Roman Dacia (also Dacia Traiana "Trajan Dacia" or Dacia Felix "Fertile/Happy

Dacia") was a province of the Roman Empire from 106 to 274–275 AD. Its territory consisted of
eastern and south-eastern Transylvania, the Banat and Oltenia (regions of modern Romania). It
was from the very beginning organized as an imperial province, fitting a border area, and
remained so throughout the Roman occupation. Historians' estimates of the population of Roman
Dacia range from 650,000 to 1,200,000

The conquest of Dacia was completed by Emperor Trajan (98–117) after two major

campaigns against Decebalus Dacian Kingdom. The Romans did not occupy the entirety of the

old Dacian kingdom, as the greater part of Moldavia, together with Maramureș and Crișana, was

ruled by Free Dacians even after the Roman conquest. In 119, the Roman province was divided

into two departments: Dacia Superior (Upper Dacia) and Dacia Inferior (Lower Dacia; later

named Dacia Malvensis). In 124 (or around 158), Dacia Superior was divided into two

provinces: Dacia Apulensis and Dacia Porolissensis. During the Marcomannic Wars the military

and judicial administration was unified under the command of one governor, with another two

senators (the legati legionis) as his subordinates; the province was called tres Daciae (Three

Dacias) or simply Dacia.

The Roman authorities undertook a massive and organized colonization of Dacia. New

mines were opened and ore extraction intensified, while agriculture, stock breeding, and

commerce flourished in the province. Dacia began to supply grain not only to the military

personnel stationed in the province but also to the rest of the Balkan area. It became an urban

province, with about ten cities known, eight of which held the highest rank of colonia, though

the number of cities was fewer than in the region's other provinces. All the cities developed from

old military camps. Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, the seat of the imperial procurator (finance

officer) for all the three subdivisions, was the financial, religious, and legislative center of the
province. Apulum, where the military governor of the three subdivisions had his headquarters,

was not simply the greatest city within the province, but one of the biggest across the whole

Danubian frontier.

There were military and political threats from the beginning of Roman Dacia's existence.

Free Dacians who bordered the province were the first adversary, who, after allying themselves

with the Sarmatians, hammered the province during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. Following a

calmer period covering the reigns of Commodus through to Caracalla (180–217 AD), the

province was once again beset by invaders, this time the Carpi, a Dacian tribe in league with the

newly arrived Goths, who in time became a serious difficulty for the empire. Finding it

increasingly difficult to retain Dacia, the emperors were forced to abandon the province by the

270s, making it the first of Rome's long-term possessions to be abandoned. Dacia was devastated

by the Germanic tribes (Goths, Taifali, Bastarns) together with the Carpi in 248–250, by the

Carpi and Goths in 258 and 263, and by the Goths and Heruli in 267 and 269. Ancient sources

implied that Dacia was virtually lost during the reign of Gallienus (253–268), but they also report

that it was Aurelian (270–275) who relinquished Dacia Traiana. He evacuated his troops and

civilian administration from Dacia, and founded Dacia Aureliana with its capital at Serdica in

Lower Moesia.

The fate of the Romanized population of the former province of Dacia Traiana has

become subject of spirited controversy. One theory holds that the Latin language spoken in

ancient Dacia, where Romania was to be formed in the future, gradually turned into Romanian;

in parallel, a new people—the Romanians—were formed from the Daco-Romans (the

Romanized population of Dacia Traiana). The opposing theory argues that the Romanians

descended from the Romanized population of the Roman provinces of the Balkan Peninsula.
Dacian Kingdom and the Roman Empire
Main article: Dacia
See also: Dacian Wars (disambiguation), Burebista, and Decebalus
Dacian Kingdom around 100 AD, before the Roman conquest.

The Dacians and the Getae frequently interacted with the Romans prior to Dacia's
incorporation into the Roman Empire. However, Roman attention on the area around the lower
Danube was sharpened when Burebista (82–44 BC) unified the native tribes and began an
aggressive campaign of expansion. His kingdom extended to Pannonia in the west and reached
the Black Sea to the east, while to the south his authority extended into the Balkans.

By 74 BC, the Roman legions under Gaius Scribonius Curio reached the lower Danube
and proceeded to come into contact with the Dacians. Roman concern over the rising power and
influence of Burebista was amplified when he began to play an active part in Roman politics. His
last minute decision just before the Battle of Pharsalus to participate in the Roman Republic's
civil war by supporting Pompeymeant that once the Pompeians were dealt with, Julius Caesar
would turn his eye towards Dacia.As part of Caesar's planned Parthian campaign of 44 BC, he
planned to cross into Dacia and eliminate Burebista, thereby hopefully causing the breakup of his
kingdom. Although the planned expedition into Dacia did not happen due to Caesar's
assassination, Burebista failed to bring about any true unification of the tribes he ruled.
Following a plot which saw him assassinated, his
kingdom fractured into four distinct political entities,
later becoming five, each ruled by minor kings.

From the death of Burebista to the rise of

Decebalus, Roman forces continued to clash against the
Dacians and the Getae. Constant raiding by the tribes
into the adjacent provinces of Moesia and Pannonia caused the
local governors and the emperors to undertake a number of
punitive actions against the Dacians. Yet for all this, there
existed a measure of social, diplomatic, and political interaction
between the Roman Empire and the Dacians during much of the
late pre-Roman period. This saw the occasional granting of
favoured status to the Dacians in the manner of being
identified as amicii et socii – friends and allies – of Rome,
although by the time of Octavianus this was tied up with the
personal patronage of important Roman individuals An
example of this was seen in Octavianus's actions during his
conflict with Marcus Antonius. Seeking to obtain an ally who
could threaten Antonius's European provinces, in 35 BC Octavianus offered an alliance with the
Dacians, whereby he would marry the daughter of the Dacian King, Cotiso, and in exchange
Cotiso would wed Octavianus' daughter, Julia.

Trajan's Column (1820)

Although it is believed that the custom of providing royal hostages to the Romans may
have commenced sometime during the first half of the 1st century BC, it was certainly occurring
by Octavianus's reign and it continued to be practised during the late pre-Roman period. On the
flip side, ancient sources have attested to the presence of Roman merchants and artisans in
Dacia, while the region also served as a haven for runaway Roman slaves. This cultural and
mercantile exchange saw the gradual spread of Roman influence throughout the region, most
clearly seen in the area around the Orăştie Mountains.
Trajan receives homage from a Dacian chieftain who has betrayed Decebalus.
The arrival of the Flavian dynasty, in particular the accession of the emperor Domitian,
saw an escalation in the level of conflict along the lower and middle Danube. In approximately
84 or 85 AD the Dacians, led by King Decebalus, crossed the Danube into Moesia, wreaking
havoc and killing the Moesian governor Gaius Oppius Sabinus. Domitian responded by
reorganising Moesia into Moesia Inferior and Moesia Superior and launching a war against
Decebalus. Unable to finish the war due to troubles on the German frontier, Domitian concluded
a treaty with the Dacians that was heavily criticized at the time. Yet this episode was merely a
prelude to the emperor Trajans wars of conquest in Dacia. Trajan led the Roman legions across
the Danube, penetrating Dacia and focusing on the important area around the Orăştie Mountains.
In 102, after a series of engagements, negotiations led to a peace settlement where Decebalus
agreed to demolish his forts while allowing the presence of a Roman garrison at Sarmizegetusa
Regia (Grădiștea Muncelului, Romania) to ensure Dacian compliance with the treaty. Trajan also
ordered his engineer, Apollodorus of Damascus, to design and build a bridge across the Danube
at Drobeta.

Trajan's second Dacian campaign in 105–106 was very specific in its aim of expansion
and conquest. The offensive targeted Sarmizegetusa Regia. The Romans besieged Decebalus'
capital, which surrendered and was destroyed. The Dacian king and a handful of his followers
withdrew into the mountains, but their resistance was short-lived and Decebalus committed
suicide. Other Dacian nobles, however, were either captured or chose to surrender. One of those
who surrendered revealed the location of the Dacian royal treasury,
which was of enormous value: 500,000 pounds (226,800 kilograms)
of gold and 1,000,000 pounds (453,600 kilograms) of silver.
It is an excellent idea of yours to write about the Dacian war.
There is no subject which offers such scope and such a wealth of
original material, no subject so poetic and almost legendary although
its facts are true. You will describe new rivers set flowing over the
land, new bridges built across rivers, and camps clinging to sheer
precipices; you will tell of a king driven from his capital and finally
to death, but courageous to the end; you will record a double
triumph one the first over a nation hitherto unconquered, the other a
final victory.
— Pliny the Younger: Letters (Book VIII, Letter 4: To Caninius
Rufus)

Dacia under the Antonine and Severan emperors (106–235)

See also: List of Roman governors of Dacia Traiana

Establishment (106–117
See also: Trajan, Moesia, Free Dacians, Bastarnae, Carpi (Dacian tribe), Costoboci, and
Roxolani
Captive Dacian (Capitoline Museums)
Trajan conquered the Dacians, under King Decibalus, and made Dacia, across the
Danube in the soil of barbary, a province that in circumference had ten times 100,000 paces; but
it was lost under Imperator Gallienus, and, after Romans had been transferred from there by
Aurelian, two Dacias were made in the regions of Moesia and Dardania.
— Festus: Breviarium of the Accomplishments of the
Roman People (VIII.2)
With the annexation of Decebalus' kingdom,
Dacia was turned into Rome's newest province, only the
second such acquisition since the death of Augustus
nearly a century before. All that was left to deal with
were Decebalus Sarmatian allies to the north, requiring
a number of campaigns that did not cease until 107 at the
earliest; however, by the end of 106, the legions began erecting new Castraalong the frontiers.
Trajan returned to Rome in the middle of June 107.
Roman sources list the Dacia as an imperial
province on 11 August 106. It was governed by an
imperial legate of consular standing, supported by two
legati legionis who were in charge of each of the two
legions stationed in Dacia. The procurator Augusti was
responsible for managing the taxation of the province
and expenditure by the military. The territory conquered
by Trajan was portioned between the newly formed province and the existing provinces
bordering imperial Dacia. Moesia Inferior absorbed what eventually became South Moldavia,
Muntenia, and Eastern Oltenia, while Dacia Traiana was composed of the western portions of
Oltenia, Transylvania, and the Banat.
The provinces of the Roman Empire in 117, with Dacia highlighted.
To Roman Dacia's east and south was the province of Moesia, which the emperor
Domitian had split into two in 86 AD – Moesia Superior, having its capital at Singidunum
(modern Belgrade in Serbia), and Moesia Inferior, with Tomis as its capital (modern Constanţa,
Romania). Along Roman Dacia's exposed western border and stretching towards the vast
Pannonian Plain lived the Iazyges, a Sarmatian tribe. Northern Moldavia was the home of the
Bastarns, Roxolani, and Carpi, while the northern section of Transylvania was populated by the
remaining non-Romanized Dacians and another Dacian tribe, the Costoboci.
 Transforming Dacia into a province was a very resource-intensive process. Traditional
Roman methods were employed, including the creation of urban infrastructure such as Roman
baths, forums and temples, the establishment of Roman roads, and the creation of colonies
composed of retired soldiers. However, excluding Trajan's attempts to encourage colonists to
move into the new province, the imperial government did hardly anything to promote
resettlement from existing provinces into Dacia.
The sanctuaries in the ruined Sarmizegetusa Regia, the capital of ancient Dacia
An immediate effect of the wars leading to the Roman conquest was a decrease in the population
in the province. Critowrote that approximately 500,000 Dacians were enslaved and deported, a
portion of which were transported to Rome to participate in the gladiatorial games (or lusiones)
as part of the celebrations to mark the emperor's triumph. To compensate for the depletion of the
population, the Romans carried out a program of official colonisation, establishing urban centres
made up of both Roman citizens and non-citizens from across the empire. Nevertheless, native
Dacians remained at the periphery of the province and in rural settings, while local power elites
were encouraged to support the provincial administration, as per traditional Roman colonial
practice.
Trajan established the Dacian capital, Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, some 40 kilometers
(25 mi) west of the ruined Sarmizegetusa Regia. Initially serving as a base for the legion IV
Flavia, it soon was settled by the retired veterans who had served in the Dacian Wars, principally
the Fifth (Macedonia), Ninth (Claudia), and Fourteenth (Gemina)legions.
It is generally assumed that Trajan's reign saw the creation of the Roman road network
within imperial Dacia, with any pre-existing natural communication lines quickly converted into
paved Roman roads which were soon extended into a more extensive road network. However,
only two roads have been attested to have been created at Trajan's explicit command: one was an
arterial road that linked the military camps at Napoca and Potaissa. Epigraphic evidence on the
milliarium of Aiton indicates that this stretch of road was finished sometime during 109–110
AD. The second road was a major arterial road that passed through Apulum, and stretched from
the Black Sea in the east all the way to Pannonia Inferior in the west and presumably beyond.
Legati Augusti pro praetore under Trajan

Name From To
 Julius Sabinus 105 107/109

Decimus Terentius Scaurianus 109 110/111

Gaius Avidius Nigrinus 112 113

Quintus Baebius Macer 114 114

Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus ? 117

First re-organizations (117–138)

See also: Hadrian

Emperor Hadrian (117–138), as depicted in the Antalya Museum

Bronze coin of the Roman Emperor Hadrian commemorating his visit to Dacia.
Denomination: AE As; Composition: Bronze; Date: 117-138 AD; Obverse: HADRIANVS AVG
COS III P P, Draped bust of emperor Hadrian facing right; Reverse: Dacia seated left on rock,
holding vexillum and curved sword; right foot rests on globe; SC in left and right fields; DACIA
in exergue; Size: 27mm, 12.9g; Reference: RIC 850, Cohen 531v, BMCRE 1741
Hadrian was at Antioch in Syria when word came
through of the death of Trajan. But he was in no
position to return to Rome, as he was advised that
Quadratus Bassus, ordered by Trajan to protect the
new Dacian territories north of the Danube, had died
there while on campaign. As a result of taking several
legions and numerous auxiliary regiments with him to
Parthia, Trajan had left Dacia and the remaining
Danubian provinces below strength. The Roxolani,
angry over a Roman decision to cease the payments to which Trajan had agreed, allied
themselves with the Iazyges and both tribes revolted against Rome. Therefore, Hadrian
dispatched the armies from the east ahead of him, and departed Syria as soon as he was able.
By this time, Hadrian had grown so frustrated with the continual problems in the
territories north of the Danube that he contemplated withdrawing from Dacia. As an emergency
measure, Hadrian dismantled Apollodorus's bridge across the Danube, concerned about the threat
posed by barbarian incursions across the Olt River and a southward push between a number of
Trajan's colonia and the castrum atm Bersobis.

Roman Dacia

By 118, Hadrian himself had taken to the field against the Roxolani and the Iazyges, and
although he defeated them, he agreed to reinstate the subsidies to the Roxolani. Hadrian then
decided to abandon certain portions of Trajan's Dacian conquests. The territories annexed to
Moesia Inferior (Southern Moldavia, the south-eastern edge of the Carpathian Mountains and the
plains of Muntenia and Oltenia) were returned to the Roxolani. As a result, Moesia Inferior
reverted once again to the original boundaries it possessed prior to the acquisition of Dacia. The
portions of Moesia Inferior to the north of the Danube were split off and refashioned into a new
province called Dacia Inferior. Trajan's original province of Dacia was relabeled Dacia
Superior. It was at this time that Hadrian moved the Legio IV Flavia Felix from its base at Ulpia
Traiana Sarmizegetusa, and ordered it stationed in Moesia Superior.
By 124, an additional province called Dacia Porolissensis was created in the northern
portion of Dacia Superior, roughly located in north-western Transylvania. Since it had become
tradition since the time of Augustus that former consuls could
only govern provinces as imperial legates where more than one
legion was present, Dacia Superior was administered by a
senator of praetorian rank. This meant that the imperial legate
of Dacia Superior only had one legion under his command,
stationed at Apulum. Dacia Inferior and Dacia Porolissensis
were under the command of praesidial procurators of
ducenary rank
Hadrian vigorously exploited the opportunities for
mining in the new province. The emperors monopolized the
revenue generated from mining by leasing the operations of the
mines to members of the Equestrian order, who employed a
large number of individuals to manage the operations. In 124,
the emperor visited Napoca and made the city a municipium.

Life in Roman Dacia

Native Dacians
See also: Dacians and Daco-Roman

Captive Dacian
Evidence concerning the continued existence of a native Dacian population within
Roman Dacia is not as apparent as that of Germans, Celts, Thracians, or Illyrians in other
provinces. There is relatively poor documentation surrounding the existence of native or
indigenous Dacians in the Roman towns that were established after Dacia's incorporation into the
empire.
Although Eutropius, supported by minor references in the works of Cassius Dio and
Julian the Apostate'describes the widespread depopulation of the province after the siege of
Sarmizegetusa Regia and the suicide of king Decebalus, there are issues with this interpretation.
The remaining manuscripts of Eutropius' Breviarium ab urbe condita, which is the principal
source for the depopulation of Roman Dacia after the conquest, are not consistent. Some versions
describe the depletion of menafter the war, other variants describe the depletion of things, or
possibly resources, after Trajan's conquest. Archaeological evidence shows the continuation of
traditional Dacian burial practices; ceramic manufacturing continued throughout the Roman
period, in both the province as well as the periphery where Roman control was non-existent.
Differing interpretations can be made from the final scene on Trajan's Column, which either
depicts a Dacian emigration, accelerating the depopulation of Dacia, or Dacians going back to
their settlements after yielding to Roman authority.
While it is certain that colonists in large numbers were imported from all over the empire
to settle in Roman Dacia, this appears to be true for the newly created Roman towns only. The
lack of epigraphic evidence for native Dacian names in the towns suggests an urban–rural split
between Roman multi-ethnic urban centres and the native Dacian rural population.
On at least two occasions the Dacians rebelled against Roman authority: first in 117 AD,
which caused the return of Trajan from the east, then in 158 AD when they were put down by
Marcus Statius Priscus.

The archaeological evidence from various types of settlements, especially in the Oraștie
Mountains, demonstrates the deliberate destruction of hill forts during the annexation of Dacia,
but this does not rule out a continuity of occupation once the traumas of the initial conquest had
passed. Hamlets containing traditional Dacian architecture, such as Obreja and Noşlac, have
been dated to the 2nd century AD, implying that they arose at the same time as the Roman urban
centres.
Some settlements do show a clear continuity of occupation from pre-Roman times into
the provincial period, such as Cetea and Cicau. Archaeological evidence taken from pottery
show a continued occupation of native Dacians in these and other areas. Architectural forms
native to pre-Roman Dacia, such as the traditional sunken house and storage pits, remained
during Roman times. Such housing continued to be erected well into the Roman period, even in
settlements which clearly show an establishment after the Roman annexation, such as Obreja.
Altogether, approximately 46 sites have been noted as existing on a spot in both the La Tèneand
Roman periods.
Where archaeology attests to a continuing Dacian presence, it also shows a simultaneous
process of Romanization. Traditional Dacian pottery has been uncovered in Dacian settlements,
together with Roman-manufactured pottery incorporating local designs. The increasing
Romanization of Dacia meant that only a small number of earlier Dacian pottery styles were
retained unchanged, such as pots and the low thick-walled drinking mug that has been termed the
Dacian cup. These artifacts were usually handmade; the use of the pottery wheel was rare. In the
case of homes, the use of old Dacian techniques persisted, as did the sorts of ornaments and tools
used prior to the establishment of Roman Dacia. Archaeological evidence from burial sites has
demonstrated that the native population of Dacia was far too large to have been driven away or
wiped out in any meaningful sense. It was beyond the resources of the Romans to have
eliminated the great majority of the rural population in an area measuring some 300,000 square
kilometres. Silver jewellery uncovered in graves show that some of the burial sites are not
necessarily native Dacian in origin, but are equally likely to have belonged to the Carpi or Free
Dacians who are thought to have moved into Dacia sometime before 200 AD.
Some scholars have used the lack of civitates peregrinae in Roman Dacia, where
indigenous peoples were organised into native townships, as evidence for the Roman
depopulation of Dacia. Prior to its incorporation into the empire, Dacia was a kingdom ruled by
one king, and did not possess a regional tribal structure that could easily be turned into the
Roman civitas system as used successfully in other provinces of the empire. Dacian tribes
mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography may represent indigenous administrative structures, similar
to those from Moesia, Pannonia, Dalmatia, or Noricum.
Few local Dacians were interested in the use of epigraphs, which were a central part of
Roman cultural expression. In Dacia this causes a problem because the survival of epigraphs into
modern times is one of the ways scholars develop an understanding of the cultural and social
situation within a Roman province. Apart from members of the Dacian elite and those who
wished to attain improved social and economic positions, who largely adopted Roman names and
manners, the majority of native Dacians retained their names and their cultural distinctiveness
even with the increasing embrace of Roman cultural norms which followed their incorporation
into the Roman empire.
As per usual Roman practice, Dacian males were recruited into auxiliary units and
dispatched across the empire, from the eastern provinces to Britannia. The Vexillation Dacorum
Parthica accompanied the emperor Septimius Severus during his Parthian expedition, while the
cohort I Ulpia Dacorum was posted to Cappadocia. Others included the II Aurelia Dacorum in
Pannonia Superior, the cohort I Aelia Dacorum in Roman Britain, and the II Augusta Dacorum
milliaria in Moesia Inferior. There are a number of preserved relics originating from cohort I
Aelia Dacorum, with one inscription describing the sica, a distinctive Dacian weapon. In
inscriptions the Dacian soldiers are described as natione Dacus. These could refer to individuals
who were native Dacians, Romanized Dacians, colonists who had moved to Dacia, or their
descendants. Numerous Roman military diplomas issued for Dacian soldiers discovered after
1990 indicate that veterans preferred to return to their place of origin; per usual Roman practice,
these veterans were given Roman citizenship upon their discharge.
Colonists
See also: Roman colonies and Roman citizenship

There were varying degrees of Romanization throughout Roman Dacia. The most
Romanized segment was the region along the Danube, which was predominately under imperial
administration, albeit in a form that was partially barbarized. The population beyond this zone,
having lived with the Roman legions before their withdrawal, were substantially Romanized. The
final zone, consisting of the northern portions of Maramures, Crisana, and Moldavia, stood at the
edges of Roman Dacia. Although its people did not have Roman legions stationed among them,
they were still nominally under the control of Rome, politically, socially, and economically.
These were the areas in which resided the Carpi, often referred to as the Free Dacians.
In an attempt to fill the cities, cultivate the fields, and mine the ore, a large-scale attempt
at colonization took place with colonists coming in "from all over the Roman world".The
colonists were a heterogeneous mix:[1] of the some 3,000 names preserved in inscriptions found
by the 1990s, 74% (c. 2,200) were Latin, 14% (c. 420) were Greek, 4% (c. 120) were Illyrian,
2.3% (c. 70) were Celtic, 2% (c. 60) were Thraco-Dacian, and another 2% (c. 60)
were Semites from Syria.[156] Regardless of their place of origin, the settlers and colonists were a
physical manifestation of Roman civilisation and imperial culture, bringing with them the most
effective Romanizing mechanism: the use of Latin as the new lingua franca.
The first settlement at Sarmizegethusa was made up of Roman citizens who had retired
from the legions. Based upon the location of names scattered throughout the province, it has
been argued that, although places of origin are hardly ever noted in epigraphs, a large percentage
of colonists originated from Noricum and western Pannonia.
Specialist miners (the Pirusti tribesmen) were brought in from Dalmatia. These
Dalmatian miners were kept in sheltered communities (Vicus Pirustarum) and were under the
jurisdiction of their own tribal leadership (with individual leaders referred to as princeps).
Roman army in Dacia
Roman walls in Dacia
Sestertius minted to celebrate Dacia province and its legions
Main article: Roman army in Dacia
See also: Military of ancient Rome, Roman army, Roman legion, and Auxiliaries (Roman
military)
An estimated 50,000 troops were stationed in Dacia at its height.
At the close of Trajan's first campaign in Dacia in 102, he stationed one legion at
Sarmizegetusa Regia With the conclusion of Trajan's conquest of Dacia, he stationed at least two
legions in the new province – the Legio IV Flavia Felix positioned at Berzobis, and the Legio
XIII Gemina stationed at Apulum. It has been conjectured that there was a third legion stationed
in Dacia at the same time, the Legio I Adiutrix. However, there is no evidence to indicate when
or where it was stationed, and it is unclear whether the legion was fully present, or whether it
was only the vexillationes who were stationed in the province.
Hadrian, the subsequent emperor, shifted the fourth legion (Legio IV Flavia Felix) from
Berzobis to Singidunum in Moesia Superior, suggesting that Hadrian believed the presence of
one legion in Dacia would be sufficient to ensure the security of the province. The Marcomannic
Wars that erupted north of the Danube forced Marcus Aurelius to reverse this policy,
permanently transferring the Legio V Macedonica from
Troesmis (modern Iglița in Romania) in Moesia Inferior to
Potaissa in Dacia.
Epigraphic evidence attests to large numbers of
auxiliary units stationed throughout the Dacian provinces
during the Roman period; this has given the impression that
Roman Dacia was a strongly militarized province. Yet it
seems to have been no more highly militarized than any of the
other frontier provinces, like the Moesias, the Pannonias, and
Syria, and the number of legions stationed in Moesia and
Pannonia were not diminished after the creation of Dacia.
However, once Dacia was incorporated into the empire and the
frontier was extended northward, the central portion of the
Danube frontier between Novae and Durostorum was able to
release much-needed troops to bolster Dacia's defences.
Military documents report at least 58 auxiliary units, most
transferred into Dacia from the flanking Moesian and
Pannonian provinces, with a wide variety of forms and
functions, including numeri, cohortes milliariae, quingenariae, and alae. This does not imply
that all were positioned in Dacia at the same time, nor that they were in place throughout the
existence of Roman Dacia.

Settlements
See also: Colonia (Roman), Municipium, Vicus (Rome), and Roman villa

When considering provincial settlement patterns, the Romanized parts of Dacia were
composed of urban satus settlements, made up of coloniae, municipia, and rural settlements,
principally villas with their associated latifundia and villages (vici). The two principal towns of
Roman Dacia, Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa and Apulum, are on par with similar towns across
the western empire in terms of socio-economic and architectural maturity. The
amphitheatre at Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa
The province had about 10 Roman towns, all originating from the military camps that Trajan
constructed during his campaigns. There were two sorts of urban settlements. Of principal
importance were the coloniae, whose free-born inhabitants were almost exclusively Roman
citizens. Of secondary importance were the municipia, which were allowed a measure of judicial
and administrative independence.
 Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa was established by Trajan, was first to be given colonia
status, and was the province's only colonia deducta. Its pre-eminence was guaranteed by its
foundation charter and by its role as the administrative centre of the province, as well as its
being granted Ius Italicum.
 Apulum began as one of Trajan's legionary bases. Almost immediately, the associated
canabae legionis was established nearby, while at some point during the Trajanic period a
 civilian settlement sprang into existence along the Mureş River, approximately four
kilometres from the military encampment. The town evolved rapidly, transforming from a
vicus of Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa into a municipium during Marcus Aurelius's reign,
with the emperor Commodus elevating it to a colonia. Transformed into the capital of Dacia
Apulensis, its importance lay in being the location of the military high command for the
tripartite province. It began to rival Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa during the reign of
Septimius Severus, who allocated a part of Apulum's
canabae with municipal status.
 Drobeta was the most important town of Dacia Inferior.
Springing up in the vicinity of a stone camp housing 500
soldiers and established by Trajan to guard the northern
approaches to Trajan's Bridge, the town was elevated by
the emperor Hadrian to a municipium, holding the same
rights as an Italian town. During the middle 190s, Septimius Severus transformed the town
into a full-fledged colonia.
 Romula was possibly the capital of Dacia Malvensis. It held the rank of municipium,
possibly under the reign of Hadrian, before being elevated to colonia status by Septimius
Severus.
 Napoca was the possible location of the military high command in Dacia Porolissensis. It
was made a municipium by Hadrian, and Commodus transformed it into a colonia.
 Potaissa was the camp of the Legio V Macedonica during the Marcomannic Wars. Potaissa
saw a canabae established at the gates of the camp. Granted municipium status by Septimius
Severus, it became a colonia under Caracalla.

The reconstructed gateway of the castrum in Porolissum

 Porolissum was situated between two camps, and laid alongside a walled frontier defending
the main passageway through the Carpathian mountains. It was transformed into a
'municipium' during Septimius Severus's reign
 Dierna (Orşova, Romania), Tibiscum (Jupa, Romania), and Ampelum (Zlatna, Romania)
were important Roman towns. Although the biggest mining town in the region, Ampelum's
 legal status is unknown. Dierna was a customs station which was granted municipium status
by Septimus Severus
 Sucidava (modern Corabia, Romania) was a town located at the site of an earthwork camp.
Erected by Trajan, Sucidava was neither large enough nor important enough to be granted
municipium or colonia status. The town remained a pagus or perhaps a vicus.
It is often problematic to identify the dividing line between "Romanized" villages and those
sites that can be defined as "small towns".Therefore, categorizing sites as small towns has largely
focused on identifying sites that had some evidence of industry and trade, and not simply a basic
agricultural economic unit that would almost exclusively produce goods for its own existence.
Additional settlements along the principal route within Roman Dacia are mentioned in the
Tabula Peutingeriana. These include Brucla, Blandiana, Germisara, Petris, and Aquae. Both
Germisara and Aquae were sites where natural thermal springs were accessible, and each are still
functioning today. The locations of Brucla, Blandiana, and Petris are not known for certain. In
the case of Petris however, there is good reason to suppose it was located at Uroi in Romania. If
this were the case, it would have been a crucial site for trade, as well as being a vital component
in facilitating communication from one part of the province to another.
It is assumed that Roman Dacia possessed a large number of military vici, settlements with
connections to the entrenched military camps. This hypothesis has not been tested, as few such
sites have been surveyed in any detail. However, in the mid-Mureș valley, associated civilian
communities have been uncovered next to the auxiliary camps at Orăștioara de Sus, Cigmău,
Salinae (modern Ocna Mureș), and Micia. A small amphitheatre was discovered at Micia.
During the period of Roman occupation, the pattern of settlement in the Mureș valley
demonstrates a continual shift towards nucleated settlements when compared to the pre-Roman
Iron Age settlement pattern. In central Dacia, somewhere between 10 and 28 villages have been
identified as aggregated settlements whose primary function was agricultural. The settlement
layouts broadly fall between two principal types. The first are those constructed in a traditional
fashion, such as Radeşti, Vinţu de Jos, and Obreja. These show generally sunken houses in the
Dacian manner, with some dwellings having evolved to becoming surface timber buildings. The
second settlement layout followed Roman settlement patterns.
 The identification of villa sites within central Dacia is incomplete, as it is for the majority of
the province. There are about 30 sites identified throughout the province which appear on
published heritage lists, but this is felt to be a gross underestimation.

Economy
With the Roman army ensuring the maintenance of the Pax Romana, Roman Dacia
prospered until the Crisis of the Third Century. Dacia evolved from a simple rural society and
economy to one of material advancement comparable to other Roman provinces. There were
more coins in circulation in Roman Dacia than in the adjacent provinces.
The region's natural resources generated considerable wealth for the empire, becoming
one of the major producers of grain, particularly wheat. Linking into Rome's monetary economy,
bronze Roman coinage was eventually produced in Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa by about 250
AD (previously Dacia seems to have been supplied with coins from central mints). The
establishment of Roman roads throughout the province facilitated economic growth.
Local gold mines provided another incentive for Dacia's incorporation into the empire.
Dalmatian miners were brought in to operate the gold mines in the Bihor Mountains, adding to
the imperial coffers. At Alburnus Maior the gold mines flourished between 131 and 167 AD, but
over time they began to see diminishing returns as the local gold reserves were exploited.
Evidence points to the closure of the gold mines around the year 215 AD.
Dacia also possessed salt, iron, silver, and copper mines dating back to the period of the
Dacian kings. The region also held large quantities of building-stone materials, including schist,
sandstone, andesite, limestone, and marble.
Towns became key centres of manufacturing. Bronze casting foundries existed at
Porolissum, Romula, and Dierna; there was a brooch workshop located in Napoca, while weapon
smithies have been identified in Apulum. Glass manufacturing factories have been uncovered in
Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa and Tibiscum. Villages and rural settlements continued to
specialise in craftwork, including pottery, and sites such as Micăsasa could possess 26 kilns and
hundreds of moulds for the manufacture of local terra sigillata.

Religion
See also: Religion in ancient Rome, Imperial cult (ancient Rome), and Interpretatio Romana

Inscriptions and sculpture in Dacia reveal a wide variety in matters of religion. Deities of
the official state religion of Rome appear alongside those originating in Greece, Asia Minor, and
Western Europe; of these, 43.5% have Latin namesThe major gods of the Roman pantheon are
all represented in Dacia: Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, Venus, Apollo, Liber, Libera, and others. The
Roman god Silvanus was of unusual importance, second only to Jupiter. He was frequently
referred to in Dacia with the titles silvester and domesticus, which were also used in Pannonia.
About 20% of Dacian inscriptions refer to Eastern cults such as that of Cybele and Attis,
along with more than 274 dedications to Mithras, who was most popular among soldiers. The
cult of the Thracian Rider was imported from Thrace and Moesia. The Gallic horse goddess
Epona is attested in Dacia, as are the Matronae.

While the Dacians worshiped local divinities,[140] there is no evidence of any Dacian
deity entering the Roman pantheon of gods,[140] and there is no evidence of any Dacian deity
worshiped under a Roman name.[197] It is conjectured that the Dacians lacked
an anthropomorphic conception of deity,[192] and that the Thraco-Dacian religion and their art
was characterized by aniconism.[198] Dacian citadels dated to the reigns of Burebista and
Decebalus have yielded no statues in their sanctuaries.[192] With the destruction of the main
Dacian sacred site during Trajan's wars of conquest, no other site took its place. However, there
were other cult sites of local spiritual significance, such as Germisara, which continued to be
used during the Roman period, although religious practices at these sites were somewhat altered
by Romanization, including the application of Roman names to the local spirits.[140]

Highly Romanized urban centres brought with them Roman funerary practices, which differed
significantly from those pre-dating the Roman conquest.[199]Archaeological excavations have
uncovered funerary art principally attached to the urban centres. Such excavations have shown
that stelae were the favoured style of funerary memorial. However, other more sophisticated
memorials have also been uncovered, including aediculae, tumuli, and mausoleums. The
majority were highly decorated, with sculptured lions, medallions, and columns adorning the
structures.[200]
This appears to be an urban feature only – the minority of cemeteries excavated in rural areas
display burial sites that have been identified as Dacian, and some have been conjectured to be
attached to villa settlements, such as Deva, Sălaşu de Sus, and Cincis.[199]

Traditional Dacian funerary rites survived the Roman period and continued into the post-Roman
era,[42] during which time the first evidence of Christianity begins to appear.[192]

Emperor Antoninus Pius (138–161)

The accession of Antoninus Pius saw the arrival of an emperor who took a cautious approach to
the defense of the provinces.[61] The large amount of milestones dated to his reign demonstrates
that he was particularly concerned with ensuring that the roads were in a constant state of
repair.[62] Stamped tiles show that the amphitheater at Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, which had
been built during the earliest years of the colonia, was repaired under his rule.[63] In addition,
given the exposed position of the larger of the Roman fortifications at Porolissum (near Moigrad,
Romania), the camp was reconstructed using stone, and given sturdier walls for defensive
purposes.[64]

Following a revolt around 158, Antoninus Pius undertook another reorganization of the Dacian
provinces.[64] Dacia Porolissensis (in what is now northern Transylvania), with Porolissum as its
capital, remained as it was. Dacia Superior was renamed Dacia Apulensis (in Banat and southern
Transylvania), with Apulum as its capital,[64] while Dacia Inferior was transformed into Dacia
Malvensis (situated at Oltenia). Romulawas its capital (modern Reşca Dobrosloveni,
Romania).[65] As per Hadrian's earlier reorganization, each zone was governed by equestrian
procurators, and all were responsible to the senatorial governor in Apulensis.[64]