AQA GCSE

Notes and Questions

Bonding Structure and the

properties of matter
Ionic Compounds:

Ions are formed when atoms either g_____ or l_____ e_______.

O________ is the l______ of e_________.

R_________ is the g______ of e________.

Using the following table of common elements and their charges to

complete the following formulae:

Element Charge Element Charge

Sodium (Na) +1 Chloride (Cl) -1
Potassium (K) +1 Bromide (Br) -1
Magnesium (Mg) +2 Oxide (O) -2
Calcium (Ca) +2 Sulphide (S) -2
Aluminium (Al) +3 Nitride (N) -3
Iron (II) (Fe) +2 Nitrate (NO3) -1
Iron (III) (Fe) +3 Hydroxide (OH) -1
Copper (II) (Cu) +2 Carbonate (CO3) -2
Zinc (Zn) +2 Sulphate (SO4) -2

a) Potassium Oxide

b) Iron (III) Oxide

c) Iron (II) Chloride

d) Magnesium Nitrate

e) Copper (II) Hydroxide

f) Aluminium Sulphate
The electronic structure of the ions in sodium chloride can be
represented by the following.

1. Draw a similar diagram to represent the ions in Calcium

Chloride?

2. Draw a similar diagram to represent the ions in

Magnesium Oxide?
An ionic compound is a giant 3-d structure of ions (L_________).

Ionic compounds are held together by strong e________ forces of

a_________ between oppositely charged ions.

Ionic compounds form when m__________ and n__________

combine.

Ionic compounds have regular structures (giant ionic l___________)

in which there are strong e__________ forces in all directions

between oppositely charged ions.

3. Draw a diagram to show the arrangement of ions in sodium

chloride?

These compounds have high m_______ points and high b_______

points because of the large amounts of e_______ needed to break

the many s_______ bonds. The greater the c______ on the ions the

higher the m_________ and b________ point.

When m______ or d________ in water, ionic compounds conduct

e________ because the i______ are free to move and carry the

current.

4. Why do ionic compounds not conduct when solid?

5. What are the limitations of the following types of ionic
diagram?

i) Dot-cross

ii) Ball and stick

iii) 2d and 3d diagrams

6. What is the empirical formula of the following ionic

compound?
Covalent Compounds:

When atoms share pairs of electrons, they form c_______ bonds.

These bonds between atoms are s_______.

Some covalently bonded substances consist of s________ molecules

such as H2, Cl2, O2, HCl, H2O, NH3, CH4, and N2.

Some covalently bonded substances consist of very l_______

molecules eg. p____________

Some covalently bonded substances have g_________ c________

structures, such as d________, g__________ and s_________

d_________.

Molecules that contain covalent bonds can be represented using dot-

cross diagrams.

7. Draw the different ways for representing ammonia (NH3)?

8. Draw a dot-cross diagram of Hydrogen (H2)?

9. Draw a dot-cross diagram of Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)?

10. Draw a dot-cross diagram of Water (H2O)?

11. Draw a dot-cross diagram of Methane (CH4)?

 12. Draw a dot-cross diagram of Oxygen (O2)?

13. Draw a dot-cross diagram of Nitrogen (N2)?

In p_________ we draw a r_____________ u_______ to

represent part of the l_____ c_______.

14. Draw diagram to 15. Draw diagram to represent

represent poly(ethene)? poly(propene)?
Metals:

The bonding in metals can be represented by:

The e_________ in the o________ shell of metal a_______ are

d________ and so are f______ to move through the whole

structure. The sharing of the d__________ e__________ gives

rise to the s________ m________ bonds.

Particle Theory:

The theory states that in all substances the particles are

________.

There are three states of matter, solids, ________ and

________. They can be represented by a simple model. In this

model, the particles are represented by s_______ s________

s__________.

In solids the particles are __________ about a fixed point.

The forces between particles are _____ ________. A solid can not

be __________ easily because the particles are ________

_________. They have a fixed shape and _________.

In a liquid the particles are free to _______ over each other.

The forces between particles are _______. A liquid can not be

__________ easily because the particles are ________

_________. They have a fixed _______ but their ______ changes

depending upon the base of the container.

In a gas the particles are moving very ______ and in _____

directions. The forces between particles are very ______. A gas can

be squashed because there are large _________ between the

particles. Both their _________ and shape vary depending upon the

container.
 Draw the structures of a solid, liquid and gas in the boxes
provided.

Solid

Liquid

Gas

16. What are the limitations of the simple model above?

Changes of State (1):

Match the following changes.

Solid to Liquid Freezing

Liquid to Gas Subliming

Gas to Liquid Melting

Liquid to Solid Boiling

Solid to Gas Condensing

Changes of State (2):

1. Melting
When a solid is heated the particles gain more ______.
This makes the particles ______ faster. At a certain temperature
(_______ Point) the particles are _________ fast enough to
overcome the very _______ forces between the particles and are
free to ______.

2. Boiling
When a liquid is heated the particles gain _______. If
they are travelling fast enough towards the ________ then they can
escape or knock a surface particle into the ____. If this happens
normally then it is known as __________. However, at a certain
temperature (_______ Point) there is a mass _______ of particles.

For the reverse processes particles ____ down as they lose

_______ and will reform the strong _____ between the particles.

The amount of e_______ needed to change state from solid to liquid

or liquid to gas depends on the s__________ of the forces between
the p_________. The nature of the p__________ depends upon the
type of b_________ and the s____________ of the substance.

17. How does the melting and boiling points vary with the
forces between particles?
Cooling Curve:

When a gas ________ or a liquid ________ the temperature

remains ______ because energy is released as the ________ come

together.

When a solid ______ or a liquid _____ then the temperature

remains ________ because all the _____ energy is required to

_____ the bonds between the particles.

Use the data to decide what state they are in (solid(s), liquid(l) or

gas(g)) at each temperature.

Properties of Substances:

Ionic Compounds:

Ionic compounds have r________ structures ( g______ ionic

l_________) in which there are s__________ e__________ forces

of a_____________ between the o_____________ charged

i______s.

18. Describe the melting and boiling points of ionic

compounds?

NB: Melting point is linked to the energy required to break bonds!!

When m__________ or d_________ in water, ionic compounds
c________ e____________. This is because the i________ are
f______ to m_________ and so c_________ can f________.

19. Why can ionic compounds not conduct electricity when

solid?

20. Describe a simple experiment to show that a substance is

ionic?
Small Molecules:

Substances that consist of small molecules are usually g_______ or

l_______ that have relatively l___ m_______ and b_______ points.

21. Why does Nitrogen have a low boiling point?

When small molecules change state it is the f________ between the

m__________ that is broken. (I______________ f_________).
The c_________ bonds between the atoms in the m___________
are not b______. C_______ bonds are very s_________ and
difficult to b________.

The l__________ the m___________ the s_____________ the

i______________ forces and therefore the h__________ the
melting and boiling point.

22. Which has the higher boiling point, Cl2, Br2 or I2 and
explain?

Simple molecules do not c________ e___________ because

the molecules do not have an overall e________ c__________.
Polymers:

The properties of polymers depend on what they are m_____

from and the c________ under which they are made. For
example, l___ density (LD) and h_____ density (HD)
poly(ethene) are produced using different c_________ and
reaction c__________.

Thermosoftening polymers consist of individual t_______

polymer chains.

Thermosetting polymers consist of polymer chains with

c______-l______ between them so that the polymer
c______ can not _______ over each when they are heated.

22. Do polymers have higher or lower melting points than

simple molecules, explain?
Giant Covalent Structures:

Substances that consist of giant c________ structures are

s_______ with v_______ h______ melting points.
All of the a______ in these structures are linked to other
a_______ by s_______ c__________ bonds. These bonds
must be o________ to m______ or b________ these
substances. This requires a large amount of e_______ hence
the v_______ h_____ melting point.

23. Give three examples of giant covalent structures?

24. Label these structures with their name?

Properties of Metals and Alloys:

Metals have giant structures of a_______ with s______

metallic bonding. This means that most metals have h_____
melting and boiling points.

In pure metals, a______ are arranged in l__________,

which allows metals to be b_______ and s______.

25. Why are metals malleable?

Pure metals are therefore too s____ for many uses and so
are mixed with other m______ or c______ to make
a______.

26. Explain using diagrams why alloys are harder than pure
metals?

NB Use the word “distorted”

Metals as conductors:

Metals are good conductors of e_______ because the

d_________ e________ in the metal carry e________
charge through the metal.
Metals are good conductors of h_______ because the
d_________ e_______ in the metal t_______ the
t________ energy.
Structure and Bonding of Carbon:

1. Diamond

In diamond each carbon a_____ forms f_______

covalent bonds with other carbon a_____ in a g_____
covalent structure.

27. Explain what properties diamond has?

a) High melting point

b) Hard

c) Does not conduct electricity

28. Give examples of the uses of diamond?

2. Graphite
In graphite, each carbon
a_____ forms t_______
covalent bonds with t_______
other carbon a_____. This forms
l_______ of h____________ rings which have no
covalent bonds between the l________.
This also means that each carbon atom has 1
d________ e________.

29. Explain the properties of graphite?

d) High melting point

e) Soft/Brittle

f) Conducts electricity

30. Give examples of the uses of graphite?

3. Graphene and Fullerenes

Graphene is a s______
l_________ of graphite
and has properties that
make it useful in
e_________ and c_________.

31. What properties of graphene make it so useful?

Fullerenes are molecules of

carbon a______ with h_____
shapes. The structure of
fullerenes is based on
h__________ rings of carbon
a_________ but they may also
contain rings with _____ or _____ carbon atoms.

32. Give the name and the formula of the first fullerene ever
discovered?
 Carbon n_________ are c__________ fullernes with
v________ h______ l________ to d_________
ratios.

33. Give examples of the uses of fullerenes and carbon

nanotubes?