1954) Jones, Jr ., J. N. (1978). Plant materials and tbeir re-
gives bardiness ratings for woody plants for mucb of tbe quirements for growtb in bumid regions. In: Schaller,
United States and Canada. Sunset New Western Garden Frank W., and Sutton, Pau], Eds. Reclamation of
Book (1979) gives excellent coverage of tbe western por- drastically disturbed lands. Amer. Soc. of Agron.,
tion of the United States and adjacent parts of Canada. Crop Sci. Soc. of Amer ., Soil Sci . Soc. of Amer.,
Tbis publication bas developed detailed climatic zones Madison, Wisc. Cb. 16, pp 285-306.
for tbese areas. Wyman, in severa! publications (1956,
Requirements and species of fo rbs, grasses,
1965, 1969, 1974, 1977), discusses plants for mucb oftbis
legumes, trees and sbrubs given in text. Extensive
area. Numerous otber garden encyclopedias, regional
literature citations.
garden books, Federai and State publications cover
ground covers, sbrubs and trees suitable for revegetation Brown, Ray W., Johnston, Robert S., Ricbardson,
wbere summer water is available. Bland Z., and Farmer, Eugene E. {1976). Rebabilita-
Selection of plant species for difficult sites (wet lands, tion of alpine disturbances: Beartootb Plateau, Mon-
dry lands, mine spoils, etc.) is not as well covered in tbe tana. In: Zuck, R. H. and Brown, L. F., Eds . High
readily available literature. These are tbe citations cbiefly altitude revegetation workshop No. 2. Colo. State
covered bere. Even these references are not meant to be Univ. , fort Collins, Colo. pp. 58-73. (Also as USDA
ali-inclusive. Some bave been selected because tbey are Forest Svc. Res. Note INT-206-1976, Ogden Utab.)
generai treatments, some for tbeir special nature. Many
Fourteen native and introduced grasses and sedges
of tbese citations bave extensive literature citations
are listed. Natives are recommended. Five forbs are
tbemselves. Mine spoil revegetation researcb in tbe west is
listed as active colonizers.
relatively new. Tbe SEAM project will be producing more
information on revegetation of tbese difficult sites. Brown, Ray W., Jobnston, Robert S., and Johnson,
Plant selection for revegetation and erosion control Douglas A . {1978). Rehabilitation of alpine tundra

259
260 BIOTECHNICAL SLOPE PROTECTION ANO EROSION CONTROL APPENDIX Il AN ANNOTATED LIST OF SELECTED RE FERENCES FOR PLANTS FOR EROSION CONTROL 261

disturbances. J. of Soil and Water Cons. (July-Aug) Everett. Richard L. , Meeuwig, Richard 0. , and Butte.r- requirements are included. Useful for much of the Knutson, Pau! L. (1977). Planting guidelines fo r
field Richard I. ( 1980). Revegetation of untreated ac1d southwest U. S. and somewhat useful for southern marsh development and bank stabilization . Coastal
pp. 154-160.
spoil~. Leviathan Mine. Alpine County, California. and southeastern coastal states. Eng. Tech. A id No. 77- 3. U. S. Army Corps of Eng.
Summary article citing other research. Table lists 12 Cali[. Geology. 32: l, 3 pp . Fort Belvoir, Va. 21 pp.
Hunt, L. Jean, Ford , Alfred W. , Landin, Mary C., and
grass/ sedge/ rush species, 17 forbs, and 5 woody Survival of 20-1000fo was obtained with 11 of 12 Wells, B. R. (1978). Upland habitat development with Four species of Spartina, cord grass, are listed for
species. 75 lit. cite. species tested. Mean pH was 4.1. Grass competition dredged materia!: Engineering and plant propagation. use on Atlantic , Gulf, and Pacific Coast areas.
Chan Franklin J ., Harris, Richard W. , and Leiser , reduced survival. Tech. Report DS- 78- 17. U. S. Army Eng. Waterways Establishment methods are given .
Andrew T. (1971). Direct seeding woody plants in the Exp. Sta., Env. Lab., Vicksburg, Miss.
Ferguson, Robert B. and Monsen, Stephen B . .(1974) . Re-
landscape. AXT-n27, Agr. Ext. Serv., Uni v. of Cali f., Kraayenoord, C. W. S. Van. (1968). Poplars and wil-
search with containerized shrubs an d forbs m southern Extensive list of 70 grasses, 112 forb s, 18 vines, and
Berkeley (Reprinted 1979 as leaflet 2577). 12 pp. lows in New Zealand with particular reference to their
Idaho . Reprinted from: Great Plains Abric. Counc. 153 trees and shrubs. Table 5 lists cultura! informa- use in erosion contro!. lnt. Poplar Commission, 13th
Direct (spot) seeding results with 50 native and i~­ Pubi. 68:349- 358. U. S. Govt. Prtg. Off. 1974- 677- tion, range, habit, etc. Table 6lists according to soil Session, Montreal . Canada.
troduced species at numerous sites in California 093 /39 Reg. No.8. an d regional adaptability. Many literature refer-
from seacoast to Sierras, Redding to Los Angeles. ences. Reports o n numerous Populus an d Sa/ix species an d
Fourteen of 30 species of trees, shrubs and forbs
Adaptability to microsites is noted. Mostly without clones used in N . Z. for erosio n control.
gave some survival in at least one of three ~lanting Kaul , R. N., Ed. (1970) Afforestation in arid zones.
irrigation. seasons. Grasshoppers caused heavy mort al1ty. Sur- Dr. W. Junk, N. V. The Hague. 435 pp. Kraebel, Charles J . (1936) . Erosion contro! on mountain
Dehgan, Bijan, Tucker, John M. , and Takher, Ba~bir S. vival ranged from l to 700fo. roads . Circ. 380. USDA, Washington, D.C. 44 pp.
(1977). Propagation and culture of new spec1es of Afforestation of various arid zones of the world is
Fris::hknecht, Neil C. (1978). Use of shrubs for mined covered. Research, current methodology and plant The originai work o n wattling al so contains (Table 2)
drought-tolerant plants for highways. Fina/ report
land reclamation and wildlife habitat. Proc. Work- lists and descriptions are included . Botanica! index an extensive list of native species with adaptation
FHWA -CA-77-2 (NTIS PB273-477). Dept. ofBotany,
shop on Rec/amation [or Wild/ife Habitat. Ecology of over 600 species contains many grasses an d forbs listed for 6 major Calif. regions, each sub-divided
U. C. Davis (Ìor Cali f. Dept of Trans.). 168 pp.
Consultants, Inc., Fort Collins, Colo. 14 pp. but is predominately of trees and shrubs. The sec- into 3-5 elevational (and vegetational) zones. List
Descriptions, culture and propagation metho.ds tions cover the southern fringe of Europe, North contains 8 grass, 36 forb, 56 shrub and 38 tree
given for 92 California native and introduced spec1es Text lists 10 species as suitable on oil shales in E.
Africa, the Near East, the Indian subcontinent, Cen- species. Regions are from north coastal to desert.
of relatively drought-tolerant plants. Utah.
trai Eurasia, the American continents, and Many are native or adaptable to adjacent states.
Edmunson, George C. (1976). Plant mat~rials study: A Hall, v. L., and Ludwig, J. D. (1975). Evaluation ofpo- Australia. Some chapters list drought tolerant
tential use of vegetation for erosion abatement along natives. Species selection is no t ed in t ext and l or Leiser, Andrew T., Nussbaum, James J., Kay, Burgess,
search for drought-tolerant plant matenals for ero_swn
contro!, revegetation, and landscaping along Califor- the Great Lakes shoreline. Mise. Paper 7- 75. Coas~al tables and for most areas includes both natives and Paul, Jack, and Thronhill, William. (1974). Revegeta-
Eng. Res. Or., U. S. Army CorpsofEng., Ft. Belv01r, introduced species. Methods of establishment and tion of disturbed soils in the Tahoe basin. Fina! Report
nia highways. Fina! Report No. USDASC~ L PMC-1.
USDA SCS, Davis, Calif. (to State of Cahf. Dept. of Va. results are included in many chapters. An excellent CA-DOT- TL- 7036-1- 75-25. Depts. of Env. Hort,
resource for selecting species for test plantings in a and Agron. and Range Sci. , U. C., Davis, Calif. (To:
Trans., Sacramento , Calif.). 257 pp. Methods, plant lists, 34 species from literature
wide range of arid climates. Extensive literature Calif. Dept of Trans., Sacramento, Calif.) 71 pp.
Research results are given fo r north centrai coast reviews an d 33 from field surveys along south shores
of Lake Superior, Lake Michigan , junction of Lake references. Grass species and mixes (9 species eminently
foothills, Sierra Nevada foothills, Lake Tahoe Basin
and vicinity and Alturas. Appendix A lists sites a~d Michigan an d Lake Huron, Lake Erie, an d Lake On- Kay, Burgess L. (1979). Summary of revegetation at- suitable) and 7 woody species resulting in good
species tested, 53 grasses an d forbs and 60 shrubs m tario. Characteristics are briefly descri bed . tempts on the second Los Angeles aqueduct. Mojave revegetation as transplants without irrigation are
foothill sites, an d 34 grasses an d forbs and 47 shrubs Horton, Jerome S. (1949). Trees and shrubs for ~rosi?n Revegetation Notes No. 22. Dept. Agro n. an d Range listed. These are suitable for other similar mountain
at Tahoe. Seed collection and propagation data are contro! in Southern California mountains. Cabf. DIV. Sci., U. C. Davis, Calif. 24 pp. areas.
furnished. Appendix B lists planting methods, seed For. in coop. with Cali f. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Four of seven species were established by drill McKell, Cyrus M., Blaisdell, James P., and Goodin,
mixes and plant characteristics for 25 grasses and 12 (now Pacific Southwest For. and Range Exp. Sta.) Joe R., Eds. (1971). Wildland shrubs - their biology
seeding on high elevation desert sites without irriga-
forbs. Appendix C is a statewide list of recom- USDA For. Svc. 72 pp. tion. and utilization. International Symposium. Tech.
mended trees and shrubs for the 14 major land
A major source listing 58 native ~nd . introduc~d Kimmons, J. H., Lovell, G. R., Everett, H. W., Thorn-
Report /NT-1. Intermountain For. and Range Exp.
resource areas. Lists are applicable to many areas of
species in 3 tables according t o elevatwn m So. Calif. Sta., USDA For. Svc., Ogden, Utah. 494 pp.
adjacent states. ton, R. B., and Dudley, R. F., (1976). Evaluation of
mountains further subdivided into deep and woody plants and development of establishment pro- Section I, Continental Aspects of Shrub Distribu-
Environmental Laboratory (Hunt, L. Jean, compiler). shallow soits, full sun and partial shade. Partially cedures for direct woody seeding and /or vegetative tion, Utilization and Potentials, gives extensive lists
(1978). Wetland habitat development wit~ dredged tested species also listed. Descriptive notes .on reproduction. Fina! Report No. FHWA- MD- R- 76- of shrubs, usually in text and by plant communities
materia!: engineering and plant propagatwn. Tech. characteristics, range and habitat, uses and plantmg 19. USDA Soil Cons. Svc., National Plant Materials for the Indian Sub-continent, Mediterranean region
Report DS-78-16. U. S. Army Eng. Waterway Expt. methods. Useful in similar areas of the west. Center, Beltsville Md. (for: Md. State Highway Adm., of Africa, Asia, an d Argentina. Many have potential
Sta. , Vicksburg, Miss. 158 pp.
Hoyt, Roland Stewart. (1978). Ornamental pl~nts Brooklandville, Md.). 154 pp. for erosion contro! on arid sites.
Table 6lists 115 species ofplants with adaptability t o [or subtropical regions. Liningston Press. Anahe1m,
geographic region, pH, soils, marsh conditions Research results given for numerous grasses, forbs, Monsen, Stephen B., and Plummer, A. Perry. (1978).
Ca. 485 pp. shrubs, and trees in Appalachian, Piedmont, and Plants an d treatment for revegetation of disturbed sit es
(tidal, interior, water depth , etc.) and other factors .
Propagules, handling, and planting techniques are Extensive lists of herbs, shrubs, and trees by adapta- Coastal Plain regions of Maryland (Appendix A). in theintermountain area. In: Wright, RobertA. (Ed.).
in table 7. A synopsis for 28 species is in App. C. tion to microsites (soils, seashore, moisture regimes, Not separated as to successful and nonsuccessful The reclamation of disturbed arid lands. Univ. New
Numerous literature citations. etc.) and by landscape uses. Plant descriptions and species. Mexico Press . Albuquerque, N. M. pp. 155-173.
.................----------------------------
APPENDIX Il AN ANNOTATED LIST OF SELECTED REFERENCES FOR PLANTS FOR EROSION CONTROL 263
262 BIOTECHNICAL SLOPE PROTECTION ANO EROSION CONTROL
planting guide by soil groups, use, form, etc. (Table plants for today's gardens. The Macmillan Co., N .Y.
Schiechtl, Hugo. (1980). Bioengineering [or land re- 19), and generai information applicable to Wiscon- 137 pp.
Table 8.1 lists pioneer grasses (15) and forbs (17)
reclamation an d conservat io n. Uni v. of Alberta Press. sin and adjacent areas.
with areas of adaptation. Table 8.2 lists 48 shrubs A generai reference for maintenance-free shrubs.
Edmonton, Alberta. 400 pp.
established by direct seeding and growing well with U. S. Environment Protection Agency. (1975). Methods
forbs. These are rated for growth rate, competitive Extensive list s of plants fo r erosion control. Plant - - . (1977). Wyman's gardening encyclopedia. Rev.
of quickly vegetating soils of low productivity, con-
adaptability and drought tolerance. A few are characteristics, adaptation to soils and climates, etc. Ed. The Macmillan Co., New York 1221 pp.
struction activities. EPA-440/ 9-75-006. U. S . E nvt.
discussed which do best as transplants. are given. Not organized by site or environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 467 pp. A generai reference covering a wide range of plants,
Naveh , z. (1974). The ecologica! management of non- adaptation for easy use but it is very comprehensive, grasses, forbs, shrubs, trees and their horticulture
essentially world-wide in scope. Research results are Case histories of revegetation in l Oareas in the U. S.
arable Mediterranean uplands. Jour. of Env. Manage- requirements.
chiefly European. Plant lists are given for: Idaho batholith, approx-
ment. 2:351 - 371. imately 13 grasses and 35 woody species; New
Shetron, Stephen G. and Carroll, DorianA. (1977). Per-
Twenty species of shrubs are liste d for dry, rocky, Mexico, 15-20 grasses; Colorado, grasses only; Addendum
limestone slopes. Although based on Israel, these formance of trees and shrubs on metallic mine mill Mississippi, grass and forb rnixes by areas; Virginia-
wastes. Jour. of Soil and Water Cons. 32:5 , Aldo n, Earl F. (1973). Revegetating disturbed areas in the
would be good for other areas with similar climates. West Virginia, grass mixes only; Massachusetts, 11
pp 222-225. semiarid Southwest. Jour. of Soil and Water Conser-
Plummer, A. Perry, Christensen, Donald R ., and Mon- woody plants plus grasses and forbs; Alaska, grass
vation. 28(5):223-225.
sen, Stephen B. (1968). Restoring big-game range in Nineteen woody species listed, 14 of which survived mixes and 6 each herbaceous and woody ground
Utah. Pub. No. 68-3. Utah Div. of Fish and Game. 5 years on iron tailings, 11 on copper tailings, and 11 covers; 17 western states, adaptation and lists of l 00 Detailed establishment methods are given for four-
on dikes and dumps. Michigan data. grasses, 22 forbs, and 9 woody species for seed wing saltbush and alkali sacaton by transplanting.
183 pp.
establishment. Detailed methodology an d limiting factors makethis
Comprehensive manual including site analysis, plant Stark, N. (1966). Review of highway planting informa- applicable to much of the arid southwest.
selection, methods, and plant lists. Seed mixes are tion appropriate to Nevada. Bu/1. B-7. Desert Res. Whitlow, Thomas H., and Harris, Richard W. (1979).
given by vegetation types. Description of species Inst., Univ. ofNevada, Reno, Nevada. 209 pp. Flood tolerance in plants: a state-of-the-art review. Everett, Richard L. {1980). Use of containerized shrubs
from a revegetation viewpoint. Ratings of suitability Types of plantings, methods of planting. Approx- Dept. of Env. Hort., Univ. of Calif., Davis. Tech for revegetating arid roadcuts. Reclamation Rev.
to 20 characteristics, overall evaluation, and adapta- imately 300 native and introduced species are ar- Rept. E-79-2. For: U. S. Army Corps of Eng., Water- 3:33-40.
tion to 10 habitats are given for 56 grasses, 74 forbs, ranged in lists covering ten vegetation zones. Species ways Exp. Sta., Env. Lab. , Vicksburg, Miss.
Thirteen woody species native to the eastern Sierra
and 77 woody species. Many would be useful in characteristics, adaptation to soils, exposure, Lists of flooding tolerance throughout the U. s:are foothills were established as containerized
much ofthe western U. S. Many would be good can- moisture are given . Other lists include grasses, forbs, given in some 30 tables. Over lO summary tables, by transplants on north and south exposures. Survival
didates for establishment by transplanting as well. and ornamentals for Nevada, California, and geographic areas are in the appendix. Very useful for data and cover after 3 years are given for 10 of the
Native and introduced species are included. Oregon. Excellent resource applicable to much of plant selection for wet and flooded areas. species. Eight species on south exposures and 4
P lummer, A . Perry. ( 1970) Plants for revegetation of the western U. S. Numerous literature citations. species on north exposures had more than 800Jo sur-
Williamson, Joseph F., Ed. (1979). Sunset new western
roadcuts and other disturbed or eroded areas. Inter- Thornburg, A. A. and Fuchs, S. H . (1978). Plant mater- vival for at least 2 years.
garden book. 4th Ed. Lane Pub. Co ., Menlo Park,
mountain Region Range Improvement Notes 15(1). ials and requirements for growth in dry regions. Chap. CA . 512 pp. Johnson, Albert G ., White, Donald B., Smithberg,
USDA For . Svc. lntermountain For. an d Range Exp. 23, pp 411- 423. In: Schaller, Frank W. and Sutton , Margaret H. , and Snyder, Leon C. (1971). Develop-
Sta. 8 pp. Paul, Eds. Reclamation of drastically disturbed lands. Garden encyclopedia for U. S. and adjacent parts of
ment of ground covers for highway slopes. Fina!
Native and introduced plants for the lntermountain Amer. Soc. of Agron. , Crop Sci Soc. of Amer., Soil Canada from the Rocky Mts. west. Sunset plant
Report-1971. Dept. of Hort. Sci. , Univ. of Minn. for
Region rated for 11 habitats, arctic alpine to desert ; Sci. Soc. of Amer. Madison , Wisc. climate zones (different from Rehder's and
U. S. Dept. of Trans., Fed. Highway Admin. , Minn
23 grasses, 27 forbs and 67 shrubs and trees. USDA's) given for all plants. Limited lists for
Native and introduced species of grasses, forbs, trees Highway Dept., and Minn. Local Road Res. Board.
specific micro-environments.
Plummer, A. Perry. (1976). Shrubs for the subalpine and shrubs (113) are listed. Adaptation to specific 55pp.
zone of the Wasatch Plateau. In: Zuck, R. H. and regions is covered in the text. Wyman, Donald. (1956). Groundcover plants. The Mac- Four forb and 10 shrub species are recommended, 38
Brown, L. F., Eds. Proceedings High A ltitude millan Co., N.Y . 175 pp. forb and 17 shrub species are given limited recom-
Revegetation Workshop No. 2. Colo. State Univ., Fort U. S. Army Corps of Eng. (1957). Dune formation and mendation. Severa! cultivars are also given fora few
stabilization by vegetation and plantings. Tech. Memo Groundcover plants for American gardens. A generai
Collins, Colo. species. Species are mostly non-natives. Research
No. 101. Beach Erosion Board, U. S. Army Corps of reference.
Twenty shrubs, mostly natives, rated for seed and results and cultura! information is also given.
Eng., Fort Belvior, Va. - - (1965). Trees [or American gardens. The Mac-
transplant establishment, natura! spread, growth
Prevalence and suitability for transplanting plants millan Co., New York, 502 pp. Plass, William T. (1975). An evaluation of trees and
rates and effectiveness.
shrubs for planting surface-mine spoils. USDA For.
Rehder, Alfred. (1954). Manua/ of cu/tivated trees and for eight coastal regions.
A generai reference on trees. Svc. Res. Paper NE-317 . N .E. For. Exp. Sta., Upper
shrubs hardy in North America. The Macmillan Co ., USDA Soil Cons. Svc. (1972). Environmental planting. Darby, Pa.
N.Y. 996pp. Wyman, Donald . (1969). Shrubs and vines for American
In: Minimizing Erosion in Urban Areas: Guidelines,
gardens. Rev. 2nd. Ed. TheMacmillan Co., NewYork Fifty-five species tested on acid and alkaline sites.
Authoritative, comprehensive manual (keys and Standards, and Specifications. publ. by USDA Soil
pp. Survival and growth is given by site. Many gave good
technical descriptions) of most hardy (excluding Fla. Conservation Service, Madison, Wisconsin, pp. 117-
to excellant survival. Seventeen are listed as being
and So. Calif.) woody plants grown in No. America. 143. A generai reference on shrubs and vines.
especially good. Seven references are given for other
Hardiness ratings are given for most by the originai
Grass mixtures (Tables 14 & 15), tree selection guide - - (1974). Dwarf shrubs: maintenance-free woody midwestern and eastern sites.
10 minimum temperature zones. These may be easily
by use and soils (Table 17), generai shrub and vine
converted t o the more recent USDA hardiness zones.