ISSUES IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ANDDECENTRALIZATION OF VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION TO NATIONAL ECONOMIC GROWTH: THE CASE OF INDONESIA

Sutarto Hadi Prayitno

Engineering Faculty, Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia
sutartonur@yahoo.com

Abstract

ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) will be started next year 2015. ASEAN country
members needbe ready toexchange, or even to compete their products or services. Skilled labor
is essential to be possessed by all the country members to successfully participate in AEC.
Vocational school is a strategic institution assigned to prepare its students to possess
competence for work in certain occupation. Therefore, the curriculum of vocational education
needs to be developed then consistently executed in such a way to gain expected skilled labors.
This paper will cover two discussions. First, in macro level, how the development of vocational
education curriculumrelevant to labor market as well as relevant to the national philosophy, and
eight (8) National Education Standards.Second, in micro level,how the curriculum is to be
implemented in school, especially in classroom and out ofclassroom settings. Furthermore, the
roles and commitment of National and Local governments,in decentralization era, together with
their stakeholders to support vocational education will also be analyzed. Summary as a
conclusion will be provided at the end of this paper combined with recommendations especially
for Government and people in business and industry.

Keywords: curriculum development, vocational education, decentralization, national economy

growth.

1. Introduction was to facilitate collaboration work in the

development of TVET in the region [1].
ASEAN Economic Community
Vice Ministry of Education and Cultural,
(AEC)that will be started next year (2015)
Musliar Kasim, then stated in the conference
has made Governmentof Indonesia (GOI)
that there were any problems need to be
aware in responding the challenges. On April
solved in relation to VTEC, e.g., shortage of
1-2, 2014 GOI represented by Ministry of
skilled teachers, limited having industrial
Education and Culture collaborated with
experiences for vocational students, and
Germany Ministry of Economic
regulation harmonization of work training
Collaboration and Development conducted a
and workmarket. The conference
national conference involving Ministry of
emphasized that TVET is one main driver
Workforce and Resettlement, Ministry of
force to elevate labor skilled and mobility in
Industry, and National Board of Planning
the future time. The impact will increase
and Development. The theme of conference
productivity in business sector at the same
was “Assuring the Quality of Technical and
time contribute to national economic
Vocational Education and Training(TVET)in
development.
Preparing AEC2015”. The conference
This paper will discusses relevant to
attended by business and industry
the impact above with focus on curriculum
community representations, vocational
development of vocational school, the roles
education observers, and other relevant
of national and local government in
parties. The main objective of conference
decentralization era, and business-industry
participation. Finally, this paper will discuss
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the impact of vocational education to democracy led by wisdom of deliberations
national and local economic growths. among representatives, and the goal of
social justice for the whole people of
Indonesia.These five principles is
2. Curriculum Development mandatory content and have been
Reference [2] defines that curriculum is accommodated by all National Curriculum
the sum of the learning activities and used in Indonesia including the current
experiences that a student under the auspices Curriculum 2013.
or direction of the school. The definition The second approach in determining
covers not only experiences and activities in curriculum content is “Introspective”. It
formal curricula, but also social and sport means the content is determined by those
activities covered in co-curricular. Ref. [2] who are directly involved in executing the
emphasizes that these experiences have the curriculum. They are especially teachers,
power to make contributions to the student principals, school supervisors, and some
growth in ways that cannot be accomplished administrators [4]. This approach is
in classroom and laboratory settings. relatively better than the first one, however
Furthermore, it is explained that the since the process is done only by the insider,
foregoing concepts also support the notion therefore the product may not meet the
that a curriculum should focus on the needs of the users in this care people in
developing the whole person. It is not business and industry. To overcome this
enough to have the curriculum include shortage, certainly they need to involve
courses and experiences that are exclusively business and industry representations and
only related to vocational education. General also expert from Technical and Vocational
studies are clearly a part of every Education.
curriculum as they serve to provide the The third one is DACUM that stands for
student with a broad knowledge base both Developing A Curriculum [5]. This approach
for life and for earning a living. is a job occupational analysis performed by
This curriculum development approach expert workers in the occupation. The
is in line with Dewey’s philosophy [3] that philosophy of DACUM comprises three wise
emphasizes students have potencies and statements: (1) expert workers can describe
dynamically develop their potencies. School and define their jobs more accurately than
programs need to be democratized so that anyone else; (2) an effective way to define a
every student has a possibility to maximize job is to precisely describe the tasks that
his/her potencies regardless their social expert workers perform; and (3) all tasks, in
economy status. order to be performed correctly, require
Regarding Vocational Education, Ref. certain knowledge, skills, tools, and worker
[4] describes that at least there are five behaviors.
approaches are commonly used to Reference [5] explains the DACUM
determine curriculum content. The five are process for occupational analysis involves
Philosophy, Introspection, Functional, local men and women with reputations for
DACUM, and Task Analysis. Furthermore, it being the “top performers” at their jobs,
is explained that philosophy is a set of belief working on a short-term committee
belongs to one or group as a basis of his/her assignment with a qualified DACUM
attitude andaction.Historically, the thought facilitator. Workers are recruited directly
of philosophers was used in determining from business and industry. These workers
curriculum content. It is also true in become the Panel of Experts who
Indonesia. collectively and cooperatively describes the
National Philosophy of Indonesia is occupation in the language of the
Pancasila (five principles) that consists of occupation.
belief in the One and only God, just and The Panel works under the guidance of
civilized humanity, unity of Indonesia, a trained facilitator for two days to develop

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the DACUM Research Chart. The chart for one or more people to perform a given
contains a list of general areas of task [6]. Ref. [4] suggested that curricular
competence called DUTIES and the developers need to differentiate among
TASKS that define that duty. Brainstorming terminologies: job, duty, task, activity,
techniques are used to obtain the collective operation, and steps. By knowing these
expertise and consensus of the Panel. As the sequent, it makes easier to do task analysis.
Panel determines each task, it is written on a
card. The cards are attached to the wall in 3. Indonesia 2013 Curriculum
front of the Panel. The completed chart is a
graphic profile of the duties and tasks In the case of Indonesia, the current
performed by successful workers in the curriculum isnamed “2013 Curriculum”. It
occupation [5]. covers academic as well as technical and
The panel also identifies the general vocational education.
knowledge and skills required of successful There is no explicitly official statement
workers, the tools, equipment, supplies, and from Ministry of Education and Culture
materials used, the important worker regarding development approach used in
behaviors essential for success, and the resulting 2013 Curriculum. Traditionally,
future trends and concerns likely to cause the Minister of Education and Culture
job changes [5]. formed an expert team accompanied by
The fourth one is “Functional working team. The team member share
Approach”. The two previous approaches representations from Ministry of Education
can be classified as subjective approach and Culture, especially from Center of
since the content is mainly determined by Curriculum, universities, and relevant
the internal side. This fourth approach one communities. Additional members for
can be categorized as an objective one. vocational education team are people from
Curriculum content is determined by business and industries.
referring to functions of an occupation for National Philosophy (Pancasila) is
which graduates will work.An example some mandatory to be included in all curriculum
functions in executing building construction: levels. Approaches used in determining
understanding the features and curriculum content of vocational education
characteristics of the building; establishing are mostly combination among Functional
networking with involved parties; and Introspective. DACUM and Task
calculating the cost; project management Analysis approaches were mostly not
and quality control; and building exercised in this work.
maintenance. Then each functionis broken Structurally, 2013 Curriculum for
into activities. Some activities are classified academic and vocational education consists
into a certain competence. All competences of threecourse clusters: A, B, and C.Cluster A
are organized in sequence accompanied by and Bare mandatory or core courses, while
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and tools and Cluster C is concentration. Cluster Acourses
equipment needed as a basis in determining consist of Religious Education, Civics-
curriculum content. Pancasila, National Language = Bahasa
The fifth approach in determining Indonesia Math, National History, and
curriculum content is Task Analysis (TA). English. Cluster B courses consist of Culture
Ref. [6] describes that TA is the analysis of & Arts, Physical Education &Sport, and
how a task is accomplished, including a Entrepreneurship. Cluster C for academic
detailed description of both manual and school are courses for academic
mental activities, task and element concentration, while Cluster C for vocational
durations, task frequency, task allocation, school are courses for academic
task complexity, environmental conditions, concentration as well as vocational
necessary clothing and equipment, and any concentration [7].
other unique factors involved in or required

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 Credit-hour allocation for Cluster A plus interactions in the production and delivery
Cluster B both for academic and vocational of public services; (4) society’s participation
schools is equivalent, which is 24 in governance processes, equity and ethics
hour/week. Cluster C for academic school in governance, new models of public
during three years consecutively are 18, 20, governance. Furthermore, the arguments for
20 hours/week, while for vocational school the decentralized governance are: (i)
are 24, 24, and 24 hours/week. Therefore, participation in political life, (ii) institutional
the total credit hours taken by vocational openness and closeness to people, thereby
student for 3-year schooling is higher than increasing the democratic accountability,
those from academic student, which is 144 (iii) legitimacy of governance and (iv)
compared to 130. Following table illustrates freedom, devolution of authority powers
the credit-hour comparison between and interaction between government bodies
academic and school schooling tracks [7]. [8].
Reference [9] describes that there are
Table1. Academic and Vocational at least nine impacts may be gained by
Comparison on Core and exercising decentralization of vocational
Concentration Courses by education: (1) improving human resource
hours/week. quality; (2) lowering number of youth
unemployment; (3) providing employment
Academic School (SMA) School Year
for the citizen; (4) lowering burden in
Vocational School (SMK) 1st 2nd 3rd
academic education path system;(5) raising
Core courses for SMA = 24 24 24
interest of foreign investors; (6) assuring
SMK
the improvement of earning and
Elective courses for: employment; (7) lowering the earning gap
SMA (hrs./week) 18 20 20 between the rich group and the poor one;
4. SMK (hrs./week) 5. 246. 247. 24 (8) a vehicle for the development qualified
Total hrs./week for 42 44 44 technology works; (9) culture and tradition
SMA/year 9. 48 48 48 conservation.
8. Total hrs./week for In the case of Indonesia, staring the
SMK/year enactment of Law number 32/2004 on Local
3-year total credit-hrs. for 130 Government and Law number 33/2004 on
SMA 3-year total credit- 144 financial balancing between Central and
hrs. for SMK Local Government, officially management of
vocational education has been decentralized
Based on Table 1.above, we can be to local government.
confirmed that curriculum 2013 is an In the decentralization education era,
inclusive curriculum. The structure provides local governments need to maximize the
opportunity for vocational students not only role social parties [10] in improving the
to enhance their potencies through quantity and quality of vocational education
professional in a certain occupation but also and trainings. The social parties are e.g.,
to continue their academic study in higher business and industry association, chamber
education. of commerce, and other related parties.
Increasing number of study program
4. Decentralizationof Vocational and its specialization in vocational school
Education and training need to be synchronize with the
The forces of public governance need of local labor market. Local
reforms may be classified as follows: (1) government continuously need to survey on
international challenges and pressure; (2) existing occupation spectrum as well as
changing role of modern government in the future spectrum. In respect this issue, local
global economy; (3) mixed economy of government should shift the paradigm from
public, private and non-profit sector supply driven to demand driven. Do not

219
ignore the trends of supply-demand in many business and industry. Mid and long project
occupations at national, regional, and even planning are vehicle to lead vocational
global levels. Ignoring these trends, education to be more effective as shown in
increasing the number even the quality of the following figure [11].
study programs (student) in vocational
Future Economy Economy Characteristics
education will bear youth unemployment.
Local Governments need to enhance Future Subsector Subsector Economy
and facilitate their vocational schools and Economy Activities
training institutions to intensify the course
of Entrepreneurship. Vocational graduates Type, number &
Type, number,
Type, number &
qualification
ought to possess ability to be self-employed Qualification,
/subsector
Qualification,
Number, Number,
and provide employment for others. By
doing this approach youth unemployment type, number, qualification needed
number might be lowered. To motivate
graduates become entrepreneurs a Existing type, number, qualification in voc. schools
stimulate loan as a basic capital in the
business is essential. The load may bear Type, number, and qualification needed in voc. school
from Education Office, Man Power Office,
and other private sector. Figure.1 Supply-Demand Synchronizations
Effective vocational schoolsin Planning
decentralization era context, mainly when
the graduates work and contribute to the Figure 1. illustrates the relation between
benefit of local government. It can happen planning and existing occupation in terms of
when the graduates work matching with type and number of occupations
their specialization and be professional.
Their career development in workplace run 5. National Economic Growth
well with a good payment. One of the most
importance requirements for effective Many studies [12], [13] have approved
vocational school is to have field that Technical and Vocational Education
experiences in business and industry. contributes to economic growth. The later
Local Regulation that drive mutual study states that “empirical results
collaboration between school and business confirming the important role of vocational
and industry is a must. The regulation is to school (SMK) in supporting regional
be formulatedby a collaborated working economic growth in Indonesia”. Ref. [14] also
team among Local Education Office and confirmed that: “All countries invest in
business-industry representation (trade technical and vocationaleducation and
chamber, associations) andManpower training (TVET) – infact, correlations indicate
Office. It is important to describe in the that the higher thelevel of country income,
regulation that there is financial incentive generally the higherthe proportion of
for those who provide training for students enrolled in TVETInstitutions”.
vocational students. The incentive may be in A historical study done by Langthalerin
the form of e.g., CSR compensation, 2013 in Germany [15] quests: “What kind of
deductible tax, or a loan. Vocational Education is required for
Local Planning Board as a think-tank of economic development?” This study mention
Local Government Office plays vital function common problems raises to the vocational
to make vocational education and training training sector in many countries. They are
become effective. The Board should have (1) missing link with the economy; (2)
comprehensive and accurate data on employers do not interest in providing
education, then articulates the local traineeship; and (3) the fragmentation of
development planning among relevant vocational training.
Offices as well as Education Office and

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 Therefore, the answer of the improve his/her work competence and
requirement of vocational education that Article 12 states that each employer is
contribute to economic development is that responsible on improving work competence
vocational training is free of thoseproblems. of his/her worker. However, the
The challenge is how to avoid them and implementation of this law is not effective
fulfill the requirements? Following briefly yet due to there is no one system in
discusses the three problems above. education and training. This law under
First, missing links with the economy. It umbrella Ministry of Manpower and
means education and training is conducted Resettlement. There is no synchronization
with out-dated curricula. Teachers in on training system between this Ministry
vocational schools and instructors in and the Ministry of Education and Culture.
training institutions teach out of step with Third, the fragmentation of vocational
the economy’s realneeds of business and training. The fragmentation applies both
industry. Occupation qualifications are often tothe administrative responsibility, which in
not recognized and are correspondinglynot many countriesis divided among various
very relevant to employment. ministries and bodies, as well asto the
In the case of 2013 Curriculum, as little absence of comprehensive systems. Instead
bit discussed earlier, the involvement of thereis a coexistence of various forms of
business and industry in determining training, institutions,sponsors and
vocational education curriculum contentis individual measures, which extends from
not clear. There is no publically vocationaltraining schools as part of the
confirmation that business and industry are formal educationsystem to various informal
involved in determining curriculum services all the way to formsof in-company
contents. Clearly DACUM approach was not vocational training [15].
used in determining the curriculum content. Langthaler give an example on training
Second, employers do not interest in fragmentation in West Africa, traditional
providing traineeship.Some reasons, e.g., teaching continues to be the major formof
employer thinks the dollar return. Direct vocational training. It is not standardized,
and indirect training costs decrease however, andhas no links with the formal
employers’ willingness to provide training, education system. This means
and that employers are less willing to training opens up employment options only
provide training the older the workers are. in the informalsector.
Furthermore, governmental In Indonesia, there is an effort to link
reimbursements do not affect employer- between National Qualification Framework
provided training. This indicates that (KKNI) developed by Ministry of Education
governments need to consider which and Culture (MOEC) and National Work
strategies they use to support human Competence Standard (SKKNI) developed by
resource practices. Ref. [15] discover that Ministry of Labor and Resettlement (MOLR).
workers’ explicit interest in training KKNI becomes the reference used by MOLR
stimulates employers’ willingness to provide to articulate training design. Under SKKNI a
training. The study results suggest that trainee be able to accumulate his/her
training decisions are more complex than training credit hours and even recognized
proposed by a human capital framework, prior learning (RPL) then the credits are
because motivational factors of workers converted to KKNI level to get formal
play a role. This implies that employers do acknowledgment from MOEC. However,
not take their decision solely based on costs currently the conversion and implement
or benefits, but that workers can affect system is under consolidated [16].
employers’ behavior.
In the context of Indonesia, the Law 6. Lessons From Singapore’s Experience
number 13/2003 on Employment, Article 11
states that each worker has a right to

221
 Most countries pronounce that challenge was to create enough jobs. The
Technical and Vocational Education and economic strategy shifted in 1968 from one
Training (TVET) is important, however they of import substitution to one of rapid
do not have commitment to drive TVET industrializationby attracting foreign
effectively. Contrarily, Singapore investment for export-oriented and labor-
Governmenthave commitment to drive intensive manufacturing. From the
TVET effectively contribute national education and training perspective, the
economy growth [17].In this respect, the immediate task was to ensure that the
Singapore Government believes in and has workforce has the basic vocational and
invested continuously and heavily in technical skills to support the labor-
education and training, not only in the intensive manufacturing activities such as
universities and polytechnics but especially ship repairing, turning and fitting, sheet
so in vocational and technical education metal working, plumbing and radio and TV
under the Institute of Technical Education maintenance and repair.
(ITE). With respect to TVET, the first
Since independence in 1965 the vocational institute, the Singapore
Government has made close alignment Vocational Institute (SVI), was established
between economic development and their within the school system in 1964. With the
educational policies and strategies. The increasing pace of industrialization, there
Government leads the transformation of ITE was growing concern on how best to
through three economic phases into a expedite and expand TVET to meet the
world-class education institution as explain technical and skilled manpower needs of
in the following description. new emerging industries. The mainstream
A “Factor-Driven” economy involving of education remained largely academic. In
intensive labor in the 1960s-1970s, it 1968, 84 % of students in schools were
progressed to an “Investment-Driven” enrolled in the “academic” stream.
economy, which was capital intensive in the Second Phase-Capital-Intensive Economy
1980s-1990s and the “Innovation-Driven” (1980s-1990s)
economy powered by the needs of In 1979, the Government embarked on
knowledge intensive industries in the 2000s. a major restructuring of the economy
The three economic driven illustrated in the towards higher value-added, high
following figures [17]. technology and more capital-intensive
industries. The new focus was the
development of new industries such as
petrochemicals, biotechnology, information
technology as well as manufacturing
services in testing, financing, warehousing
and purchasing. To stay competitive through
higher productivity, mechanization,
automation and computerization of the
industry were promoted. Once again, the
education and training system was called
upon to respond to the manpower needs of
more capital-intensive industries [17].
Figure 2: Phases of Singapore’s Economic Third Phase- Knowledge-Intensive Economy
Development (2000s):
Moving forward into the 2000s,
First Phase-Labour-Intensive Economy Singapore saw the need to increasingly
(1960s-1970s) develop into a globalised, entrepreneurial
In these early days of industrialization and diversified economy. While continuing
after Singapore’s independence, the main to strengthen the higher-end manufacturing

222
activities, there was a clearer recognition of on acquiring the three key competencies,
the importance of the service sector as i.e., technical, methodological and social
another engine of economic growth. in an experiential learning environment.
Concerted plans were formulated to attract 6) Close Partnership With Industry: Built on
and nurture new growth sectors such as the the mutual needs and benefits since the
Biomedical Sciences, Info-Communications, early days of Singapore’s efforts in
Creativity Technology, Integrated Resorts industrialization, this partnership has
and High-Value Engineering. The response in further strengthened in terms of levels
the educational sphere was to position and quality of engagements.
Singapore as an Education Hub by attracting 7) Branding – a New ITE image: The effort to
foreign students and internationally communicate and rebrand the ITE Image
renowned institutions to Singapore.Local was an integral part of its journey.
institutions would continue to seek quality Supported by a comprehensive
and excellence in developing a first-class marketing and rebranding program,
education at all levels. there was gradual turnaround in its
In regards the success of ITE (Institute public perception and image. Over a
of Technical Education) and becomes a well period of nine years, from 1997 to 2006,
world known institution, the following some the image of ITE had significantly
key features [17]. improved by 76%.
1) A Clear Mission, with a clear focus on its
“Mission, Vision and Values”, ITE has 7. Summary and Recommendations
developed an inner spirit of commitment
and teamwork in always asking how it There is no one “universal” model that
can better serve, add value and meet the fit to establish and develop any TVET in
needs and expectations of students and anyone country. Each country will
stakeholders. ultimately need to carefully assess and
2) A Unique Brand of an ITE Education: decide on the “TVET system” that it
Called “Hands-on, Minds-on and Hearts- considers most relevant in meeting its
on”, this is a holistic College education national strategic goals. But, underlying a
that provides the motivation, assists successful model are also some fundamental
student learning and nurtures all- policies and principles.
rounded graduates.
3) A modern Campus Infrastructure: ITE‟ s 1) There is the need to ensure that the
campuses are modern and well-equipped TVET system is closely linked to the
with extensive workshops, an IT-rich local economic development agenda.
web-based environment, student support National economic plan and global
services and other sports and arts economic trends should be also
facilities. considered.
4) A Rigorous Curriculum Development 2) Curriculum content mast be developed
Process: Called “Developing A together with stakeholders, especially
Curriculum” or “DACUM” Process, the people from business and industry.
skills standards and competencies to be 3) Decentralization is chance for Local
acquired by students are derived directly Government to align economic
in consultation with the major sectors of development with vocational education
business and industry. and training polices to bear economic
5) A Process-Oriented Pedagogic Model: growth. Local Government to execute
Called “Plan, Explore, Practice and the alignment police above.
Perform” or “PEPP” Model, the aim is to 4) The development of competences, in
develop “thinking doers”, i.e., graduates terms of variety and student number, in
who can apply what they have learned TVET must match the labor market
and put them into practice. The focus is demand (demand driven).

223
5) School-business/industry partnership
must base on mutual-benefit [8] Hanson M. Educational Decentralization:
collaboration, e.g., rewards need to be Issues and Challenges. California: Havard
offered for those who provide
Institute for International Development.
traineeship. Deductible profit tax may
become one short of reward. 1997.

[9] Gill, I.S., Fluitman, F., & Dar, A. Vocational

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