Scientific Writing
All scientists are faced with the pressure to publish!
Why publish?
• Share ideas and results
• Leave a record of research to which others can add
• Receive due recognition
• Attract interest and funding
• Receive expert feedback
• Legitimize research; receive independent verification
Scientific Writing
Why is it difficult to publish?
Not all research is sufficiently novel
Experiments do not always work: positive results are
easier to publish
Scientific journals have specific requirements which are
often difficult to meet
Communicating your ideas can open you up to criticism
Scientific Writing
No one correct way to write; however
CLARITY IS EVERYTHING
Writing should be concise (express yourself in as few
words as possible while still being clear and succinct) and
precise (accurate, not ambiguous).
Avoid informal language, metaphors
Scientific Writing
Jargon
Know your audience; if very broad, avoid jargon
Scientific Writing
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Do not begin a sentence with an abbreviation
Do not fill a paper with abbreviations and acronyms,
overuse of these makes reading and comprehension
difficult.
A few relevant terms are acceptable.
Define all abbreviations/acronyms at first use, e.g.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Scientific Writing
Unit abbreviations
Always have a space between a number and the
abbreviated unit:
100 mM, 15 μmol.ml-1, 2.5 min
Exceptions: percentage and degrees:
25%, 37°C
Scientific Writing
Tenses:
Past tense: Use in the methods (telling what you did) and
the results results (telling what your results
were)
Also use in the discussion of your results
Present tense: Most of the introduction should be in the
present tense
Scientific Writing
What is a peer reviewed article:
The first printed report of a scientist’s research
It is written following a standard format of introduction,
methods, results and discussion
Published in a journal that evaluates manuscripts
Printed in a format that will be available to other
researchers
Scientific Writing
When is it time to write?
As a scientist, you should be writing all the time!
When is it time to publish?
• You have valid results
• Your findings will improve knowledge
• The work has not been published already.
Scientific Writing
How to get started.
• Get all papers and data together
• Get in the right frame of mind, remove distracts
• Have an open day
• Make a start!
Scientific Writing
Making a start:
Write a Synopsis of the Paper:
Questions
Hypothesis / Aims
Observations / Main results
Integration with published work
Conclusions
Scientific Writing
The conventional structure of a research article in
science – AIMRaD
Abstract
Introduction
Methods and Materials
Results
Discussion
Always check INSTRUCTIONS to AUTHORS before
starting.
Scientific Writing
AIMRaD: hour glass “shape” of a generic research
article
Abstract
B Introduction (1)
(2)
(3)
A. The whole structure is governed
C Methods by the results; everything in
the article must relate and be
connected with the data.
A Results
D Discussion
Scientific Writing
AIMRaD: hour glass “shape” of a generic research
article
Abstract
B.(1) The introduction begins with a broad
B Introduction (1) focus. Your starting point should be
(2) one that attracts the interest of
(3) your audience.
B.(3) The introduction ends with a focus
C Methods parallel to the results; often a
statement of the aim(s) or purpose of
A Results the work.
B.(2) Between these points, background
information and previous work are
D Discussion woven together to connect with the
problem addressed in the paper.
Scientific Writing
AIMRaD: hour glass “shape” of a generic research
article
Abstract
B Introduction (1)
(2)
(3) C. The methods section establishes
credibility for the results by
C Methods showing how they were obtained;
allows the experiments to be
A Results
reproduced.
D Discussion
Scientific Writing
AIMRaD: hour glass “shape” of a generic research
article
Abstract
B Introduction (1)
(2)
(3)
D. The Discussion begins with the same
C Methods breadth of focus as the results; but
ends more broadly (as the starting
point in the introduction). At the
A Results end, you are showing how your work
is important in the “bigger picture”.
D Discussion
Scientific Writing
Results: The key driver of an article
The Results turn the data into knowledge
The data illustrates your scientific story, presenting
the evidence to either support or reject the
hypothesis
Scientific Writing
Results: The key driver of an article
When preparing a paper, first identify from your
results a clearly connected story leading to your “take
home” messages.
Focus on your figures and tables first. Write a list of
one or two points highlighting the message of the data.
Sort the figures and tables into the best order to
connect the story together
Scientific Writing
Results: The key driver of an article
Then consider:
What data to include/exclude.
The important points that form the story
What is the take home message
Scientific Writing
RESULTS
NB: Tables and Figures should stand alone!
The reader should not need to consult the text of the
article to understand the data presented in the table
or figure.
All necessary information should appear in the table/
figure legend or footnotes.
Show stats in the legend.
Scientific Writing
What is better, a table or a figure?
Tables are useful for:
• Recording data
• Showing actual data values and their precision
• Allowing multiple comparisons between elements in
many directions
Scientific Writing
What is better, a table or a figure?
Figures are useful for:
• Showing an overall trend
• Comprehension of a story through shape rather
than numbers
• Allowing simple comparisons between a few
elements
Scientific Writing
Figure legends and table titles
Should explain what the data being presented are,
and highlight the key points as they relate to the main
story.
Scientific Writing
Figure legends have a general form of 5 parts:
1. A title, summarizes what the figure is about.
2. Details of the results shown.
3. Additional explanation of components of the figure,
methods used (don’t describe the experiment).
4. Description of units and statistical notation.
5. Explanation of symbols or notation used.
Tables will have a title, and only brief parts of point 2
and 3.
Scientific Writing
Writing the first draft
• Focus on getting ideas onto paper (just write)
[don’t worry about grammar at this stage, if you try and write
and edit at the same time, neither get done well]
• Use the outline and write the easiest sections first.
• Try and write without distractions
[ have short breaks, and keep at it!]
• Cite references in the text as you write
Scientific Writing
Revise Manuscript
Once a draft is complete, put it aside for a day or two,
and then revise.
1. Go through paper and check that it reads logically and
clearly
2. Correct grammar and spelling (use the spell check!)
3. Condense information
4. Remove superfluous words; check your word choice
Has a complex word been used where a more appropriate
simple word could have been used
Have meaningless qualifiers been used e.g. rather small, very…
Scientific Writing
References:
Make sure all cited references are relevant
Either use author or numerical system
Check instructions on referencing
Citations -
Author: reference list in alphabetical order
e.g. (Jones & Bulani, 2009)
e.g. (Khumalo et al., 2010)
Number: Number in order that the reference
first appears in the text
Scientific Writing
The Title
Many people will read the title in search engines, in a journal,
and in secondary publications.
[If not worded correctly, many will stop reading at that point]
Your paper may not reach its audience if the title is not to
the point
Aim for a clear, concise, informative title.
Scientific Writing
The Abstract
An abstract is a mini version of your paper and it is
often preferable to write it towards the end.
After the title , it is the next port of call for an
interested reader.
A few sentences of introduction, methods, results and
discussion.
It should not contain literature citations, much data or
meaning clauses (We discuss results…)
Scientific Writing
Co-authorships
Who was involved
Who had the ideas
Senior authorship?
Acknowledgements
Expert technical assistance
Funding agencies
Scientific Writing
Before Submitting
Get feedback from a peer and a proof-reader from
outside the field.
Ask the following:
Does it read easily
Does it tell a logical story
Is the punctuation correct
Are all cited references in the reference list
Is the format consistent throughout
Scientific Writing
Developing scientific writing skills;
Journal clubs
reading, critical discussion
Writing feedback from colleagues
Practice, practice…………………………………
Scientific Writing
Practises of successful authors
1. Review manuscripts for colleagues and journals
(they develop a framework for research writing and critique)
2. Plan their research to meet quality criteria.
3. Use structured review processes from colleagues to
improve manuscripts.
4. Use referee reports to improve their manuscripts.
