Sydney Carls-Diamante: Understanding the Filipino through Meta-Mythology 53

Understanding The Filipino Through Meta-Mythology

Sidney Carls-Diamante
MA Philosophy
De La Salle University

Introduction

T he treatment of the supernatural is terrain that leaves much exploration

in philosophy. Yet, a society’s concept of supernatural beings constitutes
the earliest stage of its method of knowledge acquisition: Before science
was organized to answer the questions of the world, tales involving
otherworldly entities provided our ancestors with detailed explanations for
why certain things existed and why the processes of nature took place the
way they did. One may even go so far as to posit the supernatural world as
early science, because its constituents were systematically used to determine
causes in the world. But unlike science, the concepts laid out by the panorama
of the supernatural provide a clearer reflection of the worldview of its people
of origin. While both science and mythology arise from the need to answer
the questions of what, how, and why, their methods of arriving at the answers
are radically different. Science bases its claims on the results of processes
designed to eliminate or minimize subjectivity, while mythology incorporates
the cultural components of the people of origin. While science aims at
uniformity in understanding phenomena, mythology is too tightly enmeshed
in culture that no two mythological systems can be identical. Thus, the
supernatural can be used as a text in the hermeneutics of a people.

The cultural approach is one of the three perspectives taken in the

study of Filipino philosophy (the other two being the traditional and national
approaches). It seeks to cull points of points of identification of the Filipino
people from different expressions of culture: the arts, literature and folklore,
language, religion, and even food. One might say this method lifts off
character traits of the Filipino from unsuspecting elements of nationality.
Yet, one may also vouch for the effectiveness of this approach by arguing
that observing what someone does spontaneously is an excellent way to get
to know his character. The storytellers behind the myths did not think of
what others would read between the lines of their tales. With no other means
of arriving at answers to their cosmological questions, early societies
54 DALUMAT

constructed their worldview around their mythology while the latter served
as a concretization, even a record, of the former. One may argue, and with
good reason, that this is a circular process, but it is nonetheless a dynamic
one, with worldview and mythology both feeding on and drawing from each
other. Though mysticism would eventually be dispelled as empirical
verification became increasingly possible, the worldview that had developed
along with mythology had already embedded itself into the people and their
culture.

Though the number of Philippine supernatural beings is incalculable,

there are common themes pervading Philippine mythological consciousness.
This paper aims through meta-mythological examination of the most
commonly occurring themes in the folklore of the Philippines to derive an
understanding of the Filipino from a philosophical perspective. Asserting
the uniqueness of the Filipino is not the principal aim of this paper, though
such may take place as corollaries of the discussion. The conclusion may
arise that this paper makes absolute and inflexible declarations about the
Filipino psyche; this is not the case, for any hermeneutics seeks not to
pronounce categorical judgments but to attain understanding of its object
of study. This paper is inductive in nature, and being so does not focus on
exceptions but on generally observed trends. Throughout this paper the
Filipino people will be referred to as “the Filipino” rather than “Filipinos,” as
the latter gives the impression of being an impenetrable universal.

The Philippines is a composite of hundreds of linguistic groups (the

term preferred by the late ethnomusicologist Dr. Jose Maceda) each with its
own distinct culture, language, and mythological system. While many
elements in the folklore of different linguistic groups from the same region
overlap, there is still variation in each group’s treatment of mythological
concepts. Different regions may thus contain different leanings in their
folklore. For instance, one who enters the spirit world in lowland mythology
may be unable to leave, but his Cordillera counterpart who travels to the
other world may return unharmed. But either way, venturing into the other
world in not something one must ordinarily do. Due to this diversity of
cultures, the mythology of the Philippines is not as unified as that of its
European counterparts. The cultural diversity of the Philippines proves
problematic to unifying Philippine mythology, which, thankfully, is not the
concern of this paper. Yet it is possible to come up with anthologies of
Philippine literature, and Philippine cookbooks, albeit divided into regional
categories. Furthermore, the presence of the Philippine constitution and
the term “Filipino” when referring to nationality or citizenship prove that
there is indeed something that can be called Philippine. Thus, there is no
reason to deny mythology the national umbrella.
Sydney Carls-Diamante: Understanding the Filipino through Meta-Mythology 55
Because this paper deals with general themes found in Philippine
mythology and not specific myths and entities, I have decided not to include
in-depth discussions of these. The handful of myths found here have been
recounted solely for illustration, while the supernatural beings mentioned
do not need to be described. Translations or approximations of the names
of these entities will suffice. References to Western myths are also made in
this paper, to elucidate similarities and differences between the Westerner
and the Filipino.

The word “spirit” (as in spirit world and spirit beings) is used loosely
in this paper. It is used for the sake of convenience, to refer to supernatural
beings and their realm. Spirit is a poorly translated approximation of
Philippine nomenclature for the supernatural, for many of our “spirit beings”
are also in part material, or at least can be perceived by the senses. A linguistic
problem, thus, is present. The Visayan term for supernatural beings, “dili
ingon nato” or “those not like us” tersely captures the dissimilarity between
them and humans. On the other hand, the English term “spirit” implies a
dichotomy that cannot be bridged. If the term were used in a strict sense,
any interaction whatsoever between the supernatural and mortal worlds
would be impossible to speak of. Western philosophy does not lack in its
emphasis of such a dichotomy, as exemplified by ancient Greek and Cartesian
dualisms.

Integrated Worldview
In the Cordillera tale of the star wife (Eugenio 113-114), a hunter
discovers beautiful winged women who took off their wings to bathe in the
lake. Realizing they were stars, he stole one pair of wings and waited to see
which of the maidens it belonged. After their bath, the star maidens donned
their wings and returned to the sky, leaving behind their companion whose
wings had been stolen. The hunter then took that star maiden to be his
wife. They had a child together and lived happily, until the star wife stumbled
upon her wings. She put her wings on and returned to the sky without her
husband’s knowing it. In the Bontoc version of the tale, the star wife would
return every night to her husband’s home to nurse her child until he was old
enough to be weaned. In the Igorot version, the star wife took their son with
him. The husband’s despair at losing his wife and son was heard by the god
Lumawig, who instructed him to climb the rope that would be let down
from the sky that he would be reunited with his wife. Wisely, Lumawig
provided them with a road—the rainbow—so they would be able to visit the
earth any time they pleased.

The Filipino, unlike the Westerner, does not dichotomize the world.
Rather, the Filipino has an integrated worldview. In his view, space is non-
homogenous (Mercado 126): Thus, unlike his occidental counterpart, he is
able to conceptualize a world in which spirit beings and humans can co-
56 DALUMAT

exist. Many peoples in the Philippines believe spirit beings live with us, but
we just cannot see them (Nono). For the Filipino, seeking harmony between
the two worlds is a matter of course. In the view of the westerner, the nature
of space is such that it can accommodate entities only of one particular
substance. On one hand are the idealists whose claim is summarized by G.
E. Moore as “the universe is spiritual,” and on the other are the materialists
who view matter and motion as the sole substances of the world. The
difficulty in addressing the concept of spiritual beings mingling with material
entities is a common problem encountered by Western metaphysics. For
the west, the existence of God and spiritual beings must be proven, but for
the Filipino the existence of these entities is a fact (Mercado 167). The
Western universe has a tendency towards exclusivity, but the Filipino universe
is a melting pot of substances.

Humans can enter the spirit world, sometimes unwittingly,

sometimes by coercion, or sometimes even deliberately. Both Philippine and
Western mythology warn us against taking food or drink from spirit beings,
lest we be taken into their world forever or at least lose track of the passage
of time. In Philippine mythology, the prohibition on eating anything offered
by a supernatural being is a humanistic issue: A human cannot be happy in
the spirit world for long, just as a spirit being in the human world will long to
return to her or his own realm. Though a supernatural being’s return to the
otherworld is normally possible, a Filipino tricked by an engkanto (fairy folk)
into entering the spirit world is usually lost forever. The ancient Greek may
be unwilling to reciprocate a deity’s love may do so for personal reasons or
out of fear of another deity’s jealousy, but the Filipino’s unwillingness to
enter any kind of relationship with an engkanto stems from the notion of
eternity.

Cyclical View of Time

The absence of the desire for immortality in Philippine mythology
is striking. Ambrosia, the eternal youth of the classical deities, selling one’s
soul to the devil, and vampirism are some examples that reveal the Western
world’s desire to transcend old age and death. Mercado writes that “for the
Westerner time wasted is gone forever. But for the Filipino there is always
tomorrow” (Mercado 112). The contrast between western sayings
“Opportunity knocks but once” and “Time is gold” and the Filipino adages
“Paglipas ng dilim may araw pang darating” (Mercado 113) and “Cry tonight
and you’ll be happy tomorrow” (Sta. Romana-Cruz 63a) is stark. Mercado
points out that the westerner’s preoccupation with the past is evidenced by
their predilection for histories, biographies, and even diaries.

Unlike the Western mind which views time as linear, the Filipino’s
concept of time is cyclical (Mercado 111-112). Because the Filipino tends to
think cyclically, he believes that all things have a beginning and an end. Thus,
Sydney Carls-Diamante: Understanding the Filipino through Meta-Mythology 57
the notion that something will go on eternally is daunting to him. Though
the stories vary when it comes to the reason for the eternity of a relationship
with an engkanto, they generally agree that such a relationship forfeits any
hope of liberation. Though it is possible to avoid being ensnared by an
engkanto (e.g. by turning one’s clothes inside out), tales wherein a human is
actually able to escape the clutches of the engkanto are extremely rare.

Because the Filipino sees time as cyclical, he is aware of change.

Though he may not always welcome drastic change especially regarding
institutions, change in both personal and external circumstances come as
no surprise to him. The Filipino might not like change, but he is nonetheless
capable of adapting to it. In fact, the Filipino is said to have a remarkable
ability to cope, because his awareness that no situation is permanent allows
him to be optimistic even when faced with great adversity. Yet, the Filipino
is prone to sinking into a comfort zone, often resisting change when he feels
that the current situation is working for him. What terrifies the Filipino is
not the prospect of living with an engkanto—some say that an engkanto
lover or friend will do anything to make his or her human companion happy—
but the notion that there is no possibility of leaving when one grows
dissatisfied with the relationship. For the Filipino, being in an unpleasant
situation is not as horrifying as the realization that there is no possibility for
the situation to change.

Being Taken by Appearances

The engkantos are often described as beautiful human-like creatures
that do not age. They have the capacity to change their shape, sometimes
taking on animal or plant forms. Some of them are benevolent and others
evil. The engkantos are usually sly, using trickery to lure unsuspecting humans
into their lair. Often, they do this because they are attracted to the physical
appearance of the person; other times, they simply wish to make mischief.

The Filipino has often been described as having an “uncritical mind”

(Mercado 81). He is easily taken by appearances. The stern admonitions
against being taken by the beauty of an engkanto or a diwata (nymph or
goddess) reflect this tendency of the Filipino. It is a tendency of humans in
general to associate goodness with beauty and evil with ugliness. The deities
of Olympus, with their perfect physical form, were the “fulfillment of the
[Greeks’] search for beauty” (Hamilton 16). The Filipino often assumes that
creatures that are not pleasant to behold must be treated with caution. Thus,
he does not need much reminding to stay away from the kapre (cigar-smoking
ogre) or tikbalang (creature whose upper body is that of a horse and lower
body that of a man) or old woman who looks as though she is a mangkukulam
(crone or witch). The engkantos pose more problems for the Filipino, for
they are beautiful creatures.
58 DALUMAT

In both western and Filipino folklore, a beautiful maiden often has

many suitors. However, the similarity stops here. In the West, the girl’s
character traits are often enumerated either to complement or provide irony
to her beauty, reflecting the dualistic tendencies of Western thought. In
Filipino tales, when a maiden is said to be beautiful it is assumed that she is
also righteous. Only when the opposite is the case is a description of her
character necessitated. One such instance is the legend of Mt. Malindig.
Maria Malindig, the beautiful but wicked queen of Marinduque, was punished
for her insolence with the destruction of her palace and its replacement
with a mountain. (Paterno 44-49).

Though the handsome or beautiful villain often occurs in both

Western and Philippine folklore, these two vary in their treatment of such a
character. In Philippine folklore, the protagonist is often good looking and
the villain is usually ugly, reflecting the Filipino’s reluctance (or inability) to
dichotomize. Just as the Filipino’s view of the world is holistic, so is his view
of human beings. A person may be physically healthy, but if he is of bad
character (masamang budhi) he is not healthy at all (Mercado 70). The
westerner’s handsome villain reflects the dualism of his thought: the material,
i.e. the body, can be regarded independently of the spiritual, i.e. the
personality. For the Filipino, there is no such dualism, for one cannot exist
completely independent of the other. To the Westerner “what’s inside that
counts” may make sense, but for the Filipino a consciousness apart from a
body is inconceivable.

The treatment of the engkanto reveals the Filipino’s tendency to

be taken by appearances while issuing admonitions against making judgments
based on superficial criteria. That the engkanto receive such dual treatment
displays the Filipino’s awareness of his shortcomings in this particular area.
While the Filipino may not be conscious that in his view the world is non-
homogenous or that he perceives cycles when referring to time, he knows
that hasty, ill-founded conclusions are not advisable.

Consciousness of Status
Being forbidden to reciprocate an engkanto’s love also reflects the
Filipino’s fear of overstepping class boundaries. The Filipino was once
characterized by his strong sense of community, which seems to have
weakened with the rise of urbanization, but continues to be perceptible in
the pre-industrial communities at present. Mercado writes that while the
westerner puts a premium on private property and personal space, the
Filipino is concerned with his neighbor (Mercado 146). For the Westerner it
is proper to mind one’s own business and not intrude into others’ affairs,
but the rural Filipino who leaves a neighbor to his own concerns is considered
indifferent and unsociable. In fact, a Filipino who displays such coldness might
even come under suspicion that he or she is an aswang or ghoul (Tan).
Sydney Carls-Diamante: Understanding the Filipino through Meta-Mythology 59

While the boundaries of property and personal life are not as marked
for the Filipino as they are for the Westerner, the Filipino is very much aware
that there is an appropriate code of behavior for every station in life. Mercado
writes that “Filipinos stress duties in their non-egalitarian or hierarchic
society” (Mercado 149). Though the Filipino has no caste system, he is highly
conscious of his social status. While the Filipino may not worry about
trespassing onto a neighbor’s property or interfering in someone else’s
personal life, he is very strict about toeing the lines of class boundaries.
Servants may use po and opo, terms usually reserved for older people, when
addressing masters younger than they lest they appear rude. In situations
where members of different classes mingle, those from the lower classes
tend to defer to their richer companions even though they do not know one
another. Even something as simple as entering through the front door of the
home of someone belonging to a higher social class as one is an exercise in
discretion. The Filipino may be at the least reluctant and at the most
forbidden to use the front door of a person richer than he. In gatherings, the
Filipino often gravitates towards others whom he believes belong to the
same class as he, and will feel ill at ease (naiilang) when mixing with people
whom he perceives to be wealthier or poorer than he. Such behavior is
supported by the tendency of the Filipino to be uncritical and to make
judgments based on appearances.

Desire for Harmony and Pakikisama

The consciousness of social status of the Filipino is an implication
of his concept of non-homogenous space. Different entities can co-exist and
can do so harmoniously, provided they maintain their proper places in the
world at all times. The Filipino believes that upsetting the natural order of
things results in disaster. Because the Filipino is neither purely materialistic
nor purely idealistic, philosophically speaking, it is not too difficult for him
to believe in the unperceived. Thus, for him it is conceivable that an element
beyond the reaches of his senses influences the turn of events. To lessen the
abstraction and to aid understanding, the Filipino often attributes these
external forces to the doings of the spirits. Because conceived deities are
colored with the character traits of their creators, the Filipino is conscious
that these spirits can also be offended, not unlike humans. This paradigm,
coupled with the belief that the spirits, being higher in the cosmological
hierarchy than human beings, are powerful entities, motivates him to remain
on their good side. He fears that if the spirits are displeased, they will not
hesitate to make the offended suffer.

Still conforming to his non-dichotomous worldview, the Filipino

tends not to separate consciousness from material dimensions. The Filipino
regards disrespect for property and material extensions of being as a sign of
disrespect towards the person. This explains why the Filipino is often slighted
60 DALUMAT

when one criticizes his attire, actions, and even handwriting. In the earlier
stages of society, property would have been regarded as the primary concrete
representative of a person. Property was hard evidence of wealth and success,
and determined a person’s importance in the community. The Filipino regards
property as “of me” rather than “belonging to me.” Though the spirits did
not acquire property nor did they need to, they definitely had dwelling places.
Haunted man-made structures are a later foreign influence on Philippine
mythology; native lore places nature as the habitations of the spirits. Maria
Makiling (the goddess of Mt. Makiling) does not show herself to humans
any longer because she is angered at the way her mountain is being abused.
The balete tree (Ficus) must never be harmed because doing so will infuriate
the spirits dwelling in it. Because the ordinary Filipino does not have direct
or regular contact with the spirits, the best way for him to express his respect
for them is to treat their dwelling places, i.e. nature with utmost reverence.

The Filipino’s belief in behavioral causation is reflected in sayings

such as “kung ano yung tinanim yun din ang aanihin” and “ang nagtanim ng
hangin, bagyo ang aanihin.” In Western philosophy, freedom is a much
debated philosophical problem, with determinists in one camp and rooters
for absolute freedom in the other and countless positions in between. But
for the Filipino, every action has an effect or a consequence, thus it is always
best to be on the safe side. While respect for nature is the best way to ensure
peace with the spirit world, pakikisama (sense of community) is how the
Filipino achieves and maintains harmony with his living human neighbors.

The westerner’s tendency towards individualism has roots in

Descartes’ cogito; I can be sure only of my own existence, thus I must prioritize
it. Thus, a large part of Western philosophy has the “I” as the departure
point of discussion. On the other hand, the Filipino is strongly oriented
towards community and family, and therefore puts a premium on
relationships. Out of the Filipino’s concern for others arises the concern about
what others will think of him. He would rather suppress his true feelings for
the sake of civility rather than ruffle a few feathers by telling the truth. In
fact, the Filipino often resorts to “courteous insincerity” (Mercado 98) when
he feels that the truth is quite unpleasant. Many times, the Filipino thinks it
better to compromise his stand on matters rather than risk offending
somebody. When the Filipino does decide to make a stand, he usually makes
sure the majority is of the same mind as he.

Mercado points out something interesting: The Filipino’s morality

is structured upon a strong sense of retribution rather than a conscience
orientation (Mercado 187). An alarming corollary of this is that the Filipino’s
discipline and behavior is extrinsically motivated. There is thus a tendency
towards relativism, which is seen in the willingness to compromise principles
for the sake of preserving relationships. While this is by no means an absolute,
Sydney Carls-Diamante: Understanding the Filipino through Meta-Mythology 61
categorical statement, it must nonetheless be regarded as a warning and a
call to reexamine our character formation.

The Filipino is not accustomed of thinking of himself as an island,

so to speak. When he achieves success, it is not proper for him to enjoy the
fruits of his labor by himself or with his immediate family only: there is his
extended family to think of. Nepotism is a common practice in the Philippines,
because of the strong emphasis on the family, while the padrino system
(patronage) seeks to make the most out of—even taking advantage of
friendships. Thus, the Filipino is not used to thinking of himself as being
alone, and has developed a dislike for it. This trait extends into mythical
thought in the form of co-existing with an invisible world (Mercado 96). Many
Philippine superstitions tell us that there are spirits constantly lurking around
waiting to inflict harm on or snatch away mortals, and many myths caution
us that though there is no one present, the spirits know what we are doing.
On a more mundane level, the Filipino normally prefers to be with a
companion, even in situations where there is a need for privacy (Mercado
96). In the same passage, Mercado writes that Filipinos undergoing
counseling or therapy sessions often have a chaperone with them.

Pakikisama is treacherous ground. On one hand, it allows the

Filipino to build a strong community that is based on helping one another.
Yet ironically,On the other hand because the Filipino is socialized to prioritize
the needs of others before his own, this sense of community may be perverted
into the crab mentality Filipinos are infamous for. A Filipino who takes steps
to improve his standing is seen as selfish or opportunistic, and risks the
disapproval of his peers. For the Filipino, it is either we prosper or succeed
all together or not at all.

Retribution
The Tinggians have a story of a great flood. Humitau, a sea goddess
and guardian of the sea-king Tau-mariu, was abducted by the hero
Aponitolau. Angered at having lost his favorite handmaid, Tau-mariu sent a
flood to drown Aponitolau. However, upon the advice of his mother the
goddess of wind and rain, Aponitolau fled to the Cordilleras with Humitau.
Humitau, tricked by Aponitolau into eating mountain food, lost the capacity
to dwell in the sea. Not wanting her to drown, Tau-mariu ordered the flood
to recede, but as punishment for Aponitolau’s crime he swore to sink ships
and drown those on board. (Jocano 5-7).

A common theme pervading Filipino mythology is the fear of

offending the spirits. If we remain in the domain of mythology, the reason
for being careful not to offend the spirits is simply because they exact harsh
punishment. But looking behind the mythical shroud, we find that the
Filipino’s fear of offending the spirits is actually the fear of damaging
62 DALUMAT

relationships. Many origin myths in the Philippines and in the West alike tell
of humans being punished by the spirits or the gods. The legend of the spider
tells of Minerva punishing the weaver Arachne for her arrogance. The
handsome Narcissus, for spurning the love of countless nymphs, was caused
to be unable to take his eyes of his reflection in the water and then turned
into a flower. Dryope picked a flower from a lotus tree, not knowing it was
actually a nymph in disguise. Though truly remorseful, she was herself turned
into a tree. (Hamilton 292). These punishment-themed myths act as parables
that teach one which behavior is proper and which is not. They reflect the
values important to the ancient Greeks, such as temperance and respect for
nature. However, their Philippine counterparts are more cautionary than
didactic. The Greek deities often exact punishment on those with whom
they have taken offense. At times, when deeply insulted, they curse the
descendants of the offending party as well. In other cases, such as that of
the Minotaur, human sacrifices are demanded, but not on too a massive
scale. (Furthermore, the Minotaur was not a deity.) Rarely do members of
the Greek pantheon involve as many innocent people in their fury as their
Philippine counterparts do.

The vengefulness of Philippine spirits reveals the Filipino’s tendency

to be uncritical. The Greek values reason, and knows that he must not be
unjust in his anger; their goddess Nemesis who stands for righteous
indignation personifies these traits. He knows that it is irrational to make
people who have done him no wrong suffer the consequences of another’s
actions. Legendary condemnations in Hades, such as that of Sisyphus,
Tantalus, and the Danaids, reflect his view that punishment must correspond
to the misdeed in order to be just. The Filipino, on the other hand, takes
insults very seriously. Though he may forgive the offender, he will never forget
the offense (Mercado 65). The Filipino must be appeased, and often is
unreasonable in his demand for consolation. The Filipino, unlike his western
counterpart, is unable to compartmentalize another’s action, in accordance
with his holistic view of the world and therefore of man. A person cannot be
regarded as separate from his actions; thus, instead of being angry with
something the other has done, he will be angry with that person.

Conclusion

Cosmology plays a major role in the structuring of other metaphysical

concepts, which in turn lead to the formation of other philosophical issues.
The non-homogenous worldview is the genesis of all the other characteristics
of the Filipino tackled in this paper. The notions a people have of the
substance the universe is composed of determine what can be allowed to
exist in the universe. When the components are determined, they must be
organized; the next step therefore is to establish the relationships things in
the world have with each other. Yet establishing connections alone is not
Sydney Carls-Diamante: Understanding the Filipino through Meta-Mythology 63
enough: everything is interrelated, but how they are interrelated must be
explained. The Filipino deals with these questions by forming concepts of
hierarchies and cycles. Hierarchies are organized to provide order, to put
things in place. The hierarchy is especially vital to the Filipino, who does not
put limits on what can exist and thus must maximize his space. However, the
hierarchy is not confined to cosmology: it seeps out of metaphysics to
permeate all other aspects of the Filipino’s life philosophies. One must not
see the hierarchy as necessarily discriminatory and oppressive, for it is one
of the tools the Filipino uses to make sense of things. When the order of
things is disrupted, chaos ensues. Since there are so many things in the world,
they must be put in their proper places and perform their respective functions
for harmony to be maintained. When something falls out of order, and since
everything is interrelated, many other things are affected. Because a minor
glitch occurring in a single component can cause extensive damage to the
entire system, everything must be done to restore order. Thus is the Filipino’s
preoccupation with staying within one’s boundaries and deference to nature.

While the hierarchy deals with the ordering of things in the universe,
the cycle accounts for occurrences in the world. People belonging to
mythological ages rely on induction in many aspects of life. The early Filipino
would have observed that certain events take place during particular times
of the year. From observation he would recognize a pattern, which would be
elevated to a cycle after being proven to be without fail. Societies in pre-
industrial stages depend for their survival on what nature gives them, since
their technology is not yet advanced enough to provide sustenance for them
all year round. Thus, the early Filipino was subordinate to nature in that he
structured his livelihood and activities around the cycles he observed.

This paper is not meant to assert the Filipino as different from his
neighbors in the global community. In fact, many of the traits discussed here
are shared by other nationalities. Likewise, the comparisons between the
Filipino and the Westerner were not made to paint a picture of one as the
opposite of the other, but to illustrate how dissimilarities in national character
can eventually arise from a people’s cosmology. To propose that differences
in national character, if there is truly such an organized body, are born from
something other than a people’s philosophical orientation and all its
implications is to delve into esotericism. The psyche of a nation consists of
the outcomes of subscribing to a particular worldview, or the effects of
philosophy on the different aspects of life.

In using a people’s mythology and folklore to derive and

understanding of their behavior, one must pay attention not only to
supernatural entities but also to the recurring themes in the myths. The
appearances of these entities reveal the creativity of the people, but their
behavior provides countless insights on the character of their people of origin.
64 DALUMAT

Mythology speaks volumes of sincere philosophy, and supernatural beings

divulge ideals and fears that cannot be expressed elsewhere.

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<http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Filipino_proverbs> .

Hamilton, Edith. Mythology. New York: New American Library, 1969.

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