Personality 1.

1 Definition of Personality

LESSON - 1

DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY
1.0 Objectives
1. To learn the various definitions of personality
2. To understand personality in psychological terms

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of personality
1.3 Definition of personality
1.3.1 Personality vs. Temperament
1.3.2 Personality vs. Character
1.3.3 Personality vs. Individuality
1.4 Summary
1.5 Technical Terms
1.6 Model Questions
1.7 Reference Books

1.1 Introduction

Precivilised human beings were probably aware of what we call personality differences,
although they did not know how to explain it. Thinkers of ancient Greece such as Socrates held
that man’s primary task was to understand and govern himself, and was optimistic about man’s
capacity to do so, while Plato’s most striking formulation was his insight into dreams.
Hippocrates developed a theory to account for temperamental differences (the humors).
Greek thinkers clearly laid the foundation for a systematic development of the scientific
knowledge of personality. By the time psychology gained the status of a separate science in the
mid-19th century, three developments influenced the study of personality. They are:
1. the evolutionary theory
2. measurement of individual differences in intelligence and other psychological functions, and
3. psychopathology

Darwin’s evolutionary theory focused attention on individual differences and the

adjustment process. However, the idea that mental processes could be measured developed
rather slowly. Early psychological measurement was concerned primarily with simple
sensorimotor tasks or with complex intellectual functions which in turn led to attempts to measure
personality and its various processes. This interest in measuring personality was further fuelled
by a growing interest in psychopathology.

Thus, the idea of personality grew out of society’s experiences with individuals whose
behavior patterns deviated widely with what was accepted as normal. It is only in the recent past
that a science of personality has begun to emerge that is not focused on pathology.

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1.2 Meaning of Personality

The term personality is derived from the Latin word persona which means mask. Thus
persona meant “as one appears to others”, and not what an individual actually is.

The word “personality” is used in various senses. Most of the popular meanings of this
word can be grouped under two headings. The first kind of usage equates the term to social skill
or dexterity. In this respect, an individual’s personality is assessed by the effectiveness with which
he or she is able to elicit positive reactions from different people in a variety of situations. For
example, when we refer to someone having a personality problem, what we mean is that the
individual’s social skills are not adequate to maintain satisfactory relations with others around
him.

The second usage of “personality” considers the personality of the individual to consist of
the most outstanding impression that he or she creates in others. A person may thus be said to
have an “aggressive personality” or a “submissive personality” or a “fearful personality”. In each
instance, the observer selects the attribute or quality that is an important part of the over-all
impression created in others and the person’s personality is identified by this term. Personalities
can be either good or bad.

1.3 Definitions of Personality

Personality can be defined as an individual’s unique and relatively stable patterns of
behavior, thoughts, and emotions. People demonstrate consistency in their behavior across
different situations and over long periods of time. Most psychologists now agree that both traits
and situations are important. In other words, behavior in a given context is often a combination of
both internal, dispositional factors – factors people bring with them to that situation – and external
factors. There are many instances in which situational factors strongly influence peoples’
dispositions and their expression.

Another comprehensive definition of personality states that a personality is the product of

the dynamic and characteristic organization within the individual of psychobiological structures, or
systems and their interaction with the environment. It is these two aspects – individuality of the
structured organism and the nature of its environment – that determine the individual’s specific
adjustments to his surroundings.

By dynamic organization, psychologists mean that personality traits do not exist

independently or act in isolation. They are interrelated, interacting in an organized and coherent
manner. The psychobiological structures are the motives, habits, traits, attitudes, feelings,
values, ways of thinking and acting. The word “psychobiological” is used to indicate that
personality and its components are neither exclusively biological nor exclusively mental.
Interaction with the environment emphasizes that an individual’s personality does not merely
grow from within. It is the product of the interaction between himself as a developing organism
with psychological and biological needs, and with his environment that has nurtured, influenced,
satisfied, directed or failed to satisfy those needs.

Personality is described in terms of an individual’s behavior – his actions, words, postures,

and attitudes and opinions regarding his external world. It is also described in terms of one’s
feelings about oneself. In other words, your personality defines you as a person: how you are
different from other people and what patterns of behavior are typical of you.

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Personality 1.3 Definition of Personality

A third definition defines personality as consistent behavior patterns originating within the
individual. According to this definition, personality is consistent. It means that the person’s
behavior pattern displays some stability. Second, personality originates within the individual. This
does not mean that external sources do not influence personality, but behavior is not only
because of the situation. For example, the way different people react in fear to the same
frightening stimulus.
Gordon Allport (1937) identified more than fifty different definitions of personality and
classified them into various broad categories.
► The biosocial definition equates personality to the “social stimulus value” of the individual.
It is the reaction of other individuals to the subject that defines the subject’s personality.
► The biophysical definition states that personality has an organic side as well as a
perceived (by others) side, and may be linked to specific qualities of the individual that are
inclined to objective description and measurement.
► The omnibus or rag-bag definition of personality includes everything about the individual
and concepts considered of primary importance.
► The integrative definition places emphasis upon the organizational function of the
personality, suggesting that organization results from the personality that is an active force
within the individual.
► Many theorists focus on the function of the personality in mediating the adjustment of the
individual. Personality consists of the varied efforts at adjustment that are carried out by
the individual.
► In other definitions, personality is equated to the unique or individual aspects of behavior.
It identifies those things about the individual that are distinctive and set him or her apart
from all other persons.
► Other theorists have considered personality to represent the essence of the human
condition. These definitions suggest that personality refers to that part of the individual
that is most representative of the person, mainly because it is what he or she actually is.
No single definition of personality is acceptable to all psychologists, as personality, like
intelligence has been hard to define. But most agree that personality includes the behavior
patterns a person shows across situations or the psychological characteristics of the person that
lead to those behavior patterns. Psychologists now agree that adult personality can be described
along five major dimensions – extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism,
and openness/intellect. These five dimensions have also been considered as stable traits over a
period of time.

1.3.1 Personality vs. Temperament

It is essential to distinguish between temperament and personality. Temperament is
defined as “the individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-
regulation” that is displayed in all kinds of settings and situations. Thus, temperament is the basic
pattern which, when affected by experiences, is reflected in the personality.

1.3.2 Personality vs. Character

Personality is often confused with “character”. The two terms are not synonymous and
cannot be used interchangeably. Character implies a moral standard of personality and involves
judgment of a value.

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When used in connection with personality, character relates to behavior that is regulated
by personal effort and will. Conscience is an essential element of character. It is a pattern of
restrictive training which controls the person’s behavior, making him conform to the socially
approved patterns of the group.

1.3.3 Personality vs. Individuality

“Individuality” refers to the uniqueness of personality. Each personality pattern is unique
as it differs from other patterns in the combination and organization of traits, strength of traits and
in the very core of personality. Individuality is apparent in the structural and behavioral differences
of newborns. Individuality increases as children grow older. It is caused partly by hereditary
differences which occur due to differences in combinations of genes and partly due to
environmental factors that influence the unique hereditary potentials.

1.4 Summary
Attempts to study personality can be traced to prehistoric times.
Personality can broadly be defined as an individual’s unique and relatively stable patterns of
behavior, thoughts and emotions.
Psychologists now agree that adult personality can be described along the five major dimensions
of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness/intellect.
Further, a distinction has also been made between personality, character, individuality, and
temperament.

1.5 Technical Terms

personality unique and relatively stable patterns of individual’s behavior
including his actions, words, postures, attitudes and opinions
dynamic organization interrelated personality traits which interact in an organized and
coherent manner
temperament individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity
and self-regulation across different settings and situations.
individuality uniqueness of personality.

1.6 Model Questions

1. What is the popular understanding of the term ‘personality’? Explain with illustrations.
2. Explain Allport’s definition of personality.
3. Distinguish between “temperament”, “character” and “individuality”.

1.7 Reference Books

Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1989). Theories of personality. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1993). Introduction to psychology.
New Delhi: Tata-McGraw Hill.
Hurlock, E. B. (1986). Personality Development. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.
Burger, J. M. (1990). Personality. California: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Baughman, E. E., & Welsh, G. S. (1962). Personality: A behavioral science.
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

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Personality 2.1 Determinants of Personality

LESSON - 2

DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY

2.0 Objectives

1. To understand how personality is shaped

2. To identify the various determinants of personality

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Determinants of personality
2.2.1 Physical Determinants
2.2.2 Intellectual Determinants
2.2.3 Emotional Determinants
2.2.4 Social Determinants
2.2.5 Sex Determinants
2.2.6 Family Determinants
2.2.7 Educational Determinants
2.2.8 Achievements and Aspirations
2.3 Summary
2.4 Technical Terms
2.5 Model Questions
2.6 Reference Books

2.1 Introduction

Through the centuries, personality has been regarded as a force in determining success
or failure in life. One of the most common beliefs regarding personality is that it is inherited;
implying that neither training nor learning can influence personality. Closely related to this idea is
the belief that certain personality traits accompany physical traits. For example, the fat person is
jolly, or the person with a broad forehead is intelligent, etc.

Another widely held belief is that personality changes automatically accompany body
changes. Since the individual cannot control the physical changes of his body, it is assumed that
the personality changes which occur as a result are also beyond the individual’s control. Further,
according to traditional beliefs, the law of compensation holds good for people also. For instance,
a dry summer will be followed by heavy rains in winter. Similarly, an athletic boy is not considered
to have necessary intelligence to be academically bright.

Research, however, has negated the explanations of personality offered by these

traditional beliefs. Researchers have identified a number of determinants of personality which are
discussed below.

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2.2 Determinants of personality

2.2.1 Physical Determinants

Many of the early personality theories followed Hippocrates’ model. He emphasized

physical qualities as being the primary determinants of personality. The body is an important
personality determinant because of its direct influence on the quantity and quality of a person’s
behavior, and its indirect influence through the way the person perceives his body as a source of
self-evaluation.

Body build influences personality directly by determining what the person can and cannot
do, what his energy level will be, and his reaction to those whose body builds are superior or
inferior to his. Indirectly, body build influences personality through body cathexis, or the degree
of satisfaction the person experiences because of his body. This indirect influence is greater than
the direct influences, as the body is a symbol of the self by which others evaluate the person and
by which he evaluates himself.

The indirect influence of physical attractiveness comes from the attitudes of others
towards the person’s attractiveness or unattractiveness, and has a tremendous impact on the
personality. People like to be associated with attractive people; their treatment of an attractive
person is favorable and has a positive effect on his self-concept.

Homeostasis, or maintenance of a relatively steady internal environment, affects

personality directly through its influence on the quality of the person’s behavior and indirectly,
through the way others judge his behavior. Behavioral changes occur due to unfavorable physical
or psychological conditions that produce states of disequilibrium.

Rapid and pronounced physical changes upset homeostasis and affect personality
directly through their influence on the person’s characteristic patterns of adjustment. Indirectly,
the effect of body changes comes from the attitudes of others toward the changes and what roles
the social group will allow the individual to play as a result of his changed appearance.

The effect of body changes on personality varies according to the speed of the changes,
the timing of the changes in relation to similar changes in other members of the social group, how
much preparation the person has had for the changes, social attitudes toward the changes, the
effect of the changes on the person’s attractiveness, health, and body control, and how closely
the changes conform to his body ideal.

The direct effect of body control on personality comes from its influence on what the
person can and cannot do. The indirect effect comes from the judgments others make of him
based on the degree of control he has over his body. Awkwardness, caused by rapid body
growth, lack of opportunity to learn to coordinate the body, body build, emotional tension, etc., is
damaging to the self-concept and leads to unfavorable personal and social judgments.

The first scientific recognition of the effects of physical defects on personality comes
from Adler’s theory of organ inferiority. Current research shows that any physical defect is
damaging to the self-concept. Health conditions also affect personality directly through their
influence on what a person can do, how well he can do it, and how his appearance is affected by
his health. Indirectly, attitudes of significant people about the person’s health influence

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Personality 2.3 Determinants of Personality

personality. At all ages and among members of both sexes, good health is a personality asset
while poor health is a liability.

2.2.2 Intellectual Determinants

Intellectual capacity influences personality directly through the kind of life adjustments the
individual makes. Personality is also influenced through the judgments that others make of the
individual on the basis of his intellectual achievements. Intellectual development usually occurs
according to a general pattern, but there are marked variations in the rate of development in
individuals which give rise to adjustment problems. Variations in the rate of intellectual
development are due to factors such as physical condition, the use of the intellectual capacities,
early home experiences, emotional states, and the personality pattern.

Deviant intelligence is intelligence markedly above or below the norm, and affects
personality both directly and indirectly. Deviant intelligence directly affects the person’s
characteristic pattern of adjustment to life. Indirectly, the judgments people make of an
individual’s intelligence, influence the personality. These judgments are often colored by cultural
stereotypes, social attitudes toward people with deviant intelligence, attitudes of significant
people, the person’s awareness of others’ attitudes towards him, and his own awareness of how
greatly his deviant intelligence differs from others. Deviant intelligence affects peer relationships;
and the person’s awareness of his peers’ feelings affects his personality.

Intelligence affects adjustment in three main areas – values, morality and humor. Values
develop through direct learning and identification. Conflicting values arise due to disparities in
values learned at home, values based on social and cultural norms, and the individual’s personal
preferences and needs. Adjustments in the individual’s life are dependent on how well he can
resolve these conflicts.

Intelligence also plays an important role in moral behavior. Learning a moral code of
behavior is difficult as the person has to learn a number of other codes, has to adjust to the
inconsistencies between people’s moral codes and their behavior, and has to make changes in
moral codes as new patterns of behavior become socially acceptable. These conflicts lead to a
discrepancy in moral knowledge and moral behavior resulting in unfavorable social and self
judgments.

The influence of humor on personality was explained by Freud, who stated that humor
affects a person’s behavior, his self-concept and is used as a source of emotional catharsis.
Humor indirectly influences personality through the reactions of other people toward the person’s
expression of humor. Humor directly affects personality by making the person feel superior, by
providing release from tension and anxiety, and by helping the person to develop and accept a
realistic self-concept.

2.2.3 Emotional Determinants

Emotions color the individual’s perception of himself and his environment and affect his
behavior. Emotions can add pleasure or pain to a person’s life, and emotional experiences affect
the person’s self-concept at the time of their occurrence. The intensity and duration of an emotion
determines the effect it has on the personality.

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Emotions have both direct and indirect effects on personality. Direct effects come from
physical and mental disturbances, while indirect effects consist of reactions from members of the
social group to which the person belongs. Emotions directly affect the individual’s physical and
mental functioning and his attitudes, interests, and values. Even a mild emotion causes some
physical imbalance in the homeostasis. Severe upsets in homeostasis that are caused by strong
and persistent emotions disorganize the person’s normal pattern of behavior. If emotions are
expressed overtly, the person will experience a release of pent-up emotions. If emotion is
inhibited, the person is likely to experience functional disorders, psychosomatic disturbances,
delusions, hallucinations, and other symptoms of personality maladjustment.

With increasing age, the effects of emotions on physical well-being increase, as the
elderly person does not have channels for emotional outlet. Thus, physical disturbances caused
by intense emotions are prolonged. Mental disturbances brought about by emotional upsets result
in decreased mental efficiency as the person under stress is unstable and his performance is
inconsistent.

Frustration and anxiety have similar effects on the performance of an individual. These
emotions prevent the person from doing what he is capable of, and curb any expression of
creativity.

Another direct effect of emotions is the impact on the person’s interest, attitudes, likes and
dislikes. People who have more likes than dislikes have healthier, more positive attitudes and
make better personal and social adjustments.

The indirect effects of emotions on personality arise from the judgments others make of
the emotional behavior of the individual, the way they treat the person, and from the kind of
emotional relationship the individual has with them. People judge a person more favorably if
negative and unpleasant emotions are kept under check. The person’s ability or inability to
establish emotional relationships with others has a great impact on his personality. Social
relationships are influenced to a large extent by the emotional link between people – when two
people have similar interests, and one person’s needs are met through his relationship with the
other. Early traumatic experiences in the home and with members of the peer group can result in
the individual being unable to form close, intimate relationships in later adult life.

2.2.4 Social Determinants

Social determinants include early social experiences, social deprivation, social

acceptance, prejudice and discrimination, group status and social mobility.

Whether the person becomes social, unsocial or antisocial depends not on heredity but on
early social experiences both inside the home and outside. These early experiences provide the
individual opportunities to learn to be social. If early experiences are favorable, the individual
becomes a social person; if experiences are unfavorable, the personality may become unsocial or
antisocial.

Social deprivation deprives a person of opportunities to learn to behave in a socially

approved way. This deprivation weakens his motivation to take advantage of any learning
opportunities that may occur. Regardless of when social deprivation occurs, it affects the

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Personality 2.5 Determinants of Personality

personality in a negative manner. A serious outcome of social deprivation is that it causes the
person to be selfish and self-centered.

The degree of influence that the social group has on an individual depends not only on
how well the person is accepted but also how important social acceptance is to him. Every
degree of social acceptance affects the person’s self-concept. Irrespective of the individual’s
attitude toward social acceptance, the group places each individual in a separate category of
social acceptance, ranging from very high acceptance to very low acceptance. Most people
cluster in the average category of social acceptance by the group.

The person’s status in the group depends on his personality and factors such as
appearance, health and geographical proximity to the group. However, the effects of group
status can be perceived only when the person is aware of his status in the group. The status the
person holds in the group influences his personality directly through the satisfaction or
dissatisfaction he derives from his status and the opportunities his status provides.

Prejudice is almost always accompanied by discrimination. It is damaging to the person

who discriminates against others, as well as to the person against whom the prejudice is directed.
The negative effects are usually seen as a distortion in the person’s self-concept.

Social mobility can be horizontal or vertical, or, upward or downward. It disturbs the
regular pattern of the person’s life. Regardless of the form of social mobility, it leads to anxiety,
insecurity, and feelings of social isolation. The upwardly mobile person becomes more
conforming and status conscious than earlier, while the downwardly mobile person feels guilty
and ashamed.

2.2.5 Sex Determinants

Freud was the first person to emphasize the importance of sexuality in shaping the
personality. Researchers have now identified that sexuality by itself does not affect personality,
but has an impact only when it affects the person’s self-concept. Sexuality affects personality
both directly and indirectly. Current research indicates that the indirect influences are stronger
and more pervasive than the direct influences.

The direct effects of sexuality occur due to the sex hormones produced by the sex glands
– the gonads. The sex hormones influence the growth rate of the individual, the body formation
and the functioning and quality of behavior. When the estrogen-androgen balance is normal, the
male is masculine in appearance, while the female appears feminine. Normally, from the moment
of conception, males and females follow different patterns of development. These differences
have a profound influence on personality both directly and indirectly. Differences in behavior are
partly due to hormonal differences.

The indirect effects of sexuality are responsible for the personality differences between
the sexes found in all cultures. Indirect effects are due to cultural influences on the sex drive,
attitudes of significant people, and social conformity to sexual norms.

Cultural influences. Hormonal levels determine individual differences in the sex drive,
responsiveness to the sex drive, and sexual practices. The primary influence however, appears to
be learning experiences which shape the person’s attitudes towards sex and sexuality. These
learning experiences determine not only the pattern of behavior but also the strength of

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expression of the sex drive. Cultural practices mould the type and variety of learning that an
individual experiences. Learning is largely dependent on the culture in which it takes place. For
example, a public display of affection is accepted and endorsed in western society, while such
behavior is frowned upon in our country.

Attitudes of significant people. People’s reactions to an individual based on his/her sex

contributes significantly to how the person evaluates himself/herself. Of great importance are
parental attitudes. Parental attitudes are reflected in parental behavior. The child can sense
whether or not he was the same sex baby that his parents had hoped for. How the child’s siblings
react to him and the treatment he is meted out, also influence his self-concept. Irrespective of the
child’s correct or incorrect interpretation of parental and/or sibling behavior, these behaviors affect
his attitudes toward himself.

Social norms. Even before babyhood is over, there is lot of pressure on the child to behave in a
sex-appropriate manner. The child is forced to think of himself in the same terms as the cultural
group thinks of individuals of the same sex. In the process of shaping the personality, the cultural
group, consisting of the family, then the peer group, and finally the community at large, provide
the opportunity and encouragement to learn to behave in an appropriate manner. Opportunities to
learn behavior patterns of the opposite sex are deprived as they are considered “inappropriate”.

2.2.6 Family Determinants

The home is the person’s most important and primary environment from birth to the end of
his life. Contrary to popular belief that the role of the family in shaping personality ends with
childhood, evidence has pointed out that the influence of family is present throughout the life
span. The strong influence that family has on an individual’s personality is due to:

► The large amount of time spent in the home,

► The control that family members exert over a person’s behavior,

► The permanency of family relationships and

► The early foundations of social experiences that are laid in the family.

The direct influence of the family on personality development comes from the child-
rearing methods used to mould the personality pattern. The communication of interests,
attitudes, and values between family members also has an important role to play in the family
shaping the personality. Indirect influences are, first, the person’s identification with a family
member he admires, respects and loves, and whom he unconsciously imitates. Secondly, the
family provides a mirror-image for the individual with which he evaluates himself.

The emotional climate of the home exerts a great influence on the personalities of all the
family members. A favorable emotional climate is aided by empathy, communication between
members, respecting each others’ opinions, togetherness, and strategies for coping with
disagreements. An unfavorable home climate is caused by friction between family members,
favoritism, feelings of inadequacy about the roles they are required to play, differences of opinion,
and lack of emotional warmth between family members.

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Personality 2.7 Determinants of Personality

Order of birth of the person in his family affects personality directly because of the role
the person is expected to play. Indirectly, ordinal position affects the home climate. Size of the
family influences personality directly by determining what role the person plays, and indirectly by
the kind of home climate associated with families of different sizes. Family composition also
plays a role in shaping the personality as it provides sources for identification and imitation.
Families can be nuclear, extended or joint. Regardless of the size and composition of the family,
every member is expected to play a certain role. Roles may be traditionally prescribed. If the
person plays the role allotted to him satisfactorily, it leads to favorable judgments and
consequently, favorable self-evaluations.

2.2.7 Educational Determinants

Schools, colleges and teachers have the greatest influence on personality development
after the home and parents. Children attend school in the early years of life when the personality
pattern is being formed and spend more time in school than in any other place. Educational
institutions give children their first opportunities to assess their strengths and weaknesses, and
provide young people with opportunities to achieve their goals.

The degree to which education and educational institutes influence personality

development depends largely on the student’s attitudes toward schools and colleges, teachers,
and the value of education. There are marked variations in attitudes toward education depending
on sex of the student, child-rearing practices at home, the social class to which the child belongs,
ethnic and religious background and the student’s own adjustment to school.

Favorable attitudes toward school result in the student working up to his potential, while
unfavorable attitudes to education and school lead to under-utilization of capacities, complaining,
and truancy. If a child is physically and psychologically ready to start school or go on for further
studies, his attitude tends to be more favorable than if he is not ready either physically or
psychologically. Physical and psychological readiness determines the kind of early experiences
the student has in the school. The more favorable these early experiences are, the more
favorable the student’s attitudes, and consequently, the better his adjustment.

The emotional climate of the school is determined by the teachers’ attitude toward
teaching, students, and administrative policies. This affects the motivation of students to work
hard. Influence of emotional climate is greatest in early years when self-concept is being formed.
Student-teacher relationships also affect the student’s attitudes toward specific subjects as well
as toward education in general. As academic success is highly valued by society as an indicator
of success, the student’s achievements in school affect his personality through self and social
evaluations.

2.2.8 Achievements and Aspirations

People are judged based on their achievements in comparison with peers. Achievements
in highly valued areas are considered superior and judged favorably by the social group.
Aspirations are the ego-involved goals that a person sets for himself. The more ego-involved a
person’s aspirations, the more they relate to areas that are important to him and the greater the
influence on personality. Aspirations may be positive (to achieve success), negative (to avoid
failure), immediate (to achieve a goal in the near future), remote (achieve goal in the distant
future), realistic (within his capacity) or unrealistic (beyond person’s capacity).

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The kind of aspirations the person develops is influenced by factors such as intelligence,
sex, personal interests and values, family pressures, group expectations, cultural norms,
competition with others, past experiences, mass media and personal characteristics. The level of
aspiration also affects personality.

Achievements can be judged objectively by comparing the person’s achievements with

those of his peers, and by comparing his achievements with his level of aspiration. Many factors
are responsible for achievement: training, experience, past achievements, flexibility,
independence, risk-taking, and motivation.

Failure is damaging to personality because of unfavorable social judgments and self-

evaluations. Failure may occur due to various causes such as lack of ability, lack of adequate
training, lack of motivation, unrealistic aspirations, or realistic aspirations that are blocked by
environmental obstacles. The degree of dissatisfaction a person experiences on failure varies
according to his expectations of failure or success, appropriateness of goals, failure tolerance,
and expectations of social group. The point in time when the person experiences success of
failure also influences personality.

2.3 Summary
Various determinants have been identified as having a great impact on the shaping of the
personality.
They include physical determinants such as body build, attractiveness, physical changes,
homeostasis, and health conditions.
Intellectual development and deviant intelligence are the intellectual determinants of personality.
Emotional determinants such as emotional deprivation, emotional balance, and emotional
expression have a great influence on the personality.
Early social experiences, social deprivation, social acceptance, prejudice, discrimination, group
status and social mobility are the social determinants which affect personality development.
Sex determinants, educational determinants, family determinants and the aspirations and
achievements of the individual also play a major role in the development of the personality.

2.4 Technical Terms

determinants factors or causes that influence and shape the personality
homeostasis balance of internal states that is maintained within the body
social deprivation lack of opportunities to interact and learn in social situations

2.5 Model Questions

1. Briefly explain the physical determinants of personality.
2. How do social determinants shape the personality?
3. Explain the role of the family in personality development.

2.6 Reference Books

Hurlock, E. B. (1986). Personality Development. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.

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Personality 3.1 Personality Assessment

LESSON - 3

PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

3.0 Objectives

1. To understand the need for personality assessment.

2. To learn about the various methods of personality assessment.

Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objective Tests of Personality Assessment
3.2.1 Bell Adjustment Inventory
3.2.2 Bernreuter Personality Inventory
3.2.3 California Psychological Inventory
3.2.4 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
3.2.5 Eyesenck Personality Inventory
3.2.6 Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)
3.3 Projective Methods of Personality Assessment
3.3.1 Inkblot Techniques
3.3.1.1 The Rorschach Test
3.3.1.2 The Holtzman Inkblot Test
3.3.2 Pictorial Techniques
3.3.2.1 The Thematic Apperception Test
3.3.2.2 Rosenzweig Picture – Frustration Test
3.3.3 Verbal Techniques
3.3.3.1 Word Association Test
3.3.3.2 Sentence Completion Test
3.3.4 Performance Techniques
3.3.4.1 Drawing Techniques
3.3.4.2 Play Techniques and Toy Tests
3.4 Summary
3.5 Technical Terms
3.6 Model Questions
3.7 Reference Books
3.1 Introduction
Personality can be assessed with the help of various methods such as assessment,
interviews, observation, self-report questionnaires, and projective tests.

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How can we be sure that the modern methods of personality assessment are accurate
and true? Two standards for evaluating tests are reliability and validity. Reliability is a measure of
the stability of test scores over time. It measures the extent to which a test gives similar scores
with retesting. Validity on the other hand, is the extent to which a test measures what it was
designed to measure rather than some other dimension.

Selection of content is equally important when constructing a personality test. Four

methods have been used in selecting and developing the content of personality inventories.
These methods are content validation, criterion groups, construct validation, and factor-
analysis techniques. Regardless of the procedure employed, any scale or test must prove its
reliability and validity and must be based upon psychological concepts that will contribute to
analyses and descriptions of personalities.

3.2 Objective Tests of Personality Assessment

The objective tests of personality assessment are structured and standardized
measurement devices which are self-reporting in nature.

3.2.1 Bell Adjustment Inventory

It consists of questions intended to evaluate the subject’s status in respect to home
(satisfaction or dissatisfaction with home life); health (extent of illness); social adjustment (extent
of shyness, submissiveness, introversion); emotional adjustment (extent of depression,
nervousness); and masculinity-femininity (the extent to which the person displays typical
masculine or feminine traits). In spite of criticisms, psychologists have found the test useful in
placing the individual in a relative position with a group in specified areas of behavior. The
inventory is based on content validity.

3.2.2 Bernreuter Personality Inventory

This is a questionnaire used for students from age nine to sixteen and for adults. The
items measure six traits: neurotic tendency, self-sufficiency, intoversion-extroversion, dominance-
submission, confidence and sociability. The chief purpose of this tool is to aid in identifying
persons at the extreme ends of the scale.

3.2.3 California Psychological Inventory

Based on content validity, it is organized around the concept of life adjustment as a
balance between personal and social adjustment. It has five scales: primary, elementary,
intermediate, secondary and adult. Questions are grouped broadly under personal adjustment
and social adjustment. These two categories assist in identifying some of the principal sources of
an individual’s problems. The inventory provides an opportunity for responses that may be
symptomatic of maladjustment.

3.2.4 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

This is one of the most elaborate instruments for measuring personality. It can be
administered for persons above sixteen years of age or those who can read. The inventory
consists of 530 statements. The statements cover a wide range of areas including physical
condition, morale, and social attitudes. Separate scales measure nine categories of
hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviate, masculinity-femininity interest,

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Personality 3.3 Personality Assessment

paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, and hypomania. Social introversion has been added
which is measured from the original test items.

3.2.5 Eyesenck Personality Inventory

This self-assessment personality scale measures emotionality vs. stability, extroversion
vs. introversion, tough-mindedness, sociability, and a tendency to fake good answers. The
concept of psychotism, which is an underlying personality trait present in varying degrees in all
persons, was introduced. If it is present to a certain degree, it predisposes a person to the
development of a psychiatric disorder.

3.2.6 Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF)

The 16PF questionnaire is an objectively scorable test devised to give the most complete
coverage of personality. The test measures 16 functionally independent and psychologically
meaningful dimensions. Any item in the test contributes to the score on only one factor. In
addition to the 16 primary factors, the test measures eight secondary dimensions which are
broader traits.

3.3 Projective Methods of Personality Assessment

A projective test provides the subject with an ambiguous or unclear stimulus situation,
such as pictures, ink blots seeing which the person has to either make a story or describe his or
her perception. This gives the person an opportunity to impose upon it his or her own private
(unconscious) needs and particular interpretations. A projective test is intended to elicit
responses that will reveal the individual’s “personality structure”, feelings, values, motives,
characteristic modes of adjustment, or “complexes”. Projective tests are tests of perception and
meaning and are dependent on individual mental processes. The results of a projective test are
used to interpret and understand the personality as a whole.

3.3.1 Inkblot Techniques

3.3.1.1 The Rorschach Test
One of the most popular projective techniques is the Rorschach inkblot test, named after
the founder, Hermann Rorschach. The test consists of ten cards – five in black and white, two in
black, white and color, and three in various colors (chromatic). The subject is asked to respond to
each of the ten cards and responses are noted down. Responses are then scored for location,
determinants, color, movement, originality, and content.

The test was developed as a practical tool to be applied to clinical cases in the study of
unconscious factors in perception and meaning. It also aims at revealing dynamic factors of
behavior and personality. Rorschach based the test on the principle that the performance of a
person is an expression of his total personality, especially when the stimulus situations are
ambiguous. In responding to inkblots, the subject is generally unaware of what he reveals.

3.3.1.2 The Holtzman Inkblot Test

This technique is a variation on the original Rorschach method. It consists of two alternate
forms, each of which has 45 cards. Here, the subject is asked to give only one response to each
card, thus allowing control over the number of responses.

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3.3.2 Pictorial Techniques

3.3.2.1 The Thematic Apperception Test
Referred to as the TAT, this technique consists of pictures and a blank card. The cards
are used depending upon sex and age of the individual. The person being examined is told that
this is a test of imagination, that he/she should make up stories to suit himself and that there is no
right or wrong response. The subject is asked to tell what caused the scene in the card; give an
account of what is happening and the feelings of the characters in the picture; and to tell what the
outcome will be.

The subject’s stories are a product of his inner personality traits, and a superficial
reflection of cultural forces. The TAT has been devised to bring out the content of an individual’s
personality: the needs, drives, sentiments, conflicts, complexes and fantasies. The test is based
on the principle that when a person interprets an ambiguous situation, he is bound to reveal
aspects of his own personality which he is otherwise not aware of, and may not admit.

3.3.2.2 Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration Test

The full name of the test is “Picture-Association Study for Assessing Reactions to
Frustration”. Consisting of 24 cartoon-like pictures, the test is intended to serve as a projective
method for revealing the subject’s characteristic patterns of response to common stress-
producing situations regarded as important in normal and abnormal adjustment. The assumption
is that the subject identifies himself consciously or unconsciously with the frustrated individual in
each situation and that his replies are projections of his own ways of acting.

3.3.3 Verbal Techniques

Though all projective tests require verbal responses, some techniques are completely
verbal, using only words in both stimulus materials and responses. Some of these verbal
techniques can be administered in either oral or written form, and all are suitable for written group
administration.

3.3.3.1 Word Association Test

The word association method was used as a quick means of detecting “complexes”. Jung
devised a list of one hundred words to represent common emotional complexes. Replies to
stimulus words that are emotionally toned for the subject generally have a longer reaction time.
The best known of the word-association tests is the Kent-Rosanoff test used to differentiate
between the mentally ill and the normal. They used words which were not intended to indicate
personal emotional problems but were neutral in character. They provided evidence on the basis
of the proportion of common (normal) responses to the uncommon (abnormal).

3.3.3.2 Sentence Completion Test

These tests present the individual with a series of incomplete sentences, generally open
at the end, to be completed by the subject in one or more words. The sentence completion test is
regarded as superior to the word-association test as the subject has opportunity to respond with
more than one word, greater flexibility and variety of response is possible, and more areas of
personality and experience can be tapped. One of the most frequently used tests is The Rotter
Incomplete Sentence Blank. This test is designed to estimate the subject’s degree and areas of
maladjustment, if any exist. This type of test is most useful for identifying areas of behavioral

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Personality 3.5 Personality Assessment

problems and for providing diagnostic clues. Sentence completion tests evoke personality
materials that are closer to the level of awareness than those evoked by the Rorschach and TAT.

3.3.4 Performance Techniques

A large number of projective techniques consist of many forms of relatively free self-
expression. All these techniques have been employed as therapeutic as well as diagnostic
procedures. Through the opportunities for self-expression the individual not only reveals her or
his emotional difficulties but also relieves them. The most frequently used methods in this
category are drawing and play techniques. A majority of these methods are used primarily with
children, though they may be used with adults also.

3.3.4.1 Drawing Techniques

The Draw-a-Person Test is used with individuals above 2 years of age, and requires the
subject to “draw a person”. When the first drawing is complete, he is instructed to draw a person
of the opposite sex. The subject is then asked to tell a story about each person he has drawn.
Each drawing is analyzed for specified characteristics; and comparisons are made between the
two drawings to identify the subject’s attitudes toward himself and toward his own as well the
opposite sex. Analyses and interpretations are based on upon the hypothesis that the drawings
represent one’s conception of the body in the environment – a “body image”. Conflicting needs
and tensions are expressed through details and organization of the drawn figures.

The House-Tree-Person Projective Technique for ages five and above requires the
subject to draw a house, a tree, and a person. While the drawings are being made, the examiner
takes notes on sequence of detail, tempo, spontaneous comments and general behavior. A
planned interview, including a set of standardized questions follows the completion of the
drawings. The purpose of the interview is to provide insights into various aspects of the drawings
and having the subject describe, clarify, and interpret the drawn wholes.

The test attempts to evaluate affective tone, quality of verbalizations, drive, psychosexual
level, reactions to the environment, interpersonal relations, intrapersonal balance, major needs,
and major assets. The qualitative analysis utilizes Freudian, neo-Freudian and other concepts.
The house relates to the subject’s home and those living with him; the tree concerns his life role
and his ability to derive satisfaction from his environment; the person represents his general and
specific interpersonal relations.

3.3.4.2 Play Techniques and Toy Tests

Since play is free of the constraints of ordinary adult activity and free of those imposed by
adults on children, it is useful as a projective technique in the study of the less apparent aspects
of personality. It is unstructured, provides opportunity for fantasy and imagination, and gives
scope to individuality of expression. As a method of personality diagnosis and therapy, play is
almost solely used with children.
In the play technique, the child is introduced to a collection of toys which he/she is
permitted to use freely, while the observer notes the child’s activities with respect to the particular
items employed, how they are used, the organization or patterning of the toys, attitudes toward
each toy, vocalizations, and general behavior in the play situation. The toys include dolls
representing members of the family, furniture, water, sand, vehicles, animals, building blocks,
balloons, sticks and/or any other objects that might be relevant in a particular instance. The value

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of the test depends on the interpretation of the child’s performance and upon demonstrable
relationships between this play activity and children’s problems of adjustment.

3.4 Summary
Personality can be assessed through methods such as interviews, self-report questionnaires and
projective techniques.
The self-report inventories are more objective, while the projective tests depend on the
interpretations and ‘unconscious’ meanings people read into ambiguous stimuli.
It is important to use the appropriate test according to the requirement and the aspect of the
personality the examiner wishes to measure.

3.5 Technical Terms

projective tests tests that are unstructured and ambiguous meant to assess the unconscious
needs and perceptions of the individual
reliability the extent to which a test gives similar scores with retesting
validity the extent to which a test measures what it was designed to measure
objective tests structured and standardized measures of personality which are self-reporting
in nature.

3.6 Model Questions

1. What are the different kinds of personality tests?
2. Explain objective tests of personality assessment.
3. Briefly describe any two projective tests.

3.7 Reference Books

Anastasi, A., & Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological Testing. New Delhi: Pearson Education.
Freeman, F. S. (1965). Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co.,

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Personality 4.1 Introduction to Structure, Development & …

LESSON - 4

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURE, DEVELOPMENT &

DYNAMICS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

4.0 Objectives
1. To understand psychoanalysis as a theory of personality
2. To identify key concepts of psychoanalysis

Structure of the lesson

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Theory of personality
4.2.1 Physiological view
4.2.2 Social view
4.2.3 Psychological view
4.3. Concepts of Psychoanalysis
4.4. Summary
4.5. Technical Terms
4.6. Model Questions
4.7. Reference Books

4.1 Introduction

Psychoanalysis is a major school in psychology, largely associated with the name of the
19th century thinker and clinician, Sigmund Freud. It has a number of distinctive features to its
credit. First, it is the only major school in psychology that did not originate in academic centres of
university departments; instead its beginnings are found in the observations and practice of the
clinic. Second, it revolutionized the concept of treatment for psychological disturbances by
proposing a method of psychological treatment based on psychological concepts such as
understanding of the unconscious, instincts, free association, dream interpretation, and so on.
The history of modern psychotherapy in fact begins with the work of Sigmund Freud.

Third, psychoanalysis is both a theory of personality as well as a system of

psychotherapy. As a theory of personality, it aims at providing explanations of human behavior
and experience by revealing the underlying mental forces. As a system of psychotherapy its basic
goal is to bring to consciousness the unconscious impulses causing neurotic conflict and thereby
help the person gain greater self knowledge and self control.

Psychoanalysis is a product of the culture of late 19th century Europe. Among the specific
influences which led to the development of psychoanalysis, the foremost is Darwin’s theory of
evolution. Many of Freud’s assumptions and ideas such as the significance of development, the
process of change, the concepts of fixation and regression derive almost directly from
evolutionary thinking.

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The development of the psychological idea of association provided the broad framework
in which mental functioning could be understood. Freud’s concept of free association was based
directly on the principles of association. The growth of neurology in the 19th century also
contributed to the understanding of mental processes.

4.2 Theory of personality

The psychoanalytic theory of personality can be considered from three points of view:
physiological, social, and psychological.

4.2.1 Physiological view

Physiological structures present in an organism are referred to as instincts, drives,
instinctual drives, sexuality, psychosexuality or libido in the psychoanalytic theory. According to
Freud, the physiological drives are more important in childhood than in later life as they exert a
significant influence in the formative years. However, Freud was aware of the dichotomy present
between drive and control of the instincts – expressed in the form of defenses against anxiety,
growing from the pleasure principle to the reality principle, and as the conflict between ego and id.

4.2.2 Social view

The impact of social influences has received due importance in psychoanalysis. Society is
seen as a collection of individuals, in which the family is the core of the social structure. Every
culture has specific socialization procedures which give rise to conflicts between parents and
children over appropriate behavior. These interactions may either be gratifying or frustrating
depending on the love or hate within the family structure.

4.2.3 Psychological view

Inner psychological states begin to develop at a very early stage. These inner
psychological states manifest themselves in behavior, fantasy and life. A person may become
psychologically sick because of frustrating early experiences which become part of the inner
states. These experiences are internalized by the individual and are difficult to dislodge, making
the person inaccessible to others’ influences. Covert anxiety, which can only be inferred from a
total picture of the personality, has been given enormous importance, and studied extensively by
psychoanalytic theory.

4.3 Concepts of Psychoanalysis

The psychoanalytic theory of personality explains any human event or experience with
reference to a number of different points of view. These views are: (1) topographic, (2) genetic,
(3) dynamic, (4) economic, (5) structural, (6) interpersonal, (7) cultural, and (8) adaptive.
The topographic point of view explains the concept of the unconscious. According to
this view, a mental event can be unconscious, preconscious, or conscious. The unconscious
consists of wishes which are repressed because of anxiety. The presence of the unconscious is
felt only when these repressed wishes are expressed in the form of fantasies and dreams,
neurotic symptoms, or overt active behavior.
The genetic-developmental view is one of the fundamental bases for the understanding
of the individual. The development process is described in Freud’s psychosexual stages of
development. Sexuality is divided into three main periods: from birth to the ages of three to five,
from age five to puberty, and puberty, when sexuality reaches its adult form.

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Personality 4.3 Introduction to Structure, Development & …

The dynamic point of view understands the human psyche as an interplay between
dynamic emotional forces while the economic point of view stresses upon the quantitative factor
in mental functioning. It was originally hypothesized that mental energy could be quantified.

The structural or tripartite view sees the personality as divided into three parts – the id,
ego and superego. The id is the source of all drives, and is the reservoir of instincts. The ego is
the executive of the personality, and is the mediator between the demands of the id and the
external environment. The superego consists of moral and social values, and is the internal
representative of parents. It acts as the mediator between the individual and the environment.

The interpersonal point of view stresses on the interpersonal context of all human
activities. In the early years of a person’s life, the interpersonal context consists almost entirely of
the family, from which all later relationships develop. The essential traits of the personality
become fixed by the time the child begins to go to school, by which time the superego has
formed.

The cultural point of view has stressed upon the role that the broader culture plays in the
formation and maintenance of the personality structure. Freud revealed that the same
psychological mechanisms can be found in all cultures. Thus, it can be deduced that the same
needs exist in human beings in all cultures, but are moulded in different ways in different cultures.

The adaptive point of view focuses on the need of the human being to adapt himself to
his environment. However, psychoanalytic thought is more concerned with the individual’s ability
to adapt to other people – the interpersonal and cultural aspect of adaptation is considered the
real problem.

4.4 Summary
Psychoanalysis is both a system of psychology and a theory of personality, and offers one of the
most comprehensive explanations of the formation, structure, and dynamics of personality.
Psychoanalysis stresses on the unconscious, dynamic forces, the role of instincts, the need for
socialization, the fundamental role of the family, the developmental process, and the growth and
crystallization of the personality in inner psychological states.

4.5 Technical Terms

tripartite the structure of personality which is divided into the id, ego and
superego
topography of the mind the theory of the unconscious which states that the mind is divided into
the unconscious, preconscious, and conscious

4.6 Model Questions

1. Explain the different viewpoints of the theory of personality in psychoanalysis.
2. What are the various concepts in psychoanalysis used to explain personality?

4.7 Reference Books

Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1989). Theories of personality. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Corsini, R. (Ed.). (1973). Current Psychotherapies. Itasca: F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc.

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Personality 5.1 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

LESSON - 5

FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

5.0 Objectives
1. To learn about the psychoanalytic theory
2. To understand personality through psychoanalytic theory

Structure of lesson

5.1 Introduction
5.2 View of the individual
5.2.1 Topography of the mind
5.2.2 Structure of personality
5.3 Anxiety
5.4 Ego defense mechanisms
5.5 Psychosexual Stages of development
5.5.1 Oral Stage
5.5.2 Anal Stage
5.5.3 Phallic Stage
5.5.4 Latency Stage
5.5.5 Genital Stage
5.6 Theory of instincts
5.6.1 Life instincts
5.6.2 Death instincts
5.7 Summary
5.8 Technical Terms
5.9 Model Questions
5.10 Reference Books

5.1 Introduction

Psychoanalysis is a theory of personality that attempts to understand how the personality

is formed, how it develops, how it breaks down in sickness and how it becomes healthy. Founded
and developed by Sigmund Freud, a neurologist in Vienna in the late 19th century, the system of
psychoanalysis has been expanded and reformulated by several others such as Alfred Adler, Carl
Jung, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm and Harry Sullivan.

5.2 View of the individual

A major tenet of psychoanalysis, which Freud developed, is the principle of psychic

determinism. According to this principle, the human being is seen as an organism driven by
unconscious, innate forces. Behavior is determined by previous behavior and by the biological
drives. Freud believed that nothing happens by chance or at random and all behavior is
meaningful if the person has sufficient insight to understand it. According to Freud, the basic
personality pattern is established by the age of five.

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5.2.1 Topography of the mind

Freud evolved the concept of the unconscious and defined three constructs of the mind:
the conscious, unconscious, and preconscious. The conscious is all that we are aware of in
ourselves and in our environment. The unconscious is the bigger area consisting of events,
wishes, desires, and impulses that have been repressed or censored from the conscious mind.
These mental events are not accessible to the conscious mind. The preconscious is the censor
that acts on the memories in the unconscious. After a memory is scrutinized, it is allowed to pass
into consciousness; if not, it is repressed into the unconscious.

5.2.2 Structure of personality

According to Freud, the personality is made up of three major systems: the id, the ego and
the superego. Each of these structures has its own functions, properties, and mechanisms.
Behavior is almost always the product of an interaction between these three systems.

The id consists of all aspects that are physiological in nature and inherited – aspects that
are present at birth. It is the reservoir of psychic energy and functions to reduce tension. Its sole
purpose is to obtain pleasure, and operates on the pleasure principle. The id functions by two
processes: the primary process, present in the unconscious, which seeks to alleviate tension
immediately and the pleasure principle that makes the organism seek immediate satisfaction of
instinctual needs.

The ego evolves out of the id as the child develops. The ego operates on the reality
principle through the secondary process that develops at the conscious level of thinking. The
reality principle ensures that pleasure is obtained in accordance with the demands of reality. The
ego is said to be the executive of the personality as it decides what needs should be satisfied
and to what extent. The ego also functions to protect the self by employing appropriate defense
mechanisms.

The superego is the moral arm of the personality – it represents the ideal rather than the
real and strives for perfection rather than pleasure. The superego is our conscience and develops
as a result of the rewards and punishments given by parents. Whatever is taught as improper is
incorporated into the conscience and what is approved of is incorporated into the ego ideal
through introjection. This is the process by which parental and societal values are internalized by
the individual. The superego functions unconsciously to a large extent, and with its formation,
self-control takes over from parental control.

The main functions of the superego can be summed up as:

 to inhibit sexual or aggressive impulses of the id, as the expression of these impulses is
condemned by society,

 to persuade the ego to substitute moralistic goals for realistic ones, and,

 to strive for perfection.

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The id, ego and superego work on different principles under the administrative leadership
of the ego, and function as a whole. The id may be thought of as the biological component of
personality, the ego as the psychological and the superego as the social component.

5.3 Anxiety

Anxiety is a state of tension. The external world plays a part in shaping the personality as
it can threaten as well as satisfy. When threatened, the ego becomes anxious. The function of
anxiety is to warn the person of impending danger and signal the ego that appropriate measures
are to be taken. Freud identified three types of anxieties: reality anxiety, neurotic anxiety, and
moral anxiety. Reality anxiety is the fear of real dangers in the external world. Neurotic anxiety is
the fear that instincts will get out of control and that the individual will be punished for it. Moral
anxiety is fear of the conscience; people with well developed superegos often feel moral anxiety.
When the ego cannot cope with anxiety by rational methods it has to fall back upon unrealistic
ones called the defense mechanisms.

5.4 Ego Defense Mechanisms

When the ego is undergoing extreme anxiety, it is forced to take extreme measures called
defense mechanisms to relieve the pressure. These defenses are used to keep the unacceptable
impulses of the id out of consciousness and prevent their open expression. All defense
mechanisms have two common characteristics:
1. they deny, falsify, or distort reality, and
2. they operate unconsciously so that the person is not aware of what is taking place.
Some of the most common defense mechanisms are described below.

 Repression. Repression is the ego’s refusal to allow a forbidden id impulse or accompanying

memories, emotions, desires, or wish-fulfilling fantasies to become conscious. It is the
“forgetting” of unacceptable thoughts or impulses - unconscious forgetting. The person who is
repressing a memory is usually not aware that something is forgotten.

 Reaction Formation. It is the blocking of an impulse that the ego labels dangerous and
whose presence causes anxiety. By strengthening and emphasizing the opposite impulse,
reaction formation keeps the forbidden impulse out of awareness. This process is also
unconscious. For example, hate could appear as a reaction formation against love, if love was
viewed as a threat.

 Isolation. It is the recollection of memories of the past without the accompanying feeling or
emotion. In other words, the affect is isolated from the memory. The affect or the emotion is
repressed, but the memory of the wish or incident remains conscious. In this way, we block
frightening or painful memories of emotion from the consciousness, thereby reducing the
threat.

 Undoing. This is the attempt to “undo” an act or impulse from the id that the ego considers
dangerous, such as a hostile or sexual act. For example, a four-year-old hits his younger
sister and then hugs her to “undo” the harm.

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 Denial. When certain unpleasant or unwanted aspects of the outside world’s reality are
blocked from the consciousness, denial is in effect. Thus, a person who believes that he is a
bright, gifted student denies the external reality of his poor school grades.

 Projection. This is the act of not being aware of one’s own wish or attitude and instead,
attributing it to some other person or external object. The child who is jealous of a classmate
might explain to his friends how that particular classmate is jealous of him because of his
toys, or his school grades, etc.

 Regression. It occurs when the ego is faced with severe conflicts with the id impulses. The
ego may regress to a previous stage where the sense of equilibrium is maximized and sense
of anxiety is minimized. The points to which a person regresses are called points of fixation.

 Sublimation. This is the unconscious procedure of accepting a forbidden impulse through the
secondary process and turning it into a related, yet socially acceptable activity that gratifies
the basic impulse. It is commonly believed that many of our aggressive drives are sublimated
into acceptable sporting activities. For example, a very aggressive person might sublimate his
aggression and become a boxer. Sexual drives are sublimated into activities such as working,
seeking power, influence and money.

 Rationalization. It is the process of organizing facts, attitudes, and beliefs into an explanation
for an individual’s behavior that is believed to be far more acceptable both socially and
personally. The facts are usually distorted and organised to support the individual’s behavior
or beliefs. A student, for instance, who has failed may rationalize his failure by his belief that
the teachers were not fair in evaluation.

 Displacement. It is the purposeful and unconscious shifting from one object to another in
order to solve a conflict. Although the object is changed, the impulse and its aim remain
unchanged. For example, the individual who has been reprimanded by his boss in the office
may shout at his wife once he reaches home, displacing his anger toward his boss onto his
wife.

 Intellectualization. This is a systematic manner of thinking where the affect is removed from
the event or situation in order to defend against anxiety caused by these unacceptable
impulses. By merely thinking about them, instead of experiencing them, the person tries to
avoid the negative associations of the impulses.

Defenses have further been classified into four types according to the level of adaptation
and use. Narcissistic defenses are used by children and psychotics. Immature defenses are
used by adolescents and are seen in depression, obsessions, and compulsions. Neurotic
defenses are seen in adults under stress and can be observed in obsessive-compulsive and
hysteric persons. Mature defenses are normal adult adaptive mechanisms.

5.5 Psychosexual Stages of Development

Psychosexual stages of development are innately determined stages of sexual
development through which all individuals pass. According to Freud, the first few years of life are
decisive and extremely important for the formation of the personality. Freud introduced the
concept of infantile sexuality when he described the five stages of development: the oral, anal,

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Personality 5.5 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

phallic, latency and genital stages. These stages are not discrete; as development occurs one
stage merges with the other, producing a smooth transition.

5.5.1 Oral Stage

The oral stage occurs at birth and lasts about one and a half years. The mouth is center of
gratification. The primary sexual organ is the mouth as it seeks to suck, bite, and put objects in
the mouth as its source of pleasure. When gratification is thwarted, the person may become
fixated at the oral stage and may develop into either of two types of personality: oral
aggressiveness is shown by sarcasm and argumentativeness, and biting, chewing and
destroying; and oral eroticism where in the person will swallow almost anything, and acquires
pleasure in amassing knowledge or possessions.

5.5.2 Anal Stage

This stage extends from 1-3 years approximately, and the anus becomes the central area
of sexual tension and pleasure. The child has to learn to control the pleasure that follows from
relieving anal tension. If the parents are very strict and repressive in their methods, the child may
hold back its feces and become constipated and will develop into an obstinate and stingy
personality. If the parents plead and cajole the child, and praise it on expulsion of feces, the child
understands the importance of bowel movement and may develop into a creative and
productive adult personality.

5.5.3 Phallic Stage

In this stage of personality development, sexual interests, stimulation and excitement of
the genital area become primary. The Oedipus complex appears in this stage. The Oedipus
complex is a sexual attraction for the parent of the opposite sex and hostile feelings for the parent
of the same sex. Boys experience castration anxiety – the fear of the removal of his genital
organs – and girls experience castration complex or penis envy – she does not have something
which the boy has. The repression of the Oedipus complex causes the superego to undergo the
final development.

5.5.4 Latency Stage

The above mentioned three stages are known as the pregenital stages. The child then
goes into a prolonged latency period, or the quiet years, as there is a repression of sexual urges.
In this period, the child is more involved in same sex friendships, learning and play activities,
exploring the environment, and learning how to deal with the adult world. This is a crucial period
for developing essential skills

5.5.5 Genital Stage

The genital stage extends from the onset of puberty till the person reaches young
adulthood. The adolescent begins to love others for altruistic purposes and sexual attraction,
socialization, group activities, vocational planning, and preparations for marrying and raising a
family begin to appear. The person becomes a reality-oriented and socialized adult. The principal
biological function of the genital stage is that of reproduction.

The final organization of personality represents contributions from all stages of

development.

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5.6 Theory of Instincts

Freud classified instincts as life instincts (Eros) and death instincts (Thanatos). An
instinct is an inborn psychological representation of an internal bodily arousal. The psychological
representation is called a wish and the physiological arousal arising from it is called need.
According to Freud, these instincts represent the forces that underlie the sexual and aggressive
drives.

5.6.1 Life instincts

Hunger, thirst and sex are life instincts as they serve the purpose of individual survival.
The energy of life instincts is called libido. Life instinct refers to the tendency of particles to unite,
as in sexual reproduction.

5.6.2. Death instincts

Freud stated that “the goal of all life is death”, and defined thanatos as the tendency of
organisms and their cells to return to an inanimate state. An example of the death instinct is the
aggressive drive. Aggressiveness is self-destruction turned outward onto substitute objects. A
person fights with other people and is destructive because the death wish is blocked by the forces
of the life instincts and other obstacles in the personality.

5.7 Summary
Freud developed one of the most comprehensive theories of personality.
He mapped the mind and identified the preconscious, unconscious and the conscious.
Freud explained the structure of the personality in terms of the id, ego and superego which are
responsible for the functioning of the individual.
To deal with the anxieties of everyday life, the ego uses defense mechanisms to protect the
personality.
According to Freud, the personality is shaped by innate instincts and early childhood experiences
which occur during the psychosexual stages of development.

5.8 Technical Terms

defense mechanisms strategies used by the ego to protect the person from anxiety-
causing situations that cannot be resolved immediately.
psychosexual stages the stages of development of the personality as described by Freud

5.9 Model Questions

1. Explain Freud’s psychosexual stages of development.
2. What are the ego-defense mechanisms? Illustrate your answer with examples.

5.10 Reference Books

Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1989). Theories of Personality. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Kaplan, H. I., & Sadock, B. J. (1991). Synopsis of Psychiatry. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
Pietrofesa, J. J., Hoffman, A., & Splete, H. H. (1984). Counseling. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Corsini, R. (Ed.). (1973). Current Psychotherapies. Itasca: F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc.

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Personality 6.1 Jung’s Analytic Theory and Adler’s….

LESSON - 6

JUNG’S ANALYTIC THEORY

AND
ADLER’S SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY

6.0 Objectives
1. To understand Jung’s explanation of personality
2. To understand the structure of personality according to Adler

Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Structure of personality
6.2.1 The Ego
6.2.2 The Personal Unconscious
6.2.3 The Collective Unconscious
6.2.4 Introversion - Extraversion
6.3 Development of personality
6.3.1 Causality vs. Teleology
6.3.2 Progression and Regression
6.3.3 The Individuation Process
6.4 Adler’s individual psychology
6.5 Striving for superiority
6.6 Inferiority feelings and compensation
6.7 Social interest
6.8 Style of life
6.9 Creative self
6.10 Summary
6.11 Technical Terms
6.12 Model Questions
6.13 Reference Books

6.1 Introduction

Carl Jung’s psychoanalytic school, known as analytical psychology, includes basic

ideas related to Freud’s theories. He expanded on Freud’s concept of the unconscious by
describing the collective unconscious as consisting of all humankind’s common and shared
mythological and symbolic past. Jung felt that modern humans have been shaped and moulded
into their present form by the cumulative experiences of past generations. An individual’s

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personality is a resultant of inner forces acting upon outer forces and outer forces acting on inner
forces.

6.2 Structure of Personality

Jung described the total personality or psyche as consisting of a number of different but
interacting systems. The main systems are the ego, the personal unconscious, and its
complexes, the collective unconscious and its archetypes, the persona, the anima and animus
and the shadow.

6.2.1 The Ego

The ego is the conscious mind. It is made up of conscious perceptions, memories,

thoughts, and feelings. The ego is responsible for one’s feeling of identity and continuity, and
from the individual’s viewpoint, is considered as being at the centre of consciousness.

6.2.2 The Personal Unconscious

The personal unconscious consists of experiences that were conscious at one time, but
have been repressed, suppressed, forgotten or ignored. It also consists of the experiences that
were too weak to make an impact on the conscious person. The contents of the personal
unconscious are accessible to consciousness, and there is a lot of interaction between the ego
and the personal unconscious.

Complexes. A complex is an organized group of feelings, thoughts, perceptions and memories

that exist in the personal unconscious. The mother complex, for example, consists of ideas,
feelings, and memories related to the mother. Thus, an individual whose personality is dominated
by the mother is said to have a strong mother complex.

6.2.3 The Collective Unconscious

It is the most powerful and influential system of the psyche (personality) and has the
ability to overshadow the ego and the personal unconscious. The collective unconscious is made
up of latent memory traces inherited from one’s ancestral past. This unconscious is the remainder
of human evolutionary development that has accumulated over many generations. It is universal
in nature and is detached from anything personal. All human beings have more or less the same
collective unconscious.

Archetypes. The structural component of the collective unconscious, an archetype is a universal

idea that contains a large element of emotion. Archetypes are the images that predispose us to
perceive the external world in certain ways. For example, the archetype of mother produces an
image of a mother figure that is then identified with the actual mother. The baby’s experience is
the joint product of an inner predisposition to perceive the world in a certain manner and the
actual nature of the world. Some of the archetypes we have in our collective unconscious are
birth, power, death, magic, hero, child, God, etc. Some of the important archetypes are:

 The Persona. This is a mask adopted by the person in response to the demands of social
convention and tradition and to his or her own inner needs. It is the role assigned by

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society and often conceals the real nature of the person. The persona is the public
personality which the world sees, while the private personality exists behind the mask.

 The Anima and Animus. Animus is the masculine side of females and anima is the
feminine side of males. These archetypes are the products of racial experiences of man
living with woman and vice-versa.

 The Shadow. This archetype consists of the animal instincts that humans inherited in their
evolution from lower forms of life. The shadow represents the animal side of human
nature and is responsible for the unpleasant and socially unacceptable thoughts, feelings,
and actions in our consciousness and behavior.

 The self. It is the mid-point of personality and all systems are built around it. The self
provides the personality with unity, equilibrium and stability. The self is the goal that
people constantly strive for, but cannot reach. It motivates human behavior and becomes
evident only when a person has reached middle age.

6.2.4 Introversion-Extraversion

Jung also suggested that we are all born with innate tendencies to be concerned mostly
with ourselves or with the outside world. The extravert is oriented toward the external, objective
world and is open, confident and takes part in many activities. The introverted person is oriented
toward the inner, subjective world and is hesitant, cautious and prefers to observe the world than
get involved.

6.3 Development of Personality

Jung emphasized on the forward going character of personality development - humans

are constantly progressing or attempting to progress from a less complete stage of development
to a more complete one. What is the goal of development? In Jung’s theory, the ultimate goal is
self-realization or individuation. Self-realization is the blending of all aspects of a human’s total
personality. It means that the psyche has evolved into the self in place of the ego.

6.3.1 Causality vs. Teleology

The idea that a goal guides and directs human destiny is the basis of the teleological
viewpoint. According to this viewpoint, human personality can be explained in terms of where it is
going, not where it has been. It explains the present in terms of the future. On the other hand, the
present may be explained by the past. This is the viewpoint of causality which holds that present
events are the consequences or effects of antecedent conditions or causes. A look into the
person’s past will account for his or her present behavior.

Jung believed that both standpoints are necessary for a complete understanding of
personality. The present is not only determined by the past (causality) but it is also determined by
the future (teleology). When the two views are combined, we get a complete picture of the
person.

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6.3.2 Progression and Regression

Development may follow either a progressive forward movement or a regressive,

backward movement. By progression, Jung meant the satisfactory adjustment of the conscious
ego to the demands of both external environment and the needs of the unconscious. When this
progression is thwarted by a frustrating circumstance, the libido is unable to handle the
environment, as a result of which, it regresses into the unconscious and indulges in introverted
values. The ego loses its objectivity and becomes subjective.

However, regression does not necessarily have a permanently bad effect on adjustment.
It may help the ego to find a way around the obstacle and move forward again. For example, a
young adult, living on his own may face a problem which he is unable to handle by himself.
Though he has left his parents, he will still turn to them for help and advise, or rather the parental
images in his unconscious.

6.3.3 The Individuation Process

The central feature of Jung’s psychology is that personality has a tendency to develop in
the direction of a stable unity. The ultimate goal of development is the realization of selfhood. In
order to realize this aim it is necessary for all the various systems of personality to be fully
developed. A neglected part will offer resistance and sap energy from other developed systems. If
too many resistances develop, the person becomes neurotic. This usually happens when
archetypes are not allowed to express themselves through the conscious ego, as the persona
has smothered the personality.

To have a healthy integrated personality, every system must be allowed to reach the
fullest degree of differentiation, development and expression. This is known as the individuation
process.

6.4 Adler’s Individual Psychology

Alfred Adler expanded on Freud’s theories and formed Individual Psychology. Opposing
both Freud’s assumption of inborn instincts, and Jung’s inborn archetypes as the factors
motivating behavior, Adler suggested that humans are motivated primarily by social urges.
According to him humans are inherently social beings.

His second major contribution was his concept of the creative self. This self is a highly
personalized, subjective system that interprets and makes the experiences of the organism
meaningful. Thirdly, Adler considered the personality to be unique. Each person is a unique
configuration of motives, traits, interests, and values; and each act of the individual has a
distinctive style. Lastly, Adler considered consciousness to be the centre of the personality, and
considered that humans are conscious and aware of their behavior.

Adler’s theory of personality consists of the following concepts: striving for superiority,
inferiority feelings and compensation, social interest, style of life and the creative self.

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6.5 Striving for superiority

Superiority denotes a striving for perfect completion. This striving is innate, and is part of
life. This striving for superiority carries the person from one stage of development to the other
right from birth to death. Each person has his or her own way of achieving or trying to achieve
perfection. Adler identified power with masculinity and weakness with femininity. In line with this
suggestion, he spoke of “masculine protest”, a form of overcompensation that both men and
women indulge in when they feel inadequate and inferior. Superiority in this context does not
mean social distinction, leadership, or an eminent position in society. What causes these various
modes of striving to come into the individual?

6.6 Inferiority Feelings and Compensation

According to Adler, the causes of the striving for superiority can be traced to inferiority
feelings and compensation. Adler observed that a person with a defective organ tries to
compensate for the weakness by strengthening it through intensive training. He explained that
feeling of inferiority arise from a sense of incompletion or imperfection in any sphere of life. Adler
was of the opinion that inferiority feelings are not a sign of abnormality, but are the cause of all
improvement in mankind. In other words, human beings are pushed by the need to overcome
their inferiority and pulled by the desire to be superior. Perfection, not pleasure, was the goal of
life.

6.7 Social Interest

Adler believed that social interest is inborn; that humans are social creatures by nature,
not by habit. However, social interest can be brought to a culmination only with training and
guidance. By definition, social interest consists of the individual helping society to attain the goal
of a perfect society. The person is embedded in a social context from the first day of life, and is
continuously involved in a network of interpersonal relations that shape the personality and
provide outlets for striving for superiority. Striving for superiority becomes socialized, and by
working for the common good, humans compensate for their individual weakness.

6.8 Style of Life

Style of life is the principle by which the individual personality functions; it is the principle
that explains the uniqueness of the person. Everyone has a style of life, but no two people
develop the same style. Style of life is formed very early in childhood, and experiences are taken
in according to this unique style of life. What determines an individual’s style of life? Style of life is
a compensation for a particular inferiority; the dull child will strive for intellectual superiority. For
example, Napolean’s conquering style of life was determined by his slight physical build. Adler
however, was not satisfied with this concept, and came up with the concept of creative self.

6.9 The Creative Self

The theory of creative self asserts that humans make their own personalities. They
construct them out of the raw material of heredity and experience. The creative self is the catalyst
which transforms raw data into a personality that is subjective, dynamic, unified, personal, and
uniquely stylized. The creative self gives meaning to life and is the goal as well as the means to
the goal. It is the active principle of human life, and is unlike the soul.

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6.10 Summary
Jung expanded on Freud’s concept of the unconscious and described the collective unconscious
as consisting of all mankind’s common, mythological past.
This collective unconscious includes archetypes which give rise to complexes.
Jung also identified introversion and extroversion as two types of personality organization.
The persona is the mask covering the personality, and anima and animus are unconscious traits
possessed by men and women.
The ultimate goal is to achieve individuation, and this process continues throughout life.
Adler’s theory of personality known as individual psychology is an outgrowth of Freudian
psychoanalysis.
He believed that human beings are motivated basically by social urges. Another driving force of
human behavior is striving for superiority.
According to Adler, people are pulled by the desire to be superior, and pushed by their need to
overcome inferiority.
Adler also expounded the concept of the creative self, which, he stated, gives meaning to life.
6.11 Technical Terms
collective unconscious a shared, common mythological and historical past of all human beings
archetypes representative images that have universal symbolic meanings
organ inferiority any defect in the bodily structure of an individual which can hinder
development of self-esteem
inferiority complex a sense of weakness and inadequacy that everyone is born with
creative self the ability to give meaning and organize personality out of heredity and
learning
6.12 Model Questions
1. Explain the structure of the personality as described by Jung.
2. What is the main focus of Adler’s theory?
3. Explain inferiority complex.

6.13 Reference Books

Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1989). Theories of Personality. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Baron, R. A. (1999). Psychology. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India.
Kaplan, H. I., & Sadock, B. J. (1991). Synopsis of Psychiatry. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

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Personality 7.1 Erikson’s Contemporary Psychoanalytic Theory

LESSON - 7

ERIKSON’S CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

7.0 Objectives
1. To understand Erikson’s psychosexual stages of development of the personality
2. To understand his concept of the creative ego

Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The psychosocial stages of development
7.3 Conception of the Ego
7.4 Summary
7.5 Technical Terms
7.6 Model Questions
7.7 Reference Books

7.1 Introduction

Erik Erikson’s most significant contribution is his formulation of the psychosocial theory of
development from which he expanded the conception of the ego. Erikson’s view of psychosocial
development brings together a number of important ideas for the understanding of personality
growth. Building on Freud’s psychosexual stages, Erikson added ego development (role of
sensorimotor and cognitive capacities), and interpersonal interactions. Thus, he combined the
concepts of dynamic motivation, ego functioning and social behavior into a single model of
personality development.

7.2 The Psychosocial Theory of Development

Development proceeds in eight stages according to Erikson. The first four stages occur
during infancy and childhood, the fifth stage during adolescence, and the last three stages during
the adult years up to and including old age. Erikson places particular emphasis on the adolescent
period as it is the transition stage between childhood and adulthood.

Erikson felt that each child has its own timetable, and thus, it is very difficult to frame a
strict chronological schedule. Further, each stage is not passed through, and left behind. Each
stage contributes to the formation of the total personality. At each stage, the maturing person
faces new and important encounters with his world (developmental tasks) in which his growing
abilities are tested. The resolution of each task provides a base for further growth; unsolved
developmental crises block further development and may lead to neurotic residuals in the later
character structure.

Erikson also describes ritualizations that are peculiar to each stage. By this he means a
playful, yet culturally determined way of doing or experiencing something in the daily interplay of

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individuals. The basic purpose of these ritualizations is to turn the maturing individual into an
effective and familiar member of the community.

I. Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust

The earliest trust is established during the oral-sensory stage and is demonstrated by the
infant by its capacity to sleep peacefully, take nourishment, and excrete. The infant becomes
more familiar with the environment and experiences a sense of feeling good. It identifies
situations of comfort and the people associated with this comfort. Because of the infant’s trust
and familiarity with the mother, it achieves an inner certainty and trust that the mother will be
always be around. This is the initial social achievement of the infant. Daily routines, consistency,
and continuity in the infant’s environment provide the earliest basis for a sense of psychosocial
identity.

Through continuous experiences with adults, the infant learns to rely on them and trust
them; more importantly, it learns to trust itself. This trust must outbalance the negative aspect of
trust – mistrust, which is essential for human development.

The proper ratio of trust and mistrust gives rise to the virtue of hope. The foundation for
hope depends on the infant’s initial relations with trustworthy parents who are responsive to its
needs, who provide nourishment, tranquility and warmth. With each experience, the infant’s hope
is reinforced and receives inspiration for new hopefulness. The infant also develops the capacity
to abandon disappointed hopes and learns what hopes are within the realm of possibility.

II. Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt

During the second stage of life, the anal-muscular stage, the child learns what is expected
of it, what its obligations and privileges are and what are the limitations placed on it. The child’s
striving for new and activity-oriented experiences places a dual demand on it: the demand for
self-control, and the demand for acceptance of control from others in the environment. In order to
control the child’s willfulness, adults use shame on the child as a deterrent, at the same time, they
also encourage the child to develop a sense of autonomy and to stand on its own feet. While
exercising control, adults must be reassuring. Excessive shamefulness will cause the child to
become shameless, or force it to get away with being secretive, sneaky, and sly.

This is the stage that promotes freedom of self-expression and lovingness. A sense of
self-control acquired in this stage provides the child with a lasting feeling of good will and pride. A
sense of loss of control, on the other hand, can cause a lasting feeling of shame and doubt.

The virtue of will emerges during this second stage of life. The child learns from itself and
from others what is expected and what is acceptable. Will is responsible for the child’s gradual
acceptance of lawfulness. Will is the ever-increasing strength to make free choices, to decide, to
exercise self-restraint, and to apply oneself.

III. Initiative vs. Guilt

The third psychosocial stage of life is that of initiative – a stage of expanding mastery and
responsibility. During this stage, the child is more advanced and more “together” both physically
and mentally. Initiative combines with autonomy to give the child the quality of pursuing, planning

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and determination of achieving tasks and goals. The danger of this stage is the feeling of guilt
that may haunt the child for being over ambitious in goal-setting, for using manipulative,
aggressive means to achieve these goals, and for indulging in genital fantasies. The child is
eager to learn, and learns rapidly at this stage. It strives to grow in the sense of obligations and
performances.

Purpose is the virtue that develops during this developmental stage. The child’s major
activity at this stage is playing, and a sense of purpose results from playing, exploring, and the
child’s various attempts and failures. Imaginative and uninhibited play is vitally important to the
child’s development.

IV. Industry vs. Inferiority

During the fourth stage of development, the child must control its exuberance and
imagination and learn formal education. It develops a sense of industry and learns the rewards of
perseverance and diligence. The interest in toys and play is gradually replaced by an interest in
productive situations and implements and tools used for work. The child may develop a sense of
inferiority or is made to feel inferior if it is unable to master the tasks which it undertakes or which
are set for it by teachers and parents.

The virtue of competence emerges during the industry stage. Virtues of the previous
stages provided the child with a view of future tasks. However, now the child develops sufficient
intelligence and capacities for work, and is eager to apply this to work. A sense of competence is
achieved by applying oneself to work and to completing tasks, which eventually develops
workmanship, without which the child will feel inferior. It is during this stage that the child is eager
to learn the techniques of productivity.

V. Identity vs. Identity Confusion

During adolescence, the individual begins to sense a feeling of his or her own identity – a
feeling that one is a unique human being and yet ready to fit into some meaningful role in society,
whether or not this role is adjusting or innovative. The person becomes aware of individual
characteristics such as likes and dislikes, goals of the future, and strength and purpose to control
one’s own destiny. This is the time of life when a person wishes to define what he or she is at
present and what they want to be in the future. This is the time for making vocational plans.

The activating agent in identity formation is the ego in its conscious and unconscious
aspects. At this stage, the ego has the capacity to select and integrate talents, aptitudes, and
skills in identification with like-minded people and in adaptation to the social environment, and to
maintain its defenses against threats and anxiety, as it learns to decide what impulses, needs,
and roles are most appropriate and effective. All these characteristics are assembled and
integrated by the ego to form one’s psychosocial identity.

Because of the difficult transition from childhood to adulthood, the adolescent during the
stage of identity formation, is likely to suffer more deeply than ever before or ever again from a
confusion of roles, or identity confusion. This state can cause the adolescent to feel isolated,
empty, anxious, and indecisive. The adolescent feels he or she must make important decisions,
but is unable to do so. They feel that society is pushing them toward making decisions, and are

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deeply concerned about how others view them. They usually display a lot of self-consciousness
and embarrassment.

During identity confusion, the adolescent may feel he is regressing rather than
progressing. His behavior is inconsistent and unpredictable during this chaotic state. The term
identity crisis refers to the necessity to resolve the transitory failure to form a stable identity, or a
confusion of roles

At this adolescent age the virtue of fidelity develops. Although the adolescent is sexually
mature and a responsible person in many ways, he or she is not yet adequately prepared to
become a parent. The conflict here is that the adolescent is expected to fashion his behavior in
the adult pattern of life, and on the other hand, must deny him- or herself the sexual freedom of
an adult. There is a constant swing in behavior from impulsive, thoughtless, and sporadic actions
to a compulsive restraint. The youth seeks an inner knowledge and understanding of him- or
herself and attempts to formulate a set of values. The particular set of values that emerges is
what Erikson calls fidelity. Fidelity is the foundation upon which a continuous sense of identity is
formed.

VI. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults at this stage in the development process are prepared and willing to unite
their identities with others. They seek relationships of intimacy, partnerships and affiliations, and
are prepared to develop the necessary strengths to fulfill these commitments despite the
sacrifices they may have to make. For the first time in their life, youth can develop true sexual
relations with a loved partner. For a sexual relationship to be of lasting social significance it
requires someone to love and to have sexual relations with, and with whom one share in a
trusting relationship. The hazard of the intimacy stage is isolation, which is the avoidance of
relationships because one is unwilling to commit to intimacy.

The virtue of love comes into being during the intimacy stage of development. Although
love is apparent in the earlier stages, the development of true intimacy transpires only after the
age of adolescence. Although a person’s individual identity is maintained in a joint intimacy
relationship, the person’s ego strength is dependent upon the partner who is prepared to share in
the rearing of children, productivity, and the ideology of the relationship.

VII. Generativity vs. Stagnation

The stage of generativity is characterized by the concern with what is generated –

progeny, products, ideas, and so on – and the establishment and setting forth of guidelines for
up-coming generations. This transmission of social values is a necessity for both the
psychosexual and psychosocial aspects of personality enrichment. When generativity is weak or
not given expression, the personality regresses and takes on a sense of impoverishment and
stagnation.

The virtue of care develops during this stage. Care is expressed by one’s concern for
others, by wanting to take care of those who need it and to share one’s knowledge and
experience with them. This is accomplished through childrearing and teaching, demonstrating,
and supervising. Caring and teaching are responsible for the survival of cultures, through the

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Personality 7.5 Erikson’s Contemporary Psychoanalytic Theory

reiteration of their customs, rituals, and legends. A multitude of experience and knowledge which
is accumulated is passed on to others.

VIII. Integrity vs. Despair

The last stage of the developmental process is called integrity. It can best be described as
a state one which reaches after having taken care of things and people, products and ideas, and
having adapted to the successes and failures of existence. Through such accomplishments,
individuals perceive that their life has some order and meaning within a larger framework.

The opposing concept to integrity is despair over the vicissitudes of the individual life
cycle, as well as over social and historical conditions and the futileness of existence in the face of
death. This can increase the feeling that life is meaningless, that the end is near, a fear of, and a
wish for death.

Wisdom is the virtue which develops out of the integrity and despair in the last stage of
life. Both physical and mental activity slows down at this stage in life, and simple wisdom
maintains and conveys the integrity of accumulated experience. Those in the stage of wisdom
can represent to younger generations a style of life characterized by wholeness and
completeness. This feeling of wholeness can counteract the feeling of despair and disgust. This
sense of wholeness also alleviates the feeling of helplessness and dependence that marks the
very end of life.

7.3 Conception of the Ego

The concept of a defensive ego as conceived by Freud was later modified by succeeding
psychoanalysts to include adaptive and integrative functions. The kind of ego that Erikson
described may be called the creative ego. The ego can, and does find creative solutions to the
new problems that confront it in every stage of life. It uses a combination of inner readiness and
outer opportunities. When thwarted, the ego reacts with renewed energy rather than giving up.
Erikson felt that the power of recovery is inherent in the ego. The ego usually is the master of the
id, the external world and the superego.

While being completely aware of the vulnerability of the ego, the defenses it erects, and
the consequences of trauma, anxiety and guilt, Erikson noted that the ego is capable of dealing
effectively with problems. Erikson’s conception of the ego is a very socialized and historical one.
In addition to the genetic, physiological and anatomical factors that help to determine the nature
of the individual’s ego, there are also important cultural and historical influences.

Erikson also spoke of the dimensions an ego identity might take. He felt that an identity
must be anchored in three aspects of reality:

 Factuality – a universe of facts, data and techniques that can be verified with
observational methods and work techniques at that time.

 Sense of reality – also called universality as it combines the practical and concrete in a
visionary world image.

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 Actuality – a new way of relating to each other, activating and invigorating each other in
the service of common goals.

Erikson also added a fourth dimension, luck or chance. He summed up the ego identity by
claiming that it would bring into existence a new world image in which a wider sense of common
identity would gradually overcome the false beliefs that cause prejudice, discrimination, hate,
crime, war, poverty, and enslavement.

7.4 Summary
Although he accepted Freud’s theory of infantile sexuality, Erikson also emphasized on
developmental potentials at all stages of life.
He constructed a model of the life cycle consisting of the eight psychosocial stages of
development to explain how personality develops throughout the life span.
At each stage of the life span, the individual faces some conflict or maturational crisis which he
either learns to resolve or does not learn the virtue of that stage.
Erikson’s stages of development extend into adulthood and old age.

7.5 Technical Terms

creative ego a modification of Freud’s defensive ego which can find creative solutions to
problems
identity confusion a confusion of roles during the transition from childhood to adulthood
generativity generation of ideas, concepts, etc. during the seventh stage of development,
i.e. late adulthood

7.6 Model Questions

1. What are the stages of development as proposed by Erikson?
2. Compare and contrast Freud’s psychosexual stages of development with Erikson’s
psychosocial stages of development.
3. Critically evaluate Erikson’s theory.

7.7 Reference Books

Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1989). Theories of Personality. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Baron, R.A. (1999). Psychology. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India.
Kaplan, H. I., & Sadock, B. J. (1991). Synopsis of Psychiatry. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

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Personality 8.1 Type and Trait Approach

LESSON - 8

TYPE AND TRAIT APPROACH

8.0. Objectives

1. To learn about Sheldon’s typology of personality.

2. To understand the trait theory as put forth by Cattell.

Structure
8.1 Sheldon’s Type Theory
8.2 Cattell’s Trait Theory
8.3 Summary
8.4 Technical Terms
8.5 Model Questions
8.6 Reference Books

8.1. Sheldon’s Type theory

The type approach has mainly evolved out of the medical sciences. It makes the following
assumptions.

a. People can be classified into a few categories or types depending on their behaviour
patterns.

b. These types or categories are qualitatively different from each other.

c. The behavioural variations among the different types are stable, describable and even
measurable.

d. It is possible to relate these behavioural types to constitutional and body characteristics.

Sheldon set out with the intention of establishing a relationship between body type and
psychological or temperamental types. The human body consists of three layers, the ectoderm,
the mesoderm and the endoderm. The ectoderm is the base for the nervous system, the
endoderm for the internal organs like the stomach, intestine, etc., and the mesoderm for the
muscles. These three layers do not develop equally. In each person one of these develops more
than the others. Sheldon started with the idea that people could be classified into body or
physique types on the basis of the relative prominence of these three types. He devised ways of
making elaborate measurements of these layers. The development of each layer was graded on
a seven-point scale, ranging from relatively low development to a very high development. Thus,
each individual is assigned a score on each layer ranging from 1 to 7. For example, a person
getting a score of 6-4-3 has a relatively more prominent ectoderm development compared to the
other two layers. Similarly, there are others with prominent endodermic or mesodermic
development. Sheldon classified people into three body types – ectomorphic where the ectoderm

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has developed, mesomorphic where the mesoderm has developed more than the other two, and
endomorphic where the endoderm development is maximum.

Proceeding further, Sheldon showed that there is a relationship between such body types
and temperamental types. According to him an ectomorphic individual tends to be cerebrotonic
in temperament. Cerebrotonics are characterized by greater nervous and cerebral activities and
are given to activities like thinking, reading, etc, The endomorphic physique was associated with
a viscerotonic temperament likely to be more interested in visceral activities like eating and
drinking. Lastly, the mesomorphic physique is associated with the somatotonic temperament,
being more given to muscular activity. Of course, the above types are not distinct and qualitatively
different categories but are distinguishable quantitative variations. Sheldon and his associates
went further to study the relationship between such body types and different types of delinquent
behaviour.

8.2. Cattell’s Trait theory

Personality is defined as that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given
situation. Cattell has formulated his definition as R = f (s.p), which reads, R, the nature and
magnitude of a response, is a function, f, of both environmental situations in which the individual
finds himself, s, and his personality, p.

According to Cattell, Traits are characterological or relatively permanent feature of

personality. Traits are inferred from the individual’s behaviour and are of two fundamental kinds:
surface traits and source traits. Surface traits are revealed by correlating trait elements or trait
indicators, which are essentially behaviour samples that go together. For example, tests or
ratings of independence, boldness, alertness, enthusiasm, and energy level tend when correlated
to form a cluster reveal the existence of a surface trait of energy, boldness, and spiritedness.

By means of such correlation techniques, Cattell found that the hundreds of traits used
to describe and measure personality could be reduced to between fifty and sixty nuclear clusters.
Traits are described as bi-polar opposites. The assumption is that traits are normally distributed in
a continuous manner, with a few individuals showing extreme degrees of the trait and with most
people falling in the middle or median range.

Source traits represent deeper, stable and more significant aspects of personality and
are revealed by the statistical technique of factor analysis. Whereas surface traits are merely
descriptive units, the source traits upon which they depend are partly explanatory. Cattell believes
that with further research source traits will be found to correspond to the most fundamental
influences – physiological, temperamental and social – that give rise to personality. Cattell has
found evidence for the existence of as many as twenty source traits.

Source traits may be further categorized according to whether they arise out of the
operation of environmental or hereditary influences. Those which result from environmental
forces are environmental – mold traits, and those which are hereditarily determined are called
constitutional traits.

Traits may be categorized as dynamic, ability or temperamental. This threefold category

refers to the manner in which the trait is expressed. Dynamic traits are concerned with goal-
directed behaviour; ability traits with how well or effectively the individual works toward a goal;

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and temperamental traits, with the emotional reactivity, speed, or energy with which he or she
responds.

From the psychological point of view human personality may be considered as an

integration of traits. The individual’s behaviour as he or she interacts with the environment reflects
a relatively large number of surface traits. In any given culture such traits are common to most
individuals and can be measured by objective tests and ratings.

Central to the problem of dynamics are Cattell’s concepts of ergs and metaergs. An erg is
a dynamic, constitutional source trait. An erg is an innate psychophysical disposition which
permits its possessor to acquire reactivity to certain classes of objects more readily than others,
to experience a specific emotion in regard to them, and to start on a course of action, which
ceases more completely at a certain specific goal activity than at any other.

Goal directed individual is selectively tuned toward certain environmental objects. An ergic
pattern carries with it a certain characteristic emotion. The pattern results in a specific type of goal
satisfaction. There is an innate preference for certain paths leading to the goal.

On the basis of preliminary research, Cattell indicates that sex, self-assertion, fear,
gregariousness, parental protectiveness, appeal or self-abasement, play, curiosity, and
narcissism are fundamental.

A metaerg is like an erg in all respects except that it is an environmental-mold source trait
rather than a constitutional source trait. Metaergs are learnt whereas ergs are innate. Cattell
considers sentiments as the most important of the various metaergs. Sentiments are major
acquired dynamic trait structures, which cause their possessors to pay attention to certain objects
or classes of objects, and to feel and react in a certain way with regard to them.

Home means first of all the partial satisfaction of the basic ergs such as sex,
gregariousness and parental protection. Furthermore one’s sentiment toward home is
compounded of attitudes and opinions about insurance, marriage, gardening, children, education
and so forth. Such an interrelated complex of processes Cattell describes as a dynamic lattice.
Attitudes are evolved out of sentiments, and these, in turn, arise out of the fundamental ergs. For
example, the sentiment towards one country is developed on the basis of security and protection.
The sentiment toward country in turn governs attitudes toward the movies. Cattell’s general term
for the independence of attitudes, sentiments and ergs is subsidiation.

One of the most important sentiments is the self-sentiment, or the ability to contemplate
one’s self. The self-sentiment is founded on the concept of the self, which Cattell considers to be
an integration of the ego and superego. Cattell views the development of the human personality
as the unfolding of maturational processes and their modification through learning and
experience. Maturation contributes the basic perceptual and motor abilities, whereas learning is
responsible for the modification of innate ergs, the elaboration of metaergs and the organization
of the self.

During the period from conception to puberty, the child’s personality undergoes its most
significant developmental phases. The years from 1 to 5 are critical for the development of both
normal and abnormal traits. Either type of trait remains remarkably constant from 5 until puberty.
About the ages of 7 to 8 the child begins to be weaned from parental influence. He or she

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acquires the social code of the culture, the dominant trends in interests and characteristic
emotional patterns; finally, leader-follower characteristics also begin to appear. Around the age of
10 or 11, secondary groups such as the gang and the school begin to exert as much influence on
the developing personality, as does the home. Depending upon the rate of development some
children at this age begin to experience the cleavage between home and peer group-approved
forms of behaviour.

Adolescence is a period that makes great demands on the child. At one and the same
time he or she is confronted with the many biological and intellectual changes typical of the
period. He or she must adjust to the demands of sex, accompanied as they are by increasing
self-assertion, and the same time is under pressure to postpone the satisfaction of sexual needs.
He or she must also strive to maintain parent approval in the face of growing independence. The
child must attempt to satisfy four different sets of demands, which arise from parents, adolescent
peers, adult culture patterns and internal residues of childhood.

The period of maturity is one of a gradual but steady decline of most of the biologically
based mental processes. The average individual tends to substitute familial for social interests,
grows more philosophical and becomes increasingly more stable emotionally. With the onset of
old age, new adjustments are demanded as a result of both loss of occupation and the decreased
social value of the aged.

8.3. Summary

People can be classified into a few categories or types depending on their behaviour patterns.

Sheldon stated that people could be classified into body or physique types on the basis of the
relative prominence of these three types.

Sheldon showed that there is a relationship between such body types and temperamental types.

Cattell favored the trait approach.

Traits are defined as a characterological or relatively permanent feature of personality. Traits are
inferred from the individual’s behaviour and are of two fundamental kinds - surface traits and
source traits.

8.4 Technical Terms

Cerebrotonics people characterized by greater nervous and cerebral activities and are given to
activities like thinking and reading

Ectoderm layer of the body which is the base for the nervous system

Endoderm layer of the body which is the base for the internal organs like the stomach and
the intestines

Mesoderm layer of the body which is the base for the muscles

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Somatotonics people who are being more given to muscular activity

Source traits traits that represent deeper, less variable and more significant aspects of
personality

Surface traits traits revealed by correlating trait elements or trait indicators, which are
essentially behaviour samples that go together

Traits characterological or relatively permanent features of personality

Viscerotonics people who are more interested in visceral activities like eating and drinking

8.7. Model Questions

1. What is a type theory of personality? Illustrate Sheldon’s Type Theory of personality.

2. Define traits. Describe Cattell’s trait theory.

8.8 Reference Books

Parameswaran, E. G., & Bina, C. (2002). An invitation to psychology. New Delhi: Neelkamal.

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Personality 9.1 Eysenck’s Biological Trait Theory

LESSON - 9

EYSENCK’S BIOLOGICAL TRAIT THEORY

9.0. Objectives

1. To understand Eysenck’s theory of traits.

2. To understand Eysenck’s typology of neuroticism, introversion and extraversion.

Structure
9.1 Eysenck’s Biological Trait Theory
9.2 Summary
9.3 Technical Terms
9.4 Model Questions
9.5 Reference Books

9.1. Eysenck’s Biological Trait Theory

According to British psychologist Hans J. Eysenck, personality is largely determined by

the genes, and environmental influences play a minimal role. Through conditioning concepts
borrowed from behavioural theory, Eysenck theorizes that some people can be conditioned more
readily than others because of differences in their physiological functioning. These variations in
conditionability are assumed to influence the personality traits that people acquire through
conditioning processes.

Eysenck views personality structure as a hierarchy of traits, in which many superficial

traits are derived from a smaller number of more basic traits, which are further derived from a
handful of fundamental higher-order traits. Each one of these characteristics according to
Eysenck can be broken down into certain habitual-response patterns that apply to several
situations; each of these habitual-response patterns can be broken down further into specific
responses within specific situations. This progression from broad, global types down to specific,
situation-bound responses is what makes Eysenck’s approach a hierarchical theory. Eysenck
has focused much of his research on the relationships between two important traits:
introversion-extraversion and emotional stability-instability, the latter otherwise called
neuroticism.

Carl Jung was first to distinguish between introverts and extraverts. Eysenck added the
dimension of neuroticism to introversion-extraversion. Extroverts are sociable, outgoing and
active, whereas introverts are withdrawn, quiet, and introspective. Emotionally stable people are
calm, even-tempered, and often easygoing, while emotionally unstable people are anxious,
excitable, and easily distressed. He has catalogued various personality traits according to where
they are situated along these dimensions. For instance, an anxious person would be high both in
introversion and in neuroticism – that is, preoccupied with his or her own thoughts and
emotionally unstable.

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Traits which characterize the four personality types postulated by Eysenck

Source: Parameswaran, E. G., & Beena, C. (2002). An Invitation to Psychology.

New Delhi: Neelkamal.

Eysenck has shown that even learning, perception and other behavioural processes are
influenced by these dimensions. Researches by Eysenck and members of his group have further
shown that one’s behaviour is deeply influenced by one’s positions on these dimensions.
Eysenck therefore makes the following assumptions:
 The personalities of individuals are determined by a very limited number of basic
dimensions.
 Each of these dimensions is a continuum ranging from a low value to a high value.
Individuals can be placed at appropriate points on each of these dimensions.
 The personality of a person can be best described in terms of the individual’s position on
these dimensions. Behaviour is influenced by an interaction of all these dimensions.

Eysenck believes that individual variability on the two dimensions may be partly due to
differences in nervous system functioning. Eysenck believes that the functioning of the reticular
activating system, the brain nucleus involved in sleep and arousal, produces different levels of
arousal of the cerebral cortex of introverts and extroverts. He suggests that extroverts have a
lower level of cortical arousal than introverts and as a result seek out more stimulation to
increase arousal, while introverts are more easily aroused and thus more likely to show emotional
instability. This higher arousal in introverts purportedly motivates them to avoid social situations
that will further elevate their arousal and makes them more easily conditioned than extraverts.

According to Eysenck, people who condition easily acquire more conditioned inhibitions
than others. These inhibitions coupled with their relatively high arousal, make them more bashful,
tentative, and uneasy in social situations. This social discomfort leads them to turn inward.
Hence, they become introverted.
Eysenck notes that his scheme is reminiscent of that suggested by Hippocrates, the
physician of the Golden Age of Greece. Hippocrates suggested that there are four basic

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Personality 9.3 Eysenck’s Biological Trait Theory

personality types: choleric (quick tempered), sanguine (warm, cheerful, confident), phlegmatic
(sluggish, calm, cool) and melancholic (gloomy, pensive). The terms choleric, sanguine, and so
on remain in common use. According to Eysenck’s dimensions, the choleric type would be
extraverted and unstable; the sanguine type, extraverted and stable; the phlegmatic type,
introverted and stable; and the melancholic type, introverted and unstable. Hippocrates believed
that these types, and mixtures of these types, depend on the balance of the four basic fluids or
humors, in the body. Yellow bile associated with a choleric disposition; blood, a sanguine one;
phlegm, a phlegmatic disposition; and black bile, a melancholic temperament.
Eysenck has supported his theory using laboratory studies of human personality based on
the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), an inventory he designed to study his three
basic traits. For example, to the extent that extroversion is a biologically based personality trait,
then certain laboratory tasks should differentiate high scorers on the EPQ extroversion scale from
low scorers. Many experimental studies of both biological and psychological processes such as
physiology, conditioning, memory, learning, and social behaviour have demonstrated differences
in behaviour for extroverts and introverts.
To develop his theory, Eysenck gathered a massive amount of data from many tests and
measures. Applying factor analysis he identified the typology as shown in the figure below. The
vertical dimension shows people high in neuroticism at the upper end and people high in stability
at the lower end. The horizontal dimension shows people high in introversion at the extreme left
and people high in extraversion at the extreme right.

Source: Morgan, C.T., King, R.A., Weisz, J.R., & Schopler, J. (1986).
Introduction to Psychology. New York: Mc-Graw Hill.

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One example of a laboratory investigation is a test of the following hypothesis: if introverts

receive higher levels of cortical arousal than extroverts, then they should react more strongly than
extroverts to external stimulation. Corcoran and Eysenck and Eysenck demonstrated this
increased reaction to 4 drops of lemon juice dropped on the tongue. The dependent variable was
the amount of saliva produced in response to the lemon juice. Eysenck and Eysenck reported a
correlation of - .71 for the EPQ extroversion score with the amount of salivation, which indicates
that the more extroverted subjects showed less of a reaction to the lemon juice. This is an
important finding because it points up the possibility of developing biologically based measures of
personality.

Eysenck developed a type theory in which the types are actually personality dimensions,
and every individual is scored or rated for his or her position on each dimension. A second
approach to personality types involves specifying certain key characteristics or extreme scores
that must be manifest before any individual is said to fit the type. In this approach, people who do
not fit the type are simply ignored, and attention is focused on the relatively pure cases who fit the
strike zone for the type in question. This approach is commonly used in diagnosing psychological
disorders; people must show certain specific personality characteristics to a certain degree before
they are typed as having, say, a schizophrenic disorder. The strike-zone approach is also used to
identify Type A and Type B people – two groups who differ in their susceptibility to heart disease.

9.2. Summary

Eysenck believed that personality is largely determined by genes, and that environmental
influences are slight at best.

Eysenck views personality structure as a hierarchy of traits, in which many superficial traits are
derived from a smaller number of more basic traits, which are derived from a handful of
fundamental higher-order traits.

Much of his research has focused on the relationships between introversion-extraversion and
emotional stability-instability.

Eysenck has supported his theory using laboratory studies of human personality based on the
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), an inventory he designed to study his three basic
traits.

9.3. Technical Terms

Emotionally stable people who are calm, even-tempered, and often easygoing

Emotionally unstable people who are anxious, excitable, and easily distressed

Extroverts people who are sociable, outgoing and active

Introverts people who are withdrawn, quiet, and introspective

9.4. Model Questions

1. Explain Eysenck’s Biological Trait Theory of Personality with illustrations.

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9.5 Reference Books

Buskist, W., & Gerbing, D. W. (1990). Psychology: Boundaries and Frontiers. USA: Harper
Collins.

Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R., & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to Psychology. New
York: McGraw-Hill.

Parameswaran, E. G., & Beena, C. (2002). An Invitation to Psychology. New Delhi: Neelkamal.

Rathus, S.A. (1990). Psychology. London: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Weithen, W. (1989). Psychology: Themes and Variations. Pacific Grove: Books/Cole.

Wood, S. E., & Wood, E. G. (1993). The World of Psychology. London: Allyn & Bacon.

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Personality 10.1 Allport’s Trait Approach

LESSON - 10

ALLPORT’S TRAIT APPROACH

10.0. Objectives

1. To understand the trait approach to personality as advocated by Allport.

2. To know the concepts of functional autonomy and propriate striving.

Structure of the lesson

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Concept of functional autonomy
10.3 Trait theory
10.3.1 Individual and Common traits
10.3.2 Cardinal, Central and Secondary Traits
10.4 Summary
10.5 Technical Terms
10.6 Reference Books
10.7 Model Questions

10.1. Introduction

Gordon W. Allport’s systematic views on personality developed over a period of 30 years,

was guided by two basic principles: (1) to do justice to the complexity of personality, as it is made
up of hereditary, temperamental, social and psychological factors, and (2) to recognize the
uniqueness of each individual personality despite the many commonalities that exist among
different people.

Gordon W. Allport defined personality as “the dynamic organization within the individual of
those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and thought”. By
dynamic organization he means that personality is a developing, changing organization that
reflects motivational conditions. Psychophysical as Allport uses the phrase, refers to habits,
attitudes, and traits. Psychophysical is recognition of the fact that both bodily and mental factors
must be considered in the description and study of personality. Systems refer to complexes of
more elemental processes. Habits, traits, and concepts exemplify such systems. Characteristic
refers to the uniqueness of each individual’s behaviour. Behaviour and thought are a blanket to
designate anything whatsoever an individual may do. In general, they make for survival and
growth in the environment.

10.2. Concept of functional autonomy

Basic to Allport’s definition is the underlying idea of personality as a dynamic, growing

system. The concept of functional autonomy of motives provides the necessary foundation for
the system. Functional autonomy refers to any acquired system of motivation in which the
tensions involved are not of the same kind as the antecedent tensions from which the acquired

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system developed. Thus, a child originally may be motivated to practice the piano because of
tensions associated with fear of parental retaliation, if he or she fails to put in the daily stint.
However, after five or six years of training the child may practice for the sole reason that playing
is enjoyed for its own sake. The activity of piano playing, which once served to reduce the fear of
punishment, has now become self-motivating. Moreover, we may assume in this case that the
original motive has long since subsided.

Allport distinguishes between two types of functionally autonomous systems – the

perseverative and the propriate. Perseverative functional autonomy refers to physiologically
based motivational systems that, once activated, can continue to function for a time without
further environmental stimulation. Thus, the animal or man who becomes habituated to cycles of
feeding or to drugs becomes restless and active at regular intervals corresponding to the usual
time of ingestion of the food or drug.

Propriate functional autonomy involves higher order processes such as interests,

attitudes, and life-style. Allport suggests that interests tend to follow abilities, and people tend to
do what they can do best. Such interests are functionally autonomous when the present reason
for exercising the ability is no longer related to the original reason except in a historical sense.
Thus the college student who is required to take a course and does so only reluctantly may
develop an interest in it and perhaps even major in the subject area. Similarly, one may acquire
values and an entire life-style through training programs in childhood, which – though accepted
reluctantly initially later become functionally independent of the original fear. It is these latter
processes that are central to the major trends of life and become the organizing core of
personality.

The principle of functional autonomy of motivation stresses both the contemporaneity and
variety of adult human motives. Present motives are continuous with original motives. Allport
distinguishes his system from instinct psychologies. Instincts may appear in the course of
development, but having appeared they are transformed under the influence of learning.

The principle of functional autonomy is also in opposition to the behaviourists’ theory of

acquired drives. The behaviourist accounts for acquired drives by invoking the principle of
generalization of conditioned stimuli. That is, if a fear is originally acquired by conditioning it to an
arbitrary stimulus, theoretically it can become attached to a multitude of additional stimuli by
further conditioning. But in such cases the determining factor in arousing and maintaining
behaviour is the continuing reinforcement provided by the various conditioned stimuli, not the
activity itself.

Finally, Allport’s concept of functionally autonomy is in opposition to the principle of

homeostasis, since once a motive becomes functionally autonomous it is self-sustaining.
Homeostasis, on the other hand, implies the cyclic appearance of motivation dependent upon
changes in physiological rhythms.

The principle of functional autonomy explains the transformation of the selfish child into
the socialized adult. According to Allport it can account for phobias, delusions, and other forms of
compulsive behaviour. Further, the driving force behind such complex activities as craftsmanship,
artistic endeavor, and genius is explained as love of the activity for its own sake. Although the
concept of functional autonomy is a central principle in Allport’s system, it cannot account for all

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complexities of personality. Rather, the principle is concerned with how the dynamics underlying
the psychophysical systems that constitute personality develop and serve the adult.

10.3. Trait theory

According to Allport the trait is the most valid concept for the description of personality. By
definition, a trait is “a neuropsychic structure having the capacity to render many stimuli
functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide equivalent forms of adaptive and expressive
behaviour.”

Traits are consistent modes of behaviour, which are similar to habits but are more
generalized. In principle, traits are more like attitudes than habits, since they are determining
tendencies rather than specific modes of behaviour. We must, however, be careful to recognize
that traits are not necessarily generalized from situation to situation. A child may be consistently
honest in a given situation, say, in handling money in a grocery store, but occasionally dishonest
in school. Thus, the consistency of traits is, in part, dependent upon the consistency of the
situation in which they are aroused.

10.3.1 Individual and common traits

Allport distinguishes between individual traits and common traits. In a sense every trait
is an individual trait, since each personality is different from every other. However, this view of
traits, if taken literally, would make cross comparisons between individuals impossible. Indeed, if
such conditions prevailed there could be no science of personality. However, because members
of a given culture are subject to common evolutionary and social influences, there are many
aspects of behaviour on which members of a given culture can be compared. These are common
traits. Allport emphasized the importance of studying the individual traits, which hold the key to
the understanding of an individual’s personality.

Individual traits are those qualities, which influence behaviour extensively and mark one
out as distinct from others. Thus, some individuals bring a sense of humour in almost all
situations unlike most people. According to him, individual traits can be understood by careful and
long-term observation and study of individuals. Allport also suggests that in the ultimate analysis
the organization of behaviour intro traits may have a structural basis in the nervous system.

10.3.2 Cardinal, Central and Secondary Traits

Allport further distinguishes between cardinal traits, central traits and secondary traits. A
trait that is outstanding, all pervasive and dominant in the individual’s life is a cardinal trait. It is,
so to speak, a ruling passion. For this reason, cardinal traits are relatively rare. Central traits are
the foci of personality. They are traits ordinarily measured by rating scales. Secondary traits are
the less important or the minor traits, which usually escape notice except by the careful observer
or close acquaintance.

Allport believes that personality demonstrates a unity and integration of traits. The
question, around which the integration and uniqueness of personality revolve, is the concept of
the self. As he employs it, the proprium includes the bodily sense, self-identity, ego-
enhancement and ego-extension, rational and cognitive functions, self-image and propriate
striving. Propriate striving refers to motivated behaviour that is of central importance to the self.

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Examples of propriate striving include all forms of behaviour that serve self-realization. Propriate
striving represents growth, or abundancy motivation. The essence of personality is the
individual’s way of living. The ego or self, then, becomes the integration of the propriate functions
that constitute the unified style of life.

10.4. Summary

Personality is defined by Allport as the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and thought.

The concept of functional autonomy of motives provides the necessary foundation for the system.

Allport distinguishes between two types of functionally autonomous systems – the perseverative
and the propriate.

Allport distinguishes between individual traits that are unique to every person and common traits
that are shared by many because of similar evolutionary and social influences.

Allport further distinguishes between cardinal traits, central traits and secondary traits. Allport
believes that personality demonstrates a unity and integration of traits.

10.5. Technical Terms

Functional autonomy an acquired system of motivation in which the tensions involved are not of
the same kind as the antecedent tensions from which the acquired system developed

Trait a neuropsychic structure having the capacity to render many stimuli functionally
equivalent, and to initiate and guide equivalent forms of adaptive and expressive behaviour

10.6. Model Questions

1. What is personality according to Allport? Explain the concept of functional autonomy.

2. Describe Allport’s Trait theory of personality.

10.7 Reference Books

Chaplain, J. P., & Krawiec, T. S. (1968). Systems and theories of psychology. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.

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Personality 11.1 Maslow’s Hierarchical Theory of …

LESSON - 11

MASLOW’S HIERARCHICAL THEORY OF HUMAN MOTIVATION

11.0. Objectives

1. To explain Maslow’s theory of motivation and hierarchy of needs

Structure of the lesson

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Motivation and the hierarchy of needs
11.2.1 Misconceptions about Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
11.2.2 Phsyciological Needs
11.2.3 Safety Needs
11.2.4 Belongingness and Love Needs
11.2.5 Esteem needs
11.2.6 The Need for Self-Actualization
11.3 Misconceptions and Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
11.4 What are Self-Actualized people like ?
11.5 Criticisms
11.6 Summary
11.7 Technical Terms
11.8 Model Questions
11.9 Reference Books

11.1 Introduction
Maslow replaced Freud’s pessimistic and dismal view of human nature with an optimistic
portrayal of human nature. Maslow acknowledged the existence of unconscious motives but
focused his attention on conscious aspects of personality. His conception of human nature was
positive; he believed that individuals were basically good, psychologically healthy and whole and
that they were free-willed always seeking to satisfy innate motives.
11.2. Motivation and the Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow identified two basic types of motives. One is a deficiency motive, which results from
a lack of some needed object. Such needs as hunger and thirst and the need for respect from
others fall into this category. Deficiency motives are satisfied once the needed object has been
obtained.
The second category of needs is called by Maslow as growth needs, which include the
unselfish giving of love others and the development of potential as a human being. The
satisfaction in these needs comes from the growth; a striving to satisfy our potential that is
enjoyable and also can lead to an increase of the need.

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11.2. 1 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy.

Maslow is probably most famous for his hierarchy of needs. He argued that human motives
can be placed in a hierarchy. According to their prominence some needs demand satisfaction
before others.
Maslow placed these needs into five hierarchical levels. Typically, we satisfy the needs at
the lower levels before becoming concerned with the needs at higher levels. The lower order needs
such as physiological needs keep recurring causing the person to divert his attention to it again. In
course of a lifetime most people progress up the hierarchy, until satisfying the need for self-
actualization dominates our action. According to Maslow, only a fraction of us ultimately attain the
state of self-actualization. The diagram below represents Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Self-actualization

Esteem Needs

Belongingness and love

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

11.2.2 Physiological Needs

Physiological needs, including hunger, thirst, air and sleep, are the most demanding. They
must be satisfied before moving on to higher level needs. Many peoples’ lives are centred on
meeting these basic needs. Finding enough food and water for survival takes priority over concerns
like gaining respect of peers.

11.2.3 Safety Needs

When physiological needs are met, we become increasingly motivated by our safety needs.
These include the need for security, stability, protection, freedom from fear, the need for structure
and order. These needs arise when there is uncertainty. People who perceive these threats to
security may build large savings accounts or seek out a job with a lot of security rather than opt for
a better but riskier position.
Sometimes they seek out the predictable orderliness of organized religion or the military.
Thus people struck at the safety need level in their personal development may put up with an
unhappy marriage or with a military dictatorship if these situations provide stability or a sense of
security.

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11.2.4 Belongingness and Love Needs

Most of us have jobs, homes and food on the table. But satisfaction of these lower needs
does not guarantee happiness. The need for friendship and love soon emerges. As Maslow
remarked once a person has attained the lower level needs, “he will hunger for affectionate
relations with people…for a place in his group or family”.
Some adults do not go beyond their safety needs and devote most of their career to
fulfillment of these needs. However, for some work becomes unsatisfying if it means sacrificing
time spent with friends and loved ones. Maslow identified two kinds of Love: D-love and B-love. D-
Love, like hunger is based on a deficiency. It is a need to satisfy the emptiness we experience in
love when taking, not giving. But it is a necessary step in the development of the second type of
love, B-love. B-love is a non-possessive, unselfish love, based on growth need rather than a
deficiency. We can never satisfy our need for B-love simply with presence of a loved one. Rather
B-love is simply a “love for being of another person”.

11.2.5 Esteem needs

Satisfaction of our belongingness and love needs will direct attention to our esteem needs.
Maslow divided these into two basic types - the need to perceive oneself as competent and
achieving and the need for admiration and respect. Maslow warned that this respect must be
deserved. One cannot lie or cheat his way into positions of respect and authority. Even with
money, spouse, and friends, failing to satisfy the need for self-respect and admiration will result in
feelings of inferiority, helplessness, and discouragement.

11.2.6 The Need for Self-Actualization

Wealth, love, and power are not enough to produce happiness. For, as Maslow explained
when all these lower-level needs are satisfied, a new discontent and restlessness develops.
People who obtain all of the sources of happiness and contentment in our society turn their
attention to developing themselves to their full potential. When all our lower-level needs are
satisfied, we begin to ask ourselves what we want out of life, where our loves are headed, what we
want to accomplish. The answers to these questions may be different for each of us. Maslow
believed very few adults reach this state of self-actualization, the point at which their potential is
fully developed. But all of us have the need to move towards that potential.

11.3 Misconceptions and Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

Although the order of the needs make sense for most of us, there are some notable
exceptions. For some people the needs for self-esteem and respect come prior to the need for
love. Some artists are so intent on expressing their creative desire that they sacrifice satisfaction of
some lower-level need hierarchy oversimplifies the relationship between needs and behaviour.

Another common misconception about the need hierarchy is the assumption that our
physiological needs must be satisfied completely before we can turn to higher needs, more
precisely; Maslow explained that our needs are only partially satisfied at any given moment. But
how well our lower needs are satisfied determines how much needs influence our behaviour.

Although Maslow described the need hierarchy as universal, he readily admitted that the
means of satisfying a particular need might vary across cultures. A person can win self-esteem and
respect from others in our society by becoming a doctor, but in other societies this esteem is

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awarded for good hunting or farming skills. Maslow argued that these differences are somewhat
superficial. The basic needs themselves, not the approach in which they are satisfied remain the
same across cultures.

Another oversimplification of Maslow’s theory is that any given behaviour is motivated by a

single need. Maslow argued that behaviour is a result of multiple motivations.

11.4 What are Self-Actualized people like?

Self actualization need according to Maslow is the need for developing one’s potential to
the fullest. Maslow began by selecting people who appeared to be psychologically healthy – those
people who had completely satisfied their need for self-actualization. Some of them were
contemporaries of Maslow and others were historical figures who seemed to have lived a self-
actualized life style. Maslow developed a list of characteristics that seemed to recur in the
personalities of these psychologically healthy people.

 Self-actualized people tend to accept themselves for what they are. They admit to their
weaknesses, although not without making an effort t improve. Because of this self-
acceptance, self-actualized people do not worry excessively or feel guilty about inadequacies
in themselves. Instead, they accept the parts of themselves that need improvement. Self-
actualized people are not perfect, but they respect and feel good about themselves for what
they are.

 Psychologically healthy people are less restricted by cultural norms and customs than is the
average person. It is not that they are insensitive to social pressures. But they are “ruled by
the laws of their own character rather than by the rules of society”.

 Maslow described every psychologically healthy person he studied as creative. Self-

actualized creativity differs from the traditional innate talent. Self-actualized creativity is
revealed in the way people approach routine parts of life with spontaneity that allows them to
perform daily tasks in unconventional manner. Self-actualizing creativity is a way of
approaching life. Maslow compared it with the spontaneous way a child examines and
discovers the world, ever in awe and admiration of the little things that make it such an
interesting place. Maslow suggested that all humans might have the potential for this self-
actualization creativity if we did not succumb to ‘enculturalization’.

 Maslow discovered that these people have relatively few friends. But the friendships are deep
and rewarding. They have a “pluralistic, unhostile”, sense of humour. They poke fun at the
human condition including themselves rather than at any particular person or group. Self-
actualized people have a strong need for privacy and express a continued appreciation for
life’s experiences.

 A final feature Maslow discovered in psychologically healthy people is the frequency of what
he called a peak experience. A peak experience is one in which people lose their anxieties
and experience a unity of self with the universe and a momentary feeling of power and
wonder. However peak experiences are different for each person. Peak experiences, are
growth experiences, when people report a feeling more spontaneous, more appreciative of
life and less concerned with whatever problems they may have had.

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 Even in the self-actualization group, Maslow found there were “peakers” and “non peakers”.
While the non-peaking self-actualizes are “the social world improvers, the politicians, the
reformers, who have a clear direction in life, the peakers are “more into poetry, music,
philosophy and religion”. The two types of self-actualizers play different roles in society, but
both are on the way to fulfilling their potentials.

11.5 Criticisms
Maslow’s theory cannot be scientifically tested. He was aware of this problem and
challenged the necessity of relying on the scientific method to understand human personality. “The
uniqueness of the individual does not fit into what we know of science,” he wrote.
Another criticism is that the key concepts are poorly defined. It is difficult to say what
exactly “self-actualization” is or to say whether we are having a “peak experience” or just a
particularly good time. Maslow responded that we simply do not know enough about self-
actualization and personal growth to provide clean definitions. Such vagueness prevents
psychologists from studying humanistic concepts.
Weak data to support his views has led to take this theory more as matter of faith than
scientific fact. However, this approach has gained acceptance because it is consistent with
people’s observations and values and not so much because of evidence.

11.6 Summary
Abraham Maslow introduced a hierarchy of human needs.
According to this concept people progress up the hierarchy as lower needs are satisfied.
The needs in the hierarchy going down from self-actualization are the esteem needs,
belongingness and love needs, safety needs and physiological needs.
According to Maslow characteristics typical of self-actualized people, include self-acceptance,
creativity, non-conformity, sense of humour and the tendency have frequent peak experiences.

11.7 Technical Terms

Growth need A need that leads to personal growth that persists after the need object
is attained
Hierarchy of needs In Maslow’s theory, the order in which human needs demand attention
Peak experience An intense emotional experience characterized by feelings of
satisfaction and personal growth
Self-actualization A state of personal growth in which people fulfill their true potential

11.8 Model Questions

1. What is self- actualization? What are the strengths and weaknesses of this theory of self-
actualization?
2. Describe the need hierarchy theory of Maslow?

11.9 Reference Books

Burger, M. J. (1990). Personality. Belmont: Wadworth Publishing Company.

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Personality 12.1 Assumptions About Human Nature

LESSON - 12

ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT HUMAN NATURE

12.0 Objectives

1. To provide an over view of the humanistic school of psychology

2. To introduce the humanistic concept of human nature

Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The roots of humanistic psychology
12.3 Assumptions of human nature
12.3.1 Personal responsibility
12.3.2 The Here and Now
12.3.3 The Phenomenology of the Individual
12.3.4 Personal Growth
12.3.5 The Fully Functioning Person
12.4 Summary
12.5 Technical terms
12.6 Model Questions
12.7 Reference Books

12.1 Introduction

Humanistic psychology is referred to as the third force opposed to psychoanalysis and

behaviourism. It aims to introduce a new orientation to psychology. You may recollect that human
nature in psychoanalytic theory is driven by unconscious instincts, primarily sexual aggressive,
that brings the individual into conflict with social reality. In contrast behaviouristic theory believes
that human beings are born with the capacity for learning that develops through principles of
conditioning and reinforcement and imitation. According to humanistic psychology on the other
hand human beings have free will, choice and purpose and the capacity for self-determination
and to realize their potentialities.

In other words psychoanalytical and behaviouristic theorists view human behaviour as

determined by unconscious instincts and by environmental conditioning, respectively. Humanistic
psychology, in contrast does not see the human being as the victim of either unconscious or the
environment. Rather, the humanistic psychologists believe that human being can maximize his or
her potential for growth and happiness using his or her own free will.

The model of human nature in the humanistic theory emphasizes on the positive in human
behaviour that include creativity, choice, valuation, positive striving, and growth-producing
experiences. The goal of therapy, based on humanistic principles is to move one from being

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deficiency-motivated person to a growth motivated person striving to broaden and enrich his or
her experiences using free will and choice.

12.2 The roots of Humanistic Psychology

Although humanistic psychology evolved from many sources, its roots lie primarily in two
areas: existential philosophy, and the work of some American psychologists. Existential
philosophers in Europe during the late 19th century addressed many of the questions that later
became the cornerstones of the humanistic approach. Some of these include the meaning of our
existence, the role of freewill, and the uniqueness of the human being.

A group of psychologists closely associated with existentialism labeled themselves as the

existential psychologists. They relied heavily on the works of great existential philosophers – such
as Friedrich Nietzsche, Soren Kierkegaard, and Jean-Paul Sartre- in developing their theories of
personality. Among the more prominent existential psychologists are Ludwig Binswanger, Medard
Boss, Victor Frankl, R.D.Laing and Rollo May.

Existential psycho therapy often centers around resolving existential anxiety- the feelings
of dread and panic that often follow the realization that there is no meaning to one’s life, with an
emphasis on the freedom to choose and develop a life style that reduces feelings of emptiness,
anxiety, and boredom.

This European excitement about existentialism caught rapidly with a large number of
psychotherapists and personality theorists in the United States. Leaders such as Bugental (1965),
Gendlin (1962), Maslow (1954), and Rogers (1942), were among those who expanded existential
philosophical ideas into more humanistic models.

12.3 Assumptions of Human nature

The four essential viewpoints of humanistic personality theory are

 An emphasis on personal responsibility;
 An emphasis on the here and now;
 A focus on the phenomenology of the individual;
 An emphasis on personal growth

12.3.1 Personal responsibility

We are ultimately responsible for what happens to us. This idea borrowed from existential
philosophers is a cornerstone of humanistic approach to personality. As an example, we
commonly use the phrase “I have to”. But the truth is we don’t have to do any of this. Within the
limits, there is practically nothing we have to do. Humanistic psychologists argue that our
behaviour represents personal choices of what we want to do at a particular moment. People
make choices and the price we pay for making some of these choices can be dear, but they are
nonetheless choices. Unlike the Freudian concept of human nature being pulled by the id
impulses that they cannot control, humanistic psychologists conceive human beings as active
shapers of their own lives with freedom to change

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12.3.2 The Here and Now

Most people ruminate about the past. Humanistic psychology emphasizes on the present
experience. In rumination or losing oneself in the past memories or thoughts an individual of
failing to experience the present moments that life has handled. According to the humanistic
perspective we cannot become functioning individuals until we learn to live our lives as they
happen. Thinking too much about the past or planning too much for the future is a loss of time
that deprives the individual to live life fully and experience the here and now. The humanists view,
Today is the First Day of the Rest of Your Life, maintains that we need not be victims of our
past. Though past experiences shape and influence who we are and how we behave, they need
not dictate what we can become.

12.3.3 The Phenomenology of the Individual

Humanistic psychologists see people as more than their behaviours, more than their
thoughts, and more than their feelings. In other words people are a combination of genetics,
chemical makeup, spirituality, the impact of environment and other pieces of yet undiscovered or
not clearly understood. In all humans are complex. The result is that understanding a person in a
holistic view requires attempting to view all parts of the person at once. Hence it can be inferred
that the more holistic view of a person, the greater the likelihood that the combination of factors
influencing who the person is, how the person acts, and how the person sees the world will
become visible and therefore create more potential for change.

The world that is visible to us is much more than the one that enters the body through
sight, smell, sound, touch. These senses are filtered through people’s subjective or
phenomenological view of the world. The combination of cultural worldview, developmental life
stages, and individual means of viewing information, influences the unique subjective perception
of the individual. Thus the phenomenological screening turns any information into something very
different for each individual. Understanding oneself or others in a humanistic way requires delving
into this phenomenological world rather than presuming it from what some would call facts.

12.3.4 Personal Growth

Humanist theorists maintain that people are not satisfied when their immediate needs
have been met. Rather they are motivated to continue their development in appositive manner.
Carl Rogers refers to this as becoming a fully functioning, individual. Abraham Maslow calls it
self-actualization, to describe this growth. This process of growth is assumed to be the natural
manner of human development.

12.3.5 The Fully Functioning Person

Rogers believed that all people are basically good. But this good is not a fixed or static
state. To be fully functioning means to be open to the constant flow of our experience. Fully
functioning people are less prone to conform to societal demands than most people. Instead they
are more sensitive to their own interests, values, and needs. They experience their feelings both
positive and negative, more deeply and intensely than any one of us. Because of this sensitivity,
fully functioning person experience a greater richness in their lives. They live more intimately with
their feelings of pain but also more vividly with their feelings of ecstasy. They know anger and

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fear more deeply than most of us. Fully functioning people live their lives instead of just passing
through them.

12.4 Summary
The humanistic approach to personality grew out of discontent with psychoanalytic and
behavioral descriptions of human nature.

Humanistic psychology has its roots in European existential philosophy and the works of some
American psychologists, most notably Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

The four criteria important for classifying this theory as humanistic are emphasis on personal
responsibility, an emphasis on here and now, focusing on the phenomenology of the individual,
and emphasizing personal growth.

Carl Rogers introduced the notion of fully functioning person while Maslow came up with the
concept of self-actualization.

The strengths of humanistic approach to personality are the attention given to the positive side of
personality and the influence it ahs had on psychotherapy procedures.

12.5 Technical terms

Fully functioning person A psychologically healthy individual who is able to enjoy life as
completely as possible.
Growth need A need that leads to personal growth that persists after the need
object is attained
Hierarchy of needs Maslow’s theory, the order in which human needs demand
attention
Self-actualization A state of personal growth in which people fulfill their true
potential

12.6 Model Questions

1. Trace the historical antecedents of the Humanistic theory
2. How do the humanistic theorists view human nature?

12.7 Reference Books

Burger, M. J. (1990). Personality. Belmomt: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Locke, C. D., Myers, E. J., & Herr, L. E. (2001). The Handbook of Counselling.
New Delhi: Sage Publications.

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Personality 13.1 Carlroger’s Person Centred Theory

LESSON - 13

CARL ROGER’S PERSON CENTRED THEORY

13.0 Objectives
1. To describe Rogerian theory of personality development
2. To understand the concepts in person centred counseling.

Structure of the lesson

13.1 Introduction
13.2 The Structure of personality
13.3 The dynamics of Personality
13.4 The Development of personality
13.5 Goals of Person – centred therapy
13.5.1 The counselor’s goal
13.5.2 The relationship between the client and counselor
13.5.3 The core conditions
13.5.3.1 Unconditional positive regard (acceptance)
13.5.3.2 Congruence
13.5.3.3 Empthy
13.6 Summary
13.7 Technical Terms
13.8 Model Questions
13.9 Reference Books

13.1 Introduction

According to Carl Rogers, the core of human nature is essentially positive, and the direction
of person’s movement basically toward self-actualization, maturity and socialization. Rogers
disapproved of Freud’s presentation of human being as unsocialized and destructive of self and
others. For Rogers an individual may at times function in this way, but at such times he or she is
neurotic and least functional as a fully human being. When a person is functioning freely, and is
free to experience and fulfill his or her basic nature, he or she is a positive and social animal, one
who can be trusted and is basically constructive. Rogers had immense respect for human nature.
The type of psychotherapy that is based on Rogers’s concept is known as client-centred or
person-centred therapy.

13.2 The Structure of personality

The organism is the centre of all experience and experience includes everything potentially
available to awareness of the organism. This experience constitutes the phenomenal field. The

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phenomenal field is the individual’s frame of reference, which can only be known to the person
himself.

Roger’s theory conceptualizes the individual as a unified whole, with the self playing the
central role in our development and functioning. According to him, self is the perceptions and
meanings related to us that make up a part of the phenomenal fields. Thus, self is a portion of the
phenomenal field.

As a person interacts with the environment in his or her perceptual field, the self-concept
starts developing- that is, the “I and me” of the personality. A related structural concept is that of
the ideal self. The ideal self is the self-concept that most like to possess and is highly valued by
the individual. In other words the self is not a homunculus but rather an organized body of
perceptions that is generally available to awareness.

Rogers refers to the state of incongruence when an individual experiences discrepancy

between his ideal self and his actual experiences. This incongruence is one of tension and internal
confusion. When a state of incongruence exists and the individual is unaware of it, he is potentially
vulnerable to anxiety. We often respond to this anxiety with various psychological defenses. The
defenses succeed in reducing our ability to experience life’s richness.

13.3 The dynamics of Personality

According to Rogers anxiety results when we come into contact with the information that is
inconsistent with the way we conceive of ourselves. Your self-concept may include the belief that
you are a kind person, a good student or a pleasant conversationalist. But, occasionally you
receive information that contradicts your self-concept. For example you think of yourself as the kind
person every one likes. But one day you overhear some one say what a fool he thinks you are.
How would you react? If you are aware of this information and willing to accept this information you
might think of about this and incorporate this into your self-concept. Unfortunately, most of us are
not capable of such a well-adjusted reaction.

More often the information leads to anxiety. If the information is very threatening to the self-
concept the anxiety is difficult to manage. Rogers claims that people receive information
inconsistent with their self-concept at a level somewhere below the consciousness. This is because
we are not consciously aware of the inconsistency. Rogers called this process subception, rather
than perception. If the information were not threatening, it might enter conscious awareness.
However because the information contradicts the self-concept, it creates anxiety. To deal with
anxiety people use defense processes to keep the information from entering consciousness.

The most common defense process is distortion of the meaning of the experience or
denial of experience serves to preserve the self-structure. Events do not have meanings in and of
themselves. Meaning is given to events by the individual with past experience and concerns about
the maintenance of a self-system. This is influenced by the need for positive regard, which
Rogers states, is a universal, pervasive need for human beings.

13.4 The development of Personality

Organism and self although possess the inherent tendency to actualize themselves are
however influenced by the social environment. As it only others who can satisfy this need for

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positive regard, the self-concept is a learned sense of self and is based on individuals perception of
the regard they have received from outside the self. Parents and other significant people impose
conditions of worth that must be met before they give their children positive regard. These
conditions become an integral part of the children’s self-regard system and they grow up in an
atmosphere of conditional positive regard.

As result of this conditional positive regard, children learn to abandon their true feelings and
desires and to accept only that part of themselves their parents have deemed appropriate. They
deny their weaknesses and faults. Ultimately children become less and less aware of themselves
and less able to become fully functioning in the future. As adults we continue this process of
incorporating into our self-concept only those that are likely to win approval. This is how we loose
touch with our feelings and become less fully functioning, which is the basic estrangement of
man.

Emotional and mental distress is the cost of this friction. In addition to flatness and
emptiness, which is so much part of depression, shows the price paid for the suppression of
feeling. Dissatisfaction, loneliness, confusion, anxiety exhaustion, emotional deadness and even
dissociation and so-called psychotic breakdown can come from this conscious suppression from
our deeper knowledge.

Mental health or adjustment occurs when one is able to incorporate without distortion the
experiences of daily living and one’s own reactions to those occurrences. The self-concept then
becomes flexible, more accepting of what is happening, more in touch with reality.

According to Rogers we need unconditional positive regard to accept all parts of out
personality. With unconditional positive regard we know we will be accepted, loved and prized no
matter what we do. Under these conditions children no longer feel the need to deny those parts of
themselves that might otherwise have led to withdrawal of positive regard. They are free to
experience all of themselves, free to incorporate faults and weaknesses in their self-concept.

13.5 Goals of person-centred therapy

The emphasis in person-centred therapy is to provide facilitative conditions that allow the
client the freedom and the safety necessary for growth. The basic goal for the client is to become
more fully functioning. Some of the changes that can be expected with client-centred counseling
are that clients become:
 More realistic in their self-perceptions
 More confident and self-directing
 More positively valued by themselves
 Less likely to repress aspects of their experiences
 More mature, socialized and adaptive in their behaviour
 Less upset by stress and quicker to recover from it
 More likely the healthy integrated well-functioning person in their personality structures.

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13.5.1 The counselor’s goal

The counselor’s goal is to recognize and confront the incongruency between the client’s
experiences and self-concept. The counselor encourages clients to become open and feel safe
enough o drop all his defenses. It is assumed that the open, unthreatened and interested presence
of another can itself facilitate the client’s growth and well-being. In addition, the impetus for growth
already lies within us. With a client therefore a counselor needs to strive to be a certain way or a
path rather than achieve something. The counselor is not an arbiter of the client’s process and
directing events. Instead they create a facilitative relationship in which the client remains the expert
on their own experience.

13.5.2 The relationship between the client and counselor

The relationship between counselor and client is the axis on which client centred therapy
turns. Therefore the major thrust for the client-centred counselor is to create the proper
relationship, climate and conditions for enhancing the process of therapeutic growth. Client-centred
counseling is an if-then proposition. If certain conditions are present, then the client will become
more self-actualized, which is the inherent tendency of the organism. Rogers states the if-then
propositions as follows
 If the counselor can create a relationship characterized by
 a genuineness and transparency;
 a warm acceptance of and prizing of the person as a separate individual;
 a sensitive ability to see his world and himself as he sees them
 Then the client in the relationship
 will experience and understand aspects of himself which he previously repressed
 will find himself becoming better integrated, more able to function
 will become more similar to the person he would like to be
 will become more self-directing and self-confident
 will become more of a person, more unique and more self-expressive
 will be more understanding, more acceptant of others
 will be able to cope with problems of life more adequately and more comfortably

13.5.3 The core conditions

The conditions necessary for growth, which the clients should perceive in therapeutic
relationship, are unconditional positive regard, genuineness or congruence, and empathic
understanding.

13.5.3.1 Unconditional positive regard (acceptance)

Unconditional positive regard from the counselor is crucial to the helping relationship. This
is in view of the fact that client’s present feelings of worth are based on certain conditions.
Unconditional positive regard is present when the counselor accepts the client without the client
needing to be in a particular way to please or conform. It also implies trying not to judge the client’s

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Personality 13.5 Carlroger’s Person Centred Theory

appearance, thoughts, actions and feelings. This happens when the counselor offers positive
regard with no strings attached and no conditional clauses. This attitude, a caring acceptance of
client’s individuality is derived from the belief that clients will discover within themselves the
necessary resources for growth.

13.5.3.2 Congruence

Congruence or genuineness is the ability of counselors to be aware of their own inner

experiences and to allow them to be visible in the helping relationship. Verbal and nonverbal
communication is in agreement, making counselors transparent or open to clients as they interact.
This transparency can help reduce some of the risk of sharing themselves with others.

13.5.3.3 Empathy

The conditions just described set the stage for the main event-empathic understanding.
This is the crux of client-centred counseling. Counsellors, who immerse themselves in their
client’s experience, walk a mile in the other’s shoes. The counselors become part of their
client’s explicit feelings but also those that are implicit and must be brought into the area of client’s
awareness-especially those feelings that have not been verbalized because they are inconsistent
with client’s self-concept. Clients need support, understanding, and acceptance of their newly
emerging self-concept.
In short, if the three conditions are met, one can expect several things to occur in therapy.
 Firstly the client will explore feelings and attitudes at deeper levels
 New meanings and understanding which previously did not develop will be achieved
 The freedom to explore felt by the client allows for the consideration of material that is
threatening. Clients develop more acceptance
 Thus the client will be more open to experience the here and now, leading to greater
flexibility.

13.6 Summary

The person-centred approach reflects a sincere commitment to the self-actualization process. In

many ways it is close to the existential approach to counseling. The major contribution to client-
centred counseling has been the work of Carl Rogers.

The crux of this approach to counseling is the necessary characteristics of the counselor during the
counseling process and development of the philosophy that conceptualizes the individual in
positive, growth-oriented context. It places the responsibility for growth with the client.

The counseling relationship is seen as a facilitative one between counselor and client that conveys
warmth and caring.

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13.7 Technical Terms

Congruence The ability of counselors to be aware of their own inner
experiences and to allow them to be visible and open in the
helping relationship
Empathy The ability to put one’s self in another’s place to understand the
other person’s views and feelings
Subception The perception of information at a less-than- conscious level is
called subception

Unconditional positive regard Acceptance and respect for people regardless of their behavior

13.8 Model Questions

1. What are the core conditions of client centred therapy?
2. Discuss the effectiveness of client centred counselling in dealing with emotional problems.

13.9 Reference Books

Burger, M. J. (1990). Personality. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Locke, C. D., Myers, E. J., & Herr, L. E. (2001). The Handbook of Counselling. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.

Palmer, S. (2000). Introduction to Counselling and Psychotherapy: The Essential Guide. New
Delhi: Sage Publications.

Pietrofesa, J. J., Hoffman, A., & Splete, H. H. (1984). Counselling: An Introduction. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Company.

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Personality 14.1 Behaviourist Approach

LESSON - 14

BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH

14.0. Objectives
1. To understand the structure of personality according to the Stimulus-Response theory.
2. To learn about Dollard and Miller’s Stimulus-Response theory of personality.

Structure
14.1 The structure and dynamics of the S-R theory.
14.2 Summary
14.3 Technical Terms
14.4 Model Questions
14.5 Reference Books

14.1. The structure, dynamics and development of S-R theory

According to learning theories, the basic elements in personality are habits, which of
course arise as responses are reinforced. A human being is viewed as a creature of habits; they
are the fabric of one’s personality.

In learning theories, particularly in contrast with the Freudian viewpoint, relatively little
attention is paid to the individual’s inborn urges or primary drives. Most theories which consider
learning as a basis of personality are concerned with secondary, or acquired, drives. For
example, hunger and thirst are satisfied by the mother, and gradually the infant learns, through
conditioning, to desire the mother’s presence. Eventually, recognition by her and others similar
to her becomes important to the child. The drives for affiliation, approval, dependency, and many
others are acquired through associations with the satisfaction of primary drives. Similarly, many
fear drives, such as phobias, are learned through association with actual fear situations.

Learning viewpoints also emphasize that the values of reinforcers are learned. Formerly
neutral objects acquire reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcement –
such as the satisfaction of hunger, thirst and the need for sleep. They are known as secondary
reinforcers and are important in the acquired drives. Thus, objects which have no intrinsic value,
such as a photograph of a friend, acquire significance for the individual. Like primary reinforcers,
they also direct behaviour and therefore shape personality.

Like the psychoanalysts, the learning theorists stress the importance of the child’s early
years. They emphasize reinforcement, of course, but also the overwhelming helplessness of the
young child, which leaves him vulnerable to difficulties associated with child training. These
conditions can result in emotional conflicts.

The ways in which the conditions of learning are involved in early training situations can
be seen in the case of anger responses. Toilet training, unless carried out with the utmost

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concern for the child’s capacities, may result in angry confusion for the child as he tries to do his
parents’ bidding against natural impulses. Rivalry among brothers and sisters for the parents’
affection also is fertile ground for anger reactions. Even the feeding situation is likely to result in
anger, which in turn produces conflict because the expression of anger, usually is not permitted
by the parents. In fact, the expression of anger is one of the most frequently punished of all
responses in children. Suppression of anger is rewarded or reinforced. As a result, the child
learns to fear his anger, and he tries to hide it.

John Watson, the learning theorist showed how fear is learned through his experiments
with a child called Albert. The fear to a white rat was learned when it became associated
repeatedly with a loud noise. Later, this conditioned fear spread to other objects resembling the
rat, such as a white rabbit, a white beard, and a small dog.

In another case, involving an adult, a combat flyer developed a strong phobic reaction to
aircraft and materials associated with them. He became extremely frightened whenever he was
close to an aircraft, and gradually he became overwhelmingly anxious whenever he even
discussed airplanes or flying. Eventually, he became quite upset just thinking about these
matters.

In this case it was not difficult to trace the patient’s history and discover incidents in his
past experience, which appeared significant in learning this fear. He had piloted an aircraft, which
had been severely damaged, forcing him to fly low over enemy territory for an extended period.
While flying helplessly, he was exposed to loud explosions, the sight of allied planes being shot
down, and the agony of having in his own aircraft men who were killed and wounded, for whom
he was responsible. Under such conditions, the fear was learned as a response to the airplane
and everything connected with it. The fear generalized from the cues of this airplane to the similar
ones of other airplanes. This intense fear motivated responses of avoiding airplanes, and
whenever any one of these responses was successful, it was reinforced by a reduction in the
strength of the fear. Thus, the associated avoidance reactions were acquired through
reinforcement.

Similarly, a child who receives extra attention for being disruptive in class may continue
his acting-out behaviour. Excessive drinking, if it relieves an intense feeling of anxiety, may
become habitual. One approach to the understanding of neurotic and other abnormal behaviour is
to examine the conditions surrounding it and try to discover what reinforcement might be present
for the individual who maintains the particular behaviour. According to learning theory, such
phenomena as secondary reinforcement, intermittent reinforcement, and stimulus generalization
are involved.

Opponents of this position agree that learning theory is restricted to learning – that it is a
single-domain theory rather than a general theory of personality. Its focus is upon segments of
the personality, particularly habits, rather than upon embracing the whole individual.

On the other hand, learning theory has certain advantages. First, since it developed
primarily in the laboratory, the principles and concepts involved lend themselves more readily to
empirical testing. The numerous studies of the acquisition of undesirable habits are examples.
Secondly, learning theory, particularly in the operant model, is parsimonious. Elaborate
constructs are not involved. Thirdly, behaviour change can be predicted according to this theory,
both within and outside psychotherapy.

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Personality 14.3 Behaviourist Approach

Dollard and Miller’s Stimulus-Response theory is an example of learning theory where

approach to personality is based upon learning but includes aspects of psychoanalytic theory as
well. The concepts of response and reinforcement are central to the learning process. They are
the basic elements in the operant learning model. The concepts of drive, as arousing the
organism to activity, and cue, as enabling it to discriminate among stimuli, also are included.
Thus, this sequence is drive, cue, response, and reinforcement. The organism is aroused,
focuses upon special aspects of his environment, responds in a particular fashion, and then
obtains some kind of reinforcement.

14.2. Summary

According to learning theorists, a human being is a creature of habits; they are the fabric of one’s
personality.

Relatively little attention is paid to the individual’s inborn urges or primary drives.

Learning viewpoints also emphasize that the value of reinforcers are learned.

Formerly neutral objects acquire reinforcing properties through association with primary
reinforcement – such as the satisfaction of hunger, thirst and the need for sleep.

Since it developed primarily in the laboratory, the principles and concepts involved lend
themselves more readily to empirical testing.

Change can be predicted according to this theory, both within and outside psychotherapy.

14.3. Technical Terms

Drive an event which arouses the organism to activity.

Cue enabling it to discriminate among stimuli.

14.4. Model Questions

1. Describe the S-R theory with reference to Dollard and Miller’s theory of personality.

14.5. Reference Books

Munn, N. L., Fernald, L. D., & Fernald, P. (1967). Introduction to Psychology.

New Delhi: Oxford & IBH.

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Personality 15.1 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

LESSON - 15

SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING

15.0 Objectives
1. To understand the theory of personality according to Skinner
2. To understand the principles of operant conditioning

Structure of the lesson

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Operant conditioning
15.3 Key factors in operant conditioning
15.3.1 Reinforcement
15.3.2 Response shaping
15.3.3 Scheduled of reinforcement
15.3.4 Generalization
15.3.5 Extinction
15.4 Token economy
15.5 Personality development
15.6 Summary
15.7 Technical Terms
15.8 Model Questions
15.9 Reference Books

15.1 Introduction

B.F. Skinner was a behaviorist who is credited with defining the process of operant or
instrumental conditioning. According to Skinner, human beings are controlled by
environmental conditions. They are neither governed by unconscious motives (as the
psychoanalysts believed) nor are they free agents with choice and freedom to shape their own
destiny (as the humanistic psychologists assumed). The environment, according to Skinner and
other behaviorists is the primary shaper of human existence. People are born neither intrinsically
good nor bad; rather, they are neutral. As they interact with their environment, which includes
significant others, they learn behavior. Observable behavior is the primary focus of interest for
Skinner and other behaviorists. They did not pay much attention to subjective feelings, internal
states or unconscious motives. Skinner believed that if one can manipulate the environmental
conditions that shape and maintain behavior then one can change behavior through certain
principles.

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According to Skinner, behavior is therefore learned, orderly and carefully controlled

experiments can reveal the laws that control behavior. Personality too is shaped by these laws
that include classical conditioning, operant or instrumental conditioning and imitative learning.
Skinner’s specific contribution was operant conditioning.

15.2 Operant conditioning

According to Skinner, a basic characteristic of active organisms is voluntary behavior.

That is, human beings spontaneously emit responses; they ‘operate’ on the environment to
produce consequences. Operant behavior constitutes the most significant behavior in daily living
including speaking, reading, dressing, playing, eating, to name a few. According to Skinner, if any
of these operant responses are rewarded or reinforced positively, chances of such behaviour
being repeated again is increased. In other words, any emitted behavior that is rewarded is likely
to be established.

Skinner demonstrated the process of operant conditioning through a series of experiments

with rats in a cage called the Skinner box. Here, the rat may do many things or voluntarily emit
many responses. But it is only when it pushes a lever, a pellet of food (reinforcement) is released.
As such reinforcement is repeated, the rate of which the operant response (the lever press) is
emitted increases. The experimenter thus shapes behaviour by reinforcing those responses
which approximate successively the particular ones desired in the experiment.

15.3 Key factors in operant conditioning

15.3.1 Reinforcement

The principle of reinforcement of operant conditioning as it accounts for behaviour

patterns that are established, maintained or extinguished. Reinforcement is defined as any event
that follows behavior and increase the probability of its re-occurrence. Reinforces, that can be
primary or secondary, account for a wide range of behaviors. Primary reinforces satisfy basic
psychological needs. For example, food and sleep arte primary reinforces. Secondary reinforces
which satisfy psychological and social needs, become valued because of their previous
association with primary reinforces. For example, smiles, praise, money, gifts and so on are
powerful means of shaping desired behavior. In a therapeutic setting, systematic use of positive
reinforcement increases the desired behavior.

15.3.2 Response shaping

Here, current behaviors are gradually modified by reinforcing small elements of the
desired new behavior, thereby successively approximating the end behavior. Positive
reinforcement is frequently used in this process. Response shaping is used in schools and in
working with behavior problems of children. Thus, if a teacher wishes to shape cooperative as
opposed to competitive behavior in children, the teacher can give attention and approval to the
desired behavior.

The learning of complex behaviors starts with learning simple behaviors and then using
the laws of reinforcement, generalization, and extinction to learn successively more complex
behavior until the target behavior is learned. Shaping occurs naturally when parents give their
child attention when she makes her first approximation of a word such as “m, m, m, m”. But after

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Personality 15.3 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

some time this becomes less exciting and therefore yields less intense reinforcement for the
child. This pushes the child to utter the closer approximation of “ma, ma, ma”. Then the child will
learn single words and begin to put together two, three and four words and finally make a
sentence and then several sentences. All of these closer approximations are reinforced while the
previous approximations are no longer reinforced and therefore extinguished.

15.3.3 Schedules of reinforcement

Besides shaping behavior, reinforcements also maintain established behavior. Schedules

of reinforcement refer to frequency and timing of the application of providing reinforcement by
which behavior is maintained. Continuous reinforcement rewards behavior every time it is
emitted. In such cases, the person learns what specific behavior is rewarded. Intermittent
reinforcement varies the rate at which a reward is given for emitting specific behavior. The
principle of intermittent reinforcement explains why people persist in gambling or betting on horse
races. They are rewarded enough to continue their behavior even though they may lose more
than they gain.

15.3.4 Generalization

This is the learning principle that allows us to transfer learning from one situation to
another when there is some similarity in the situations. Thus people who have learned that being
assertive leads to positive benefits in one situation, will be able to apply this learning in similar
situations.

15.3.5 Extinction

When a response is made continuously without reinforcement, that response tends to

drop out. Since learned behavior patterns tend to weaken and become eliminated over a period
of time if they are not reinforced, one way of eliminating maladaptive behavior is to remove the
reinforcement for it. For example, if a child displays show-off behavior, one way of eliminating or
at least reducing such behavior would be for parents to avoid giving attention to the undesired
behavior as much as possible.

15.4 Token economy

Token economy is the application of operant conditioning to modify the maladaptive

behavior of people that is, to reduce the probability of disturbed behavior and to increase the
frequency of desired ones.

The steps to be followed in a token economy programme are as follows:

i. Identification of the desirable behaviors that need to be reinforced. In children for

example, it could be learning certain skills such as tidying their room, helping mother
in the kitchen, or behaviors such as being polite and courteous to guests, doing their
home work without being prompted and so on.

ii. Establishing a medium of exchange, a token that stands for something else (the back
up reinforcers). These could be small cards, or stars to be stuck on a chart and so on.

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iii. Deciding the back-up reinforcers. These are special privileges or pleasures for which
the tokens can be traded and might include movie shows, TV time, special foods,
outings, and so on. Each of these is given a price so that more tokens are required for
the more desirable and fewer for the less wanted items.

iv. When the person acts in desired ways, he or she receives the proper number of
tokens which he or she can save or spend as he wishes on a greater or lesser reward.

The purpose of using tokens rather than primary reinforcers is that they bridge the delay
between the occurrence of the desired behavior and the ultimate reinforcement. Thus as the child
makes his or her bed, does his or homework without being prompted by parents, he or she
immediately receives the requisite tokens.

The effects of token economy have been demonstrated on institutionalized psychotic

patients, mentally challenged children, delinquents and disturbed school children. Basically, the
individual learns that he or she can control his or her own environment in such a way that he or
she will elicit positive reinforcement from others.

15.5 Personality Development

According to Skinner and other behaviorists, the bases for the structure of a person’s
personality are the behaviors he or she learns. If behavior is reinforced by a powerful reinforcer,
then it will be learned. In the earliest years, parents are providers of nourishment, love, attention
and recognition that are potent reinforcers. Behavior that is praised and approved by the parents
is repeated. The child will then further generalize behaviors that please parents by behaving in
the approved way even when they are not present because of the child’s knowledge of their
approval.

As the child grows, the environment has an increasingly powerful effect. His or her
personality develops as environmental reinforcers being to act. Some reinforcers act on behavior
that is maladaptive or inappropriate. Behaviors that are maladaptive either bring the person into
conflict with society (such as anti-social behavior) or fail to bring pleasure to the person (such as
anxiety).

In Skinner’s theory, little attention has been given to a theory of personality as such.
Attention has focused mainly on how people learn and can change maladaptive behaviors.

15.6 Summary

B. F. Skinner was a behaviorist who is associated with the technique of operant conditioning that
refers to voluntary emission of responses which are likely to be repeated and established if they
are reinforced.

The key factors in learning behavior are reinforcement, response shaping, schedules of
reinforcement, generalization, and extinction.

According to Skinner, personality development takes place through learning from the earliest
years. As the child grows, he or she generalizes behaviors that please parents by behaving in the

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Personality 15.5 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

approved way even when they are not present because of the child’s knowledge of parents’
approval.

15.7 Technical Terms

Reinforcement Any event that occurs after an emitted response and increases
the probability of its occurring again in similar circumstances
Schedules of reinforcement refer to frequency and timing of the application of roviding
reinforcement
Operant conditioning a method of learning whereby voluntary emitting of responses
by the organism is established and repeated if such responses
are reinforced
Shaping the process of learning progressively more complex behaviours

15.8 Model Questions

1. Explain the process of operant conditioning.

2. What is the role of reinforcement and response shaping in learning behaviour?

3. How does personality development take place according to Skinner?

15.9 Reference Books

Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1989). Theories of personality. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.

Pietrofesa, J. J., Hoffman, A., & Splete, H. H. (1984). Counseling. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.,

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Personality 16.1 Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

LESSON - 16

ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

16.0. Objectives

1. To understand the social learning theory of personality as advocated by Albert Bandura.

Structure
16.1 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
16.2 Key concepts in Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
16.3 Summary
16.4 Technical Terms
16.5 Model Questions
16.6 Reference Books

16.1. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory had its origins in the behavioural writings of Ivan Pavlov, John B.
Watson, and B.F. Skinner. Each of these theorists argued that personality is no more than
learned behaviour and that the way to understand personality is simply to understand the process
of learning. The leading figure in social learning theory is Albert Bandura.

In one sense, Bandura is very much a behaviourist. He agrees with the view that
personality is the sum total of learned behaviour. But he broke with traditional behaviourism in
two main ways: (a) he sees people as playing an active role in determining their own actions,
rather than being passively acted upon by the learning environment, and (b) he emphasizes the
importance of cognition in personality. As personality is learned from other people in society, the
term social learning is used. Individual differences in behaviour result from variations in the
conditions of learning that the person encounters in the course of growing up.

Bandura portrays human beings as playing an active role in our own lives. He says that
social learning is an example of reciprocal determination: not only is a person’s behaviour
learned, but the social learning environment is altered by the person’s behaviour. The
environment that we learn from, after all, is made up of people. If we behave toward them in a
timid way, or a friendly way, or a hostile way, those people will react in very different ways to us –
and will hence be teaching us very different things about social relationships. The aggressive,
overconfident person will learn that the world is a cold, rejecting place; the friendly person will
learn that the world is warm and loving. Personality is learned behaviour, but it is also behaviour
that influences future learning experiences.

16.2. Key concepts in Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

According to Bandura, the key concepts in the study of personality are classical
conditioning, operant conditioning and modeling. Some behaviour patterns are learned through

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direct experience; the individual behaves in a certain manner and is rewarded or punished. But
responses can also be acquired without direct reinforcement. Because we can make use of
complex symbolic processes to code and store our observations in memory, we can learn by
observing the actions of others and by noting the consequences of those actions. Thus, for social
learning theorists, reinforcement is not necessary for learning, although it may facilitate learning
by focusing attention. Much of human learning is thus observational or vicarious.

Reinforcement may not be necessary for learning, but it is crucial for the performance of
learned behaviour. One of social learning theory’s main assumptions is that people behave in
ways likely to produce reinforcement. A person’s repertoire of learned behaviours is extensive:
the particular action chosen for a specific situation depends on the expected outcome. Most
adolescent girls know how to fight, having watched TV characters aggress by kicking, hitting with
the fists, and so on. But since this kind of behaviour is seldom reinforced in girls, it is unlikely to
occur except in unusual circumstances.

The reinforcement that controls the expression of learned behaviour may be (1) direct –
tangible rewards, social approval or disapproval, or alleviation of aversive conditions; (2)
vicarious – observation of someone else receiving reward or punishment for similar behaviour;
or (3) self-administered – evaluation of one’s own performance with self-praise or reproach.
Self-administered reinforcement plays an important role in social learning theory.

A person’s actions in a given situation depend upon the specific characteristics of the
situation, the individual’s appraisal of the situation, and past reinforcement for behaviour in similar
situations. People behave consistently insofar as the situations they encounter and the roles they
are expected to play remain relatively stable.

Most social behaviours, however, are not uniformly rewarded across different settings.
The individual learns to discriminate those contexts in which certain behaviour is appropriate and
those in which it is not. To the extent that a person is rewarded for the same response in many
different situations, generalization takes place. Thus, a boy whose father reinforces him for
physical aggression at home as well as against his teachers and peers would probably develop a
personality that is pervasively aggressive. But more often aggressive responses are differentially
rewarded, and learned discriminations determine the situations in which the individual will display
aggression.

Bandura maintains that people’s characteristic patterns of behaviour are shaped by the
models that they are exposed to. A model is a person whose behaviour is observed by another.
In recent decades, the potential influence of models has been dramatically and tragically
demonstrated by the occurrence of copycat crimes.

As social learning theory has been refined, it has become apparent that some models are
more influential than others. Both children and adults tend to imitate people they like or respect
more than people they don’t. People are also especially prone to imitate the behaviour of people
whom they consider attractive or powerful. In addition, imitation is more likely when people see
similarity between models and themselves. Thus, children tend to imitate same-sex role models
somewhat more than opposite-sex models. Finally, people are more likely to copy a model if they
observe that the model’s behaviour leads to positive outcomes.

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Personality 16.3 Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

According to social learning theory, models have a great impact on personality

development. Children learn to be assertive, conscientious, self-sufficient, dependable,
easygoing, and so forth by observing others behaving in these ways. Parents, teachers, relatives,
siblings, and peers serve as models for young children. In the social learning theory view, a
person will develop an adequate personality only if he or she is exposed to good models and is
reinforced for appropriate behaviour. An inadequate learning environment, on the other hand, will
result in inadequate personality development.

According to Bandura, our cognitions are also a prime determinant of our behaviour. A
person who believes that helping others makes them less self-reliant will be stingy; and a person
who thinks that other people find her boring will act quiet and shy. Bandura places particular
emphasis on our cognitions about our ability to handle the demands of life. In his terms, self-
efficacy is the perception that one is capable of doing what is necessary to reach one’s goals –
both in the sense of knowing what to do and being emotionally able to do it. People who perceive
themselves as self-efficacious accept greater challenges, expend more effort, and may be more
successful in reaching their goals as a result. A person with a poor sense of self-efficacy about
social poise may not accept a promotion at work because it would involve giving many speeches
and having to negotiate with dignitaries. Although our perceptions of self-efficacy are learned
from what others say about us, our direct experiences of success and failure, and other sources,
these cognitions continue to influence our behaviour from the inside out.

Bandura also emphasizes the learning of personal standards of reward and punishment
by which we judge our own behaviour. We learn our personal standards from observing the
personal standards that other people model and from the standards that others use when
rewarding or punishing us. But, although we are the passive recipients of these standards in a
sense, we then actively use them to govern our own behaviour in the process that Bandura calls
self-regulation. When we behave in ways that meet our personal standards, we cognitively pat
ourselves on the back – we reinforce ourselves. We feel a self-reinforcing sense of pride or
happiness when we meet our standards. Conversely, we punish ourselves when we fail to meet
our personal standards.

Bandura views the primary challenge of personality development as the development of

adequate social relationships. To do this, the person must learn both appropriate ways to relate to
other people and appropriate cognitions about himself or herself and about relationships with
others. Adequate social relationships are important because few people are happy without them,
but also because they influence the process of social learning.

16.3. Summary

According to Bandura, personality is simply something that is learned; it is the sum total of all the
ways we have learned to act, think and feel.

The key concepts in the study of personality are classical conditioning, operant conditioning and
modeling.

Some behaviour patterns are learned through direct experience; the individual behaves in a
certain manner and is rewarded or punished.

Some patterns of behaviour are shaped by the models people are exposed to.

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A person’s actions in a given situation depend upon the specific characteristics of the situation,
the individual’s appraisal of the situation, and past reinforcement for behaviour in similar
situations.

Social learning theorists view the primary challenge of personality development as the
development of adequate social relationships.

16.4. Technical Terms

Personality the sum total of all the ways we have learned to act, think and feel

Direct reinforcement tangible rewards, social approval or disapproval, or alleviation of

aversive conditions

Vicarious reinforcement observation of someone else receiving reward or punishment for

similar behaviour

16.5. Model Questions

1. What is reinforcement? Explain the key concepts in Bandura’s social learning theory.

16.6. Reference Books

Hilgard, E. R., Atkinson, R. C., & Atkinson, R. L. (1953). Introduction to Psychology. New Delhi:
Oxford & IBH.

Lahey, B. B. (1988). Psychology: An Introduction. Madison: WCB Brown & Benchmark.

Weiten, W. (1995). Psychology: Themes & Variations. Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole.

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CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION
ACHARYA NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY

PAPER III

PERSONALITY
 Personality

LESSON WRITERS

Prof. Shanti V. Prasad

Dr. T. V. Anand Rao

Prof. P. Nirmala Devi

Prof. U. Vindhya

EDITOR

Prof. U. Vindhya
Department of Psychology
Andhra University
Visakhapatnam
 CONTENTS

Lesson Title Page No.

Unit I 1. Definition of Personality ................ 1

2. Determinants of Personality ............. 9

3. Personality Assessment ................. 24

Unit II 4. Introduction to Psychoanalytic Theory ....... 34

5. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory .............. 40

6. Jung’s Analytic Theory &

Adler’s Social Psychological Theory .......... 51

7. Erikson’s Contemporary Psychoanalytic Theory . . . . 62

Unit III 8. Type & Trait Theory ..................... 73

9. Eysenck’s Biological Trait Theory ............ 81

10. Allport’s Trait Approach ................... 89

Unit IV 11. Maslow’s Theory of Human Motivation ........ 97

12. Assumptions about human nature ........... 106

13. Roger’s Person Centred Theory ............. 113

Unit V 14. Dollard & Miller’s Stimulus-Response Theory .... 122

15. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning .............. 127

16. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory ............ 134