1

Elgar’s Enigma Variations

and Holst’s Jupiter from the Planets

by

Ivar Nicholas I. Fojas

DMA Guitar

MUS 696B, Symphonic Literature

John T. Brobeck, Ph.D., Instructor
 2

I. Bibliography
A. Literature

Green, Richard. Holst: The Planets. Cambridge Music Handbooks.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

This is part of the Cambridge Music Handbook series. This is a detailed

but concise source on the Planets, with clear discussions about Holst, the
genesis of the work, the character plots for the work as well as musical
analyses of the movements.

Mason, Gregory. Short Studies of Great Masterpieces. New York: The H.W.
Gray Co., 1918.

An older resource which discusses many of works from the same period.

Rushton, Julian. Elgar: Enigma Variations. Cambridge Music Handbooks.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Another Installment of the Cambridge Music Handbook series focuses on

Elgar’s Enigma Variations, its theme, the friends pictured within and its
self-portraiture aspect.

Holst, Imogen. The Music of Gustav Holst. 2nd ed. London: Oxford
University Press, 1968.

This resource written by the daughter of the composer offers unique

insight in to the works of Gustav Holst. Also included are selected
facsimiles of works. The considering that the author is a progeny of the
composer, the analysis has a hyper-critical tendency.

B. Music Score

Elgar Edward. Variations on an Original Theme: Enigma Variations, Opus

36. London: Novello, 1972.

This is a miniature score.

___________. Variations on an Original Theme: Enigma Variations, Opus

36. Boca Raton, FL: Master Music Publications, 2000.

Reprint of the E.F. Kalmus plates.

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Holst, Gustav. London: Goodwin & Tabb Ltd., 1921.

Original publication in an edition limited to 200 copies.

_____________. The Planets. New York: Dover, 1996.

An unabridged reproduction of the 1921 original.

C. Websites

Diana McVeagh, “Elgar, Sir Edward,” Grove Music Online,

http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy2.library.arizona.edu/subscrib
er/article/grove/music/08709?q=Enigma+Variations&search=quick&pos=
5&_start=1#firsthit. (accessed November 14, 2012)

Colin Matthews, “Holst, Gustav,” Grove Music Online,

http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy2.library.arizona.edu/subscrib
er/article/grove/music/13252?q=Gustav+Holst&search=quick&pos=1&_st
art=1#firsthit (accessed November 14, 2012).

D. Sound Recordings

Bernstein, Leonard, cond. Variations on an Original Theme: Enigma

Variations, Opus 36. BBC Symphony Orchestra. Deutsche Grammophon
413490-2. CD 1982.

Dutoit, Charles, cond. Variations on an Original Theme: Enigma Variations,

Opus 36. Orchestre Symphonique de Montréal. New York 430241-2. CD
1990.

Levi, Yoel. cond. The Planets: Holst. Atlanta Symphony Orchestra. Telarc
CD-80466. CD 1998.

Norrington, Roger. cond. The Planets: Holst. Stuttgart Radio Symphony

Orchestra. Hansler CD93.043. CD 2001.
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Sir Edward Elgar and Variations on an Original Theme: Enigma Variations:

Biographical timeline
1857 June 2 at Braodneath near Worcester, His Father Henry was apprenticed to a
London Music firm and as well as piano tuner and would open a music shop.
1873 Regular appearance as violinist
1877- Became leader of the Worcester Amateur Instrumental Society. Was praised for
1878 his piano improvisations though Edward had brief lessons from Adolf Pollizer.
1979 Leads the Worcester Philarmonic, accompanies and conducts the Glee Club,
coaches and conducts the staff of the Country Lunatic Asylum. Appointed
professor of violin at the Worcester College for the Blind Sons of Gentlemen.
1880 Visits Paris and hears Saint-Saens play the organ at the Madeleine.
1882 Visits Leipzig
1883 Has a failed engagement to Helen Weaver, he would maintain many close
relationships with women through out his life.
1888 Writes Salut d’amor originally for Violin and Piano dedicated to Alice Roberts.
1889 May 8, Marries Caroline Alice Roberts whom he met in 1886 as his piano pupil.
Elgar’s marriage to the a woman from a higher social class causes her to be
disinherited.
1890 Moves to London with his new wife and in August their only child Carice is
born. In London Elgar hears the music of Berlioz and Wagner at the Crystal
Palace Concerts which he regularly attended.
1892 Composes The Black Knight for the great choral festivals of the Egnlish
Midlands.
1896 King Olaf and The Light of Life is completed. Published by Novello and Co.
1899 Enigma Variations at age 42. Premiered in London and conducted by Hans
Richter. Dedicates each movement to a friend who’s character he tries to put in
music.
1901 European premier of the Enigma Variations cond by Julius Buths.
1901- Composes his most well known work, Pomp and Circumstance Marches which
1903 is popularly known in the U.S. as the graduation march.
1904 Knighted at Buckingham Palace
1905 Held post as professor of music at the University of Birmingham until 1908.
1908- Elgar continues to produce many of his finest works after being knighted,
1934 travesl to America and receives more honors and awards,
1934 he dies of cancer on February 23.
 5

Compositional Genesis of Symphonic Works:

Date Op. Title Inst. Notes Dedication
1907 1a The Wand of Youth, Suite No. 1 orchestral from music written 1867-71 C. Lee Williams
1908 1b The Wand of Youth, Suite No. 2 orchestral from music written 1867-71 Hubert Leicester
1884 7 Sevillaña orchestral — W. C. Stockley
1899 10 Three Characteristic Piece orchestral Lady Mary Lygon
1899 10.1 Mazurka orchestral — Same
1899 10.2 Sérénade Mauresque orchestral — Same
Contrasts: The Gavotte A.D. 1700 and
1899 10.3 orchestral — Same
1900
strings, brass, timpani and H. Dyke Acland,
1894 11 Sursum corda (Élévation) orchestral
organ Malvern
1890 19 Froissart orchestral concert overture —
string orchestra,
1888-92 20 Serenade orchestral revised version of Three W. H. Whinfield
Pieces for string orchestra
1899 21 Minuet orchestral originally for piano 1897 Paul Kilburn
from From the Bavarian
1898 27 Three Bavarian Dances orchestral Highlands arranged for —
orchestra
for the Diamond Jubilee of
for H.M. Queen
1897 32 Imperial March orchestral the Queen's accession, also
Victoria
arr. piano
Variations on an Original Theme Each piece is dedicated to an 'To my friends
1899 36 orchestral
(Enigma) individual pictured within'
1. in D (1901)
2. in A minor (1901)
3. in C minor (1904)
1901-30 39 Pomp and Circumstance Marches orchestral
4. in G (1907)
5. in C (1930)
6. sketches[37]
'My friends, the
1900-01 40 Cockaigne (In London Town) orchestral concert-overture Members of British
Orchestras'
music for orchestra,
for a play Grania and
1901 42.1 Incidental Music and Funeral March incidental Henry J. Wood
Diarmid by George
Moore andW. B. Yeats
Enfants d'un Rêve
two pieces for small
1902 43 Dream Children orchestral —
orchestra,
after Charles Lamb
1903-04 50 In the South (Alassio) orchestral concert-overture Leo F. Schuster
1909 58 Elegy orchestral string orchestra —
In memory of H.M.
1909-11 63 Symphony No. 2 in E flat orchestral
King Edward VII
H.M. King George
1911 65 Coronation March orchestral
V
 6

Date Op. Title Inst. Notes Dedication

1911-12 66 The Crown of India incidental —
symphonic study for
orchestra,
1913 68 Falstaff orchestral Landon Ronald
after Shakespeare,King
Henry IV andV
string orchestra, harp and
1914 70 Sospiri orchestral W. H. Reed
organ (or harmonium)
1914 75 Carillon orchestral recitation with orchestra —
1915 76 Polonia orchestral symphonic prelude I. J. Paderewski
recitation with soprano solo
1915 77 Une voix dans le désert orchestral —
and orchestra.
recitation with orchestra,
1917 79 Le drapeau belge (The Belgian Flag) orchestral —
tr. Lord Curzon of Kedleston
ballet music for orchestra.
1917 81 The Sanguine Fan ballet Echo's Dance arranged for —
piano
posth. Op. 88,
1932-34 88 Symphony No. 3 orchestral sketches, elaborated by —
Anthony Payne 1972-97
music for a children’s play,
assembled as two orchestral
1867 The Wand of Youth incidental —
suites in 1907, see Op. 1a and
Op. 1b
1878 Symphony in G minor afterMozart orchestral part of first movement exists —
Introductory Overture for Christy
1878 orchestral — —
Minstrels
for asylum band:
1879-84 Powick AsylumMusic orchestral —
1
5 Quadrilles for Powick
1879 La Brunette orchestral Geo. Jenkins Esq.
Asylum band
5 Quadrilles for Powick
1879 Die Junge Kokette orchestral Miss J. Holloway
Asylum band:
5 Quadrilles for Powick
1879 L'Assomoir orchestral Asylum band: —

set of Lancers for Powick

1879 The Valentine orchestral Asylum band. —

1879 Minuet-grazioso orchestral lost or destroyed —

polka for Powick
1880 Maud orchestral Asylum band. —

5 Quadrilles for Powick Miss J. Holloway,

1880 Paris orchestral
Asylum band. Powycke
polka for Powick
1881 Nelly orchestral Fras. Thos. Elgar
Asylum band.
polka for Powick 'H. J. W.' (Helen
1882 La Blonde orchestral
Asylum band. Weaver)
 7

Date Op. Title Inst. Notes Dedication

Five movements.
Revised 1899 asThree
1882 Suite in D orchestral —
Characteristic Pieces (see
Op. 10)
1882 Air de Ballet - Pastorale orchestral perf. Worcester —
perf. Worcester Marche
1882 Marche - Pas Redoublé orchestral incorporated into The —
Spanish Lady and Suite in D
1882 Air de Ballet orchestral perf. Worcester —
polka for Powick
1883 Helcia orchestral —
Asylum band.
polka for Powick
1884 Blumine orchestral —
Asylum band.
1885 The Lakes overture orchestral MS lost —
1885 Scottish Overture orchestral MS lost —
1913 Carissima orchestral — Winifred Stephens
orchestration of Douce
1915 Rosemary orchestral —
Pensée (1882) for piano trio
1924 Empire March orchestral — —
for chamberorchestra (from
1924 Arthur: Suite orchestral the incidental music to —
Binyon's Arthur
1927 Civic Fanfare orchestral orchestra without violins[103] Dr. Percy C. Hull
1928 May-Song orchestral from the original for piano —
dramatic music to a play by
1928 Beau Brummel incidental Bertram Matthews, only —
Minuet published
the Duchess of
York and the
1931 Nursery Suite orchestral Princesses
Elizabeth and
Margaret Rose
1933 Mina orchestral small orchestra —
 8

Background:
Popularly referred to as the Enigma Variations, Elgar dedicates the works to his friends
who are musically portrayed each of the fourteen variations which included himself and
his wife Alice. The Enigma that is referred to is a hidden theme that was never revealed
by Elgar. Many solutions have been proposed but none were accepted by Elgar in his
lifetime. The melody of the theme came Elgar after a tiring day of teaching in 1898, Alice
took notable liking of the melody which Elgar improvised as variations, each one in the
character of one of their friends.

The Enigma I will not explain - its 'dark saying' must be left unguessed, and I
warn you that the connection between the Variations and the Theme is often of
the slightest texture; further, through and over the whole set another and larger
theme 'goes', but is not played.... So the principal Theme never appears, even as in
some late dramas ... the chief character is never on the stage.1

Scoring:
2 flutes (one doubling piccolo), 2 oboes, 2clarinets in B flat, 2 bassoons, contrabassoon,
4 horns in F, 3 trumpets in F, 3 trombones, tuba,timpani, side drum, triangle, bass
drum, cymbals, organ (ad lib) and strings.

Dedicatee: “Dedicated to my friends pictured within.”

Analysis:

a: main Theme of the Enigma

b: contrasting melodic phrase

a’: return of the main theme with a pause on the final major chord.

1
Edward Elgar’s words regarding the hidden theme of the Enigma Variations.
 9

Variations: Incipits of the main theme

The variations are separated by fermatas unless indicated as attaca.

Variation I (L'istesso tempo) "C.A.E."

Caroline Alice Elgar, Elgar's wife. Repetitions of a four-note melodic fragment which
Elgar reportedly whistled whenever arriving home to his wife.

]Variation II (Allegro) "H.D.S.-P."

Hew David Steuart-Powell. "Hew David Steuart-Powell was an amateur pianist. He was
associated with B.G.N. (Cello) and the Composer (Violin) for many years in this playing.
His characteristic diatonic run over the keys before beginning to play is here humorously
travestied in the semiquaver passages; these should suggest a Toccata, but chromatic
beyond H.D.S.-P.'s liking".

Variation III (Allegretto) "R.B.T."

Richard Baxter Townshend, author of the "Tenderfoot" series of books. The Variation
has a reference to R.B.T's presentation of an old man in some amateur theatricals- the low
voice flying off occasionally into "soprano" timbre.

Variation IV (Allegro di molto) "W.M.B."

William Meath Baker, squire of Hasfield, Gloucestershire and builder of Fenton, Stoke-
on-Trent, who "expressed himself somewhat energetically". This is the shortest of the
variations.

Variation V (Moderato) "R.P.A."

Richard Penrose Arnold, the son of the poet Matthew Arnold, and himself an amateur
pianist. This variation leads into the next without pause.
 10

Variation VI (Andantino) "Ysobel"

Isabel Fitton, a viola pupil of Elgar. The variation begins with the viola section playing
three notes on different strings, as if to imitate Fitton's string crossing etudes. The melody
of this variation is played by a solo viola.

Variation VII (Presto) "Troyte"

Arthur Troyte Griffith, an architect. The variation good-naturedly mimics his enthusiastic
incompetence on the piano. It also refers to a specific memory, of a day on which
Griffiths and Elgar were walking and got caught in a thunder-storm. The pair ran for it,
and took refuge in the Norbury house, to which the next theme refers.

Variation VIII (Allegretto) "W.N."

Winifred Norbury, a friend Elgar regarded as particularly easygoing, hence the relatively
relaxed atmosphere. The theme also refers to the Norbury house, which Elgar was fond
of. At the end of this variation, a single violin note is held over into the next variation, the
most celebrated of the set.

Variation IX (Adagio) "Nimrod"

Augustus J. Jaeger was employed as music editor by the London publisher Novello & Co.
For a long time he was a close friend of Elgar, giving him useful advice, but also severe
criticism, something Elgar greatly appreciated.The name of the variation refers
to Nimrod, an Old Testament patriarch described as "a mighty hunter before the Lord" -
the name Jäger being German for hunter.
 11

Variation X (Intermezzo: Allegretto) "Dorabella"

Dora Penny, a friend whose stutter is depicted by the woodwinds. Dora, later Mrs.
Richard Powell, was the stepdaughter of the sister of William Meath Baker, inspiration
for the fourth variation, and sister-in-law of Richard Baxter Townsend, inspiration for the
third.

Variation XI (Allegro di molto) "G.R.S."

George Robertson Sinclair, the energetic organist of Hereford Cathedral. In the words of
Elgar: 'The variation, however, has nothing to do with organs or cathedrals, or, except
remotely, with G.R.S. The first few bars were suggested by his great Bulldog, Dan (a
well-known character) falling down the steep bank into the River Wye (bar 1); his
paddling upstream to find a landing place (bars 2 and 3); and his rejoicing bark on
landing (second half of bar 5). G.R.S. said, "Set that to music." I did; here it is'.

Variation XII (Andante) "B.G.N."

Basil G. Nevinson, a well known cellist, who gets a cello melody for his variation. Later,
Nevinson inspired Elgar to write his Cello Concerto. This variation leads into the next
without pause.
 12

Variation XIII (Romanza: Moderato) "* * *"

Lady Mary Lygon. This person is not identified by initials, but Mrs. Dora Powell (at the
time Dora Penny, and herself a variation, "Dorabella") has identified her as Lady Mary
Lygon, a personal friend of Elgar and his wife. In 1899, when the Variations were being
finished, Elgar wrote to Lady Mary Lygon to ask permission to use her initials, as there
was not time for a reply Elgar used "***" instead. A quotation from Felix Mendelssohn's
concert overture Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage is included within quotation marks in
the score. The timpani create a sound reminiscent of a ship's engines by means of hard
sticks, or, traditionally, coins.

Variation XIV (Finale: Allegro Presto) "E.D.U."

Elgar himself, nicknamed Edu by his wife, from the German version Eduard. The themes
from two variations are echoed: "Nimrod" and "C.A.E.", referring to Jaeger and Elgar´s
wife Alice, "two great influences on the life and art of the composer", as Elgar wrote in
1927. Elgar called these references "entirely fitting to the intention of the piece".
The original version of this variation is 100 bars shorter than the one now usually played.
 13

Gustav Holst and The Planets

Biographical timeline

1874 Born Sept 21 at Cheltenhamm, under the sign of Virgo ruled by planet mercury.

Musical family, Grandfather Gustavus was a notable harp teacher, his father
Adolph was an Organist and Choirmaster and his mother Clara was a pianist
and singer.

1886 Holst is taught the violin and piano and begins composing at age 12. He soon
takes up the trombone.

1892 Writes a Symphony in C minor while still in Grammar school.

1893 Enters the Royal College of Music as a student.

1895 Awarded an open scholarship for composition at the same institution.

1898 Trombone player for the Carl Rosa Opera Company and the Scottish Orchestra
until 1903.

1901 Marries Isabel Harrison

1903 Gives up the Trombone begins teaching at James Allen School for girls until
1920.

1905 Appointed Musical Director at St. Paul Girls’ School where he stays until 1934.

1907 Appointed Musical Director at Morley College until 1924.

1918 Private performance of The Planets conduct by Adrian Boult, September 29.

1919 Public Premier of The Planets at Queen’s Hall by the Royal Philharmonic
Society with the same conductor, February 27. Appointed Professor at the
Royal College of Music where he teaches until 1923.

1923 Suffers an accident and concussion in Ferbuary.

1924 Suffers a nervous breakdown, takes a years rest.

1932 Appointed lecturer in composition at Harvard University but is taken ill after six
months.

1934 Goes through a medical operation in London on May 23, two days later Holst
dies on the 25th.
 14

Compositional Genesis of Symphonic Works:

Date Opus Title Scoring Info
number
1891 31 Intermezzo for orchestra
1897 41 A Winter Idyll for orchestra
1898 42 Suite in G minor for string
orchestra
1899 43 Walt Whitman for orchestra Overture
1899, 47 Suite de ballet in E♭major for orchestra Rev. 1912, originally Op. 8
1912 Four Movments
1899– 54 Symphony in F for orchestra originally Op. 10
1900 major "The Cotswolds" Four Movments
1903? 66 Greeting for orchestra original version for violin and
piano
1903 86 Indra for orchestra Symphonic Poem
1906, 87 Songs of the West for orchestra revised 1907
1907
1906, 88 A Somerset Rhapsody for orchestra revised 1907
1907
1906 107 2 Songs without Words for chamber No. 2 also for small military band
orchestra
1909– Beni Mora: Oriental Suite for orchestra Three Movements
1910
1910 108 Morris Dance Morris Off for orchestra Eleven tunes in two sets.
1911 118 Phantastes, Suite in F for orchestra withdrawn, originally Op. 29 No. 2
major Four movements
1912– 125 St Paul's Suite for string dedicated to the orchestra at St
1913 orchestra Paul's Girls' School; Finale is an
arr. of 4th movement in Second
Suite.
1914– 126 The Planets for orchestra original version for 2 pianos
1916 and female
chorus
1915 151 Japanese Suite for orchestra Six Movements
1922 172 A Fugal Overture for orchestra
1927 Egdon Heath (Homage to for orchestra title taken from Thomas Hardy's
Thomas Hardy) fictitious area Egdon Heath
 15

1928 Nocturne from "A for string

Moorside Suite" orchestra
1928 178 Fugue à la Gigue for orchestra original work Fugue in G major,
BWV577 by Johann Sebastian
Bach; arrangement by Holst; also
for band
1930, Hammersmith for orchestra original for military band;
1931 1. Prelude orchestral version (1931) premiered
at the same 1931 concert
2. Scherzo
as William Walton's Belshazzar's
Feast
1932 Jazz-Band Piece (Mr. for orchestra revised by Imogen Holst as
Shilkret's Maggot) "Capriccio" (1967)
1933 Brook Green Suite for string Three movements
orchestra
with flute,
oboe and
clarinet ad
libitum
1933 Gavotte for string originally intended for Brook
orchestra Green Suite
with flute,
oboe and
clarinet ad
libitum
1933- Scherzo for orchestra part of an unfinished Symphony
1934

Compositional Style:

Holst was not a conventional composer. Once he had broken free from his Wagnerian
influence, Holst began writing in a more angular and contrapuntal style. His use of
modality was unique to him but closely resembled that of Hindemith. He did not reveal
much about his compositional process but suggests that he worked within an unconscious
style free of the conventions of music theory which he was averse to. There are no great
musical innovations such as Stravinsky’s but he employs unconventional time signatures
with cross and permutated rhythms. Other trademarks include ostinato, rising and falling
scale patterns, use of 4ths and 5ths and subtle use of bi-tonality. His early music is
chromatic but Holst in his maturity writes in a very tonal language. 2
2
Mathews, Holst. Grove Online.
 16

Background:

There is strong indication that Holst had the full work already conceived by the summer
of 1914, there are no sketches and or studies of this work which he originally titled as
Seven Suites for Large Orchestra. There are no precedents of character pieces on this
scale, comparatively smaller works such as Pictures at an Exhibition, Nocturnes and the
Enigma Variations may have lead the way but it was upon hearing Schoenberg’s Five
Pieces for Orchestra and Stravinsky’s musical innovations when Holst finally decided to
write out what he had been conceiving for the past twenty years.

Theme: (Astrology and Horoscope)

The Planets can be easily mistaken for character pieces on the astronomical planets, but
the absence of planet Earth from the suite betrays Holst’s original conception of the
work. Holst had been introduced by English writer Clifford Bax to Astrology through
Alan Leo’s book “What is you Horoscope,” while the two were vacationing in Majorca
in 1914. Holst decided to put to music as he conceived them, the personal characteristics
of each astrological sign.

Technical parallels exist between the Planets and Berlioz’s Symphony Fantastique, but it
is much closer to Debussy’s Nocturnes in its narrative programmaticism.

Scoring: (Unusually Large Orchestra)

Piccolo/Flute, 2 Flutes, Alto Flute/Flute/Piccolo, 2 Oboes, Oboe/Bass Oboe, English

Horn, 3 Clarinets, Bass Clarinet, 3 Bassoons, Contrabassoon, 6 Horns, 4 Trumpets, 3
Trombones, Euphonium, Tuba, 6 Timpani (2 Players), Triangle, Side Drum, Tambourine,
Cymbals, Bass Drum, Gong, Bells, Glockenspiel, Celesta, Xylophone, 2 Harps, Organ,
String Orchestra, Choruses - SSA, SSA (last movement)

Greene suggests that Strauss may serve as Holst’s model for orchestration not specifically
in size but in the use of balanced instrumental choirs allowing for a passage to be stated
in full doubling complex texture as well as like instrument textures.

Dedicatee: Imogen Holst – daughter of the composer and author of a book on the
composer.
 17

Analysis: “Jupiter: Bringer of Jollity” 3

Mm. Key Section Sub-section Commentary

1 C Exposition Intro Horn opening tune

60

65 D Theme 1 Presented in D major

108 G Theme 2 Center theme “I Vow to Thee, My

Country.” 4

108

156 Development Transition

194 Eb Chords Klangfarben Texture
mm.193-205 unison doubling of melody
french horn and strings. Flutes, bassoons
and harps double the accompanying
chords.
234
Transition

305 C Recapitulation Theme 1

348 (Db) Theme 2

356 C

388 g# Chords Klangfarben Texture

395 C Coda
3
Greene, Holst. 22.
4
“I Vow to Thee, My Country is Hymn Tune from Essex where Holst spent some time, it was written
by sir Cecil Spring-Rice.
 18

Review Questions:
a. Identify three unusual sources of influence on the music of Gustav Holst that found direct
expression in his musical works. Specifically, how did these influences affect his musical style
and the expressive content of some of his works?
1. Folk songs- in 1904 Holst began collecting Folk Songs- material which he would use
settings of these folk songs. Ex. Willow Tree, Songs of the West and Somerset
Raphsodies.
2. Astrology and Horoscope which he uses as his character plots for The Planets.
3. Eastern Philosophy Mysticism, Sanskrit, The Mahabharata epic and the Baghavad Gita
who;s influence finds its way into Holst’s Sanskrit works, Sita, Rig Veda, Varuna (Sky)
and Savitri.

b. What other composer was Holst’s lifelong friend?

Ralph Vaughn Williams, he also authored numerous articles on Holst.

c. Besides orchestral music, what other types of music did Holst especially favor?
A bulk of Holst’s works are for vocal or choral settings.

d. What rhythmic technique did Holst favor?

Holst employs unconventional time signatures with cross and permutated rhythms, a
technique taken from early madrigals. Ex. Col Legno for the menacing 5/4 rhythmic passage
for Mars.

e. Whose music was an important early influence on Elgar (1890s)?

Wagner.

f. Besides orchestral music, what other types of music did Elgar favor?
Church Music, Choral and part songs.

g. What is the “program” of the Enigma variations?

Elgar’s friends are the Program.