Disposal of Petroleum Wastes on

Oil-Producing Properties
LUDWIG SCHMIDT AND C. J. WILHELM

Soils and Water Resources of Kansas Oil Areas

OGDEN S. JONES
•
 Disposal of Petroleum Wastes on Oil-
Producing Properties'
By LUDWIG SCHMIDT 2 and C. J. WILHELM 3

CHAPTER ON SOILS AND WATER RESOURCES OF

KANSAS OIL AREAS
By OGDEN S. JONES'

INTRODUCTION
The attention of operators of oil-producing properties long has
been directed toward methods of disposing of petroleum wastes
as well as the disposal of oil-field brines. The problem of dispos-
ing of petroleum wastes is not easy to solve, and although many
operators are to be commended for the efforts they have made,
much work remains to be done before the problem can be con-
sidered solved.
Petroleum wastes include emulsions of petroleum and brine
or mixtures of petroleum and sand that cannot be "broken down"
or treated economically by known methods of separating petro-
leum from deleterious matter; crude petroleum that escapes from
pipe lines, fittings, and tanks because of holes in the lines, leaky
connections, or some accident; and oil-saturated materials that
accumulate accidentally or otherwise in the normal operation of
an oil-producing property.
These wastes should be isolated and handled separately from
the oil-field brines, for although both may cause damage to fresh-
water supplies, vegetation, and aquatic and animal life, their
proper disposal requires entirely different methods. Many oper-

1
"Reprinted from Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations 3394," by the
Kansas State Board of Health.
2
Senior petroleum engineer, Bureau of Mines, Petroleum Experiment Sta-
tion, Bartlesville, Okla.
3
Associate petroleum engineer, Bureau of Mines, Petroleum Experiment
Station, Bartlesville, Okla.
4
Geologist, Division of Sanitation, Kansas State Board of Health, Law-
rence, Kans.

3
ators attempt to handle wastes in their brine-disposal systems, but
those most experienced in the disposal of petroleum wastes have
found a distinct advantage in handling brine and petroleum
wastes separately. In other words, the most efficient method of
disposing of petroleum wastes differs from that best adapted to
disposing of oil-well brines, and the two cannot be carried on sat-
isfactorily as one operation. For example, oil-field brines fre-
quently can be disposed of most economically by allowing them
to accumulate in ponds or settling basins, from which they are
permitted to escape during periods of heavy rainfall into streams
flowing at flood stage. Careful regulation of the volume of brine
entering the fresh water streams should cause no noticeable or at
least no damaging increase in mineral content of the water. How-
ever, if oil is allowed to accumulate in the ponds and eventually
is released with the brine, considerable damage might ensue to
vegetation along the banks of the stieam and to the water supply
of down-stream communities.
Although much of the petroleum that enters a brine pond can
be burned, complete destruction by fire of all the oil on top of the
brine is seldom possible, and the heavy, unburned ends even-
tually find their way into fresh-water streams.
The problem of the disposal of petroleum wastes and oil-field
brines is so acute in certain parts of the United States, especially
in the agricultural areas, that it has been the basis of a study by
Bureau of Mines Engineers under a cooperative agreement be-
tween the Kansas State Board of Health and the Bureau of Mines.
The studies are far from complete, and the problem is long-
continuing one. However, information and data already acquired
regarding disposal of petroleum wastes, including descriptions of
methods now used to handle such accumulations with safety,
should assist operators to cope with some of the deleterious ef-
fects of inadequate and inefficient waste disposal. To that end,
publication of this report has been prompted.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This investigation, conducted by the Bureau of Mines in co-
operation with the Kansas State Board of Health, was made un-
der the general supervision of R. A. Cattell, chief engineer, Pe-
troleum and Natural Gas Division, Bureau of Mines, and N. A. C.

4
Smith, supervising engineer, Petroleum Experiment Station, Bu-
reau of Mines, Bartlesville, Okla.
The writers are indebted to Earnest Boyce, chief engineer, R.
C. Mitchell, research engineer, and Ogden S. Jones, geologist, all
of the Kansas State Board of Health, for assistance in the prepa-
ration of this report.
The writers also are indebted to the oil operators in the va-
rious fields for furnishing valuable data.
H. C. Fowler of the Washington, D.C., office, H. C. Miller and
G. B. Shea, of the San Francisco field office, and Gustav Wade
and Charles B. Carpenter, of the Dallas field office, Bureau of
Mines, gave valuable suggestions and criticisms in the prepara-
tion of the report, and grateful acknowledgment is given for
many constructive criticisms by other associates of the writers in
the Bureau of Mines.

INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF PETROLEUM WASTES

Soil
A search of the literature revealed that studies to determine
the effect of petroleum wastes on various soils and vegetation
have been confined to a few specialized conditions. Certain ex-
perimental work by Carr5 indicated that the growth of soy beans
apparently was improved by the addition of small quantities
(0.75 percent by volume) of oil, but that larger quantities (4 per-
cent) caused the death of the soy-bean plant, primarily because
the plant was unable to draw enough water from the soil to main-
tain growth. Studies by Murphy 6 showed that even small quan-
tities of crude petroleum generally delayed the germination of
wheat. When crude petroleum was mixed with the surface 4
inches of soil in test containers in a proportion comparable to 500
gallons of petroleum per acre, the stand of wheat was reduced 36
percent compared with the check average growing in soil uncon-
taminated by petroleum; and when the quantity of petroleum

5
Carr, R. H., Vegetative Growth in Soils Containing Crude Petroleum:
Soil Science, vol. 8, 1919, pp. 67-68.
6
Murphy, H. F., Some Effects of Crude Petroleum on Nitrate Production,
Seed Germination, and Growth: Soil Science, vol. 27, no. 2, February, 1919,
pp. 117-120.

5
 used was comparable to 2,500 gallons per acre, only 23 percent
of the total stand was obtained compared with the check average.
This represented a reduction of 77 percent. The results of this
particular group of tests showed also that crude petroleum
'poured on the surface in the proportion of 500 gallons per acre
did not prevent germination but did delay it slightly, and when
the rate of application was increased to a proportion of 2,500 gal-
lons per acre, germination was delayed somewhat longer; how-
ever, application of proportionately greater quantities of crude oil
apparently prevented germination of the wheat.
In studying the effect of crude petroleum on nitrification,
Murphy found that even a very small application of petroleum
tended to reduce nitrate formation. He reported that "There was
very little difference between mixing the crude petroleum with
the soil and applying it very lightly on the surface, but as the rate
of application increased, mixing the crude petroleum with the soil
decreased nitrate production more than surface application. The
.application of approximately 0.4 percent (by volume) of crude
petroleum to the surface cut down the nitrates about one-half,
whereas approximately 1 percent of crude petroleum mixed with
the soil practically checked nitrate formation. Even smaller
amounts of crude petroleum when mixed with the soil had a very
depressing effect on nitrate production. The application of crude
petroleum, amounting to approximately 0.4 percent when mixed
with the soil, very materially checked the formation of nitrates."
Although the effect of crude petroleum on soils may be criti-
cal, it is not necessarily permanent, as shown by studies made by
Baldwin'. In summarizing his work on modifications of the soil
flora induced by application of crude petroleum, Baldwin re-
ported:
"I. The soil flora is changed remarkably by applications of
crude petroleum. Most types of bacteria are inhibited by the ac-
tion of the crude petroleum, but some few types are very greatly
stimulted by its action. Mold growth is not inhibited by the action
of the crude petroleum.
"2. Ammonia production in the soil is lowered slightly by ap-

7
Baldwin, I. L., Modifications of the Soil Flora Induced by Applications
of Crude Petroleum: Soil Science, vol. 14, 1922, p. 475.

6
plications of crude petroleum. The ammonia produced in the soil
is probably the result of mold growth and not bacterial action,
as the bacterial types favored by the crude petroleum are not
able to form ammonia from organic material.
"3. When first applied, nitrate production in the soil is com-
pletely inhibited by the crude petroleum. The inhibitory action
lasts over a varying period of time, depending upon the size of the
application, and is followed by a period of rather slow nitrifica-
tion, which gradually becomes more intense.
"4. The data in regard to crop growth are not conclusive, but
the indications are that small applications of crude petroleum to
the soil do not injure its crop-producing power. Larger applica-
tions have a detrimental influence partly because of their effect
on the physical condition of the soil.
"5. It seems that crude petroleum when incorporated in soil
is gradually broken down into simpler products and the effect of
its presence is no longer apparent."
Evidence that the effect of crude petroleum on soils may be
detrimental but not necessarily permanently so is furnished also
by the return of abandoned tank sites and oil well locations to ag-
riculture production.
Vegetation
Beatties has pointed out that crude petroleum in excessive
amounts is detrimental to vegetation. He states: "It is the general
belief among horticulturists that crude oil if applied to either
roots or the tops of plants is certain to kill the plants. I do not
know of any form of vegetation that will withstand a saturation of
crude oil."
Investigators have given considerable study to the effect of
petroleum oils on plant life. These studies have been made in con-
nection with the use of petroleum oils as insecticides. DeLong9
classifies the types of injury resulting from the use of oil sprays

8
Beattie, W. R., senior horticulturist, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Bureau of Plant Industry: October 1, 1935, personal communication to the
writers.
9
DeLong, Dwight M., The Relation of Insecticides to Plant Growth: Pro-
ceedings, Second Dearborn Conference of Agriculture, Industry and Science,
May, 1936, pp. 297-304.

7
upon plants as chemical and physical. Quoting DeLong, "Most
oils have a direct chemical effect caused by the absorption of vol-
atile products ***. The physical injury from oil is due to the me-
chanical interference with or the impairment of certain normal
physiological processes of the plant. When the leaf is coated with
an oil film the process of water loss or transpiration is definitely
reduced or prevented ***.
"A second process which is impaired is the exclusion of air or
the normal oxygen and carbon dioxide interchange which is es-
sential to living plants. This is probably due to the presence of oil
in the air spaces between the cells ***. There is also a slow or
delayed effect which brings about a loss of green color, the plant
becomes yellow, with the loss of chlorophyll the growth and other
processes cease, and in time the leaves fall prematurely ***.
Another physiological condition which occurs is a delayed ripen-
ing of the fruit and sometimes a forced dropping. The flavor or
quantities of fruits like the orange may also be changed."

Effect on Aquatic and Wild Life

The pollution of streams and other bodies of water by oily
wastes becomes effective in two ways; first, by covering the sur-
face of the water with a film of oil and second, by the formation
of a bottom pollution blanket caused by the formation of oil-
water emulsions, which gradually accumulate other sediment and
sink to the bottom of the stream bed.
Because of the many factors involved, including species of
aquatic life and the extent and thickness of crude-oil film, no
general statement can be made regarding the effect of crude oil
on fish life. According to Ellie' specific toxic action of crude oil
on fish life is possible and may be critical, and the same conclu-
sion applies to the formation of a bottom pollution blanket. In
other words, a small quantity of oil wastes would not be detri-
mental to certain types of fish life, whereas the same amount of
'pollution would be fatal to other species. In addition, Ellis dis-
cussed in considerable detail the effect of the dissolved oxygen
supply in water on fish life and brought out the fact that the oxy-

10
Ellis, M. M., Detection and Measurement of Stream Pollution: U. S. Bu-
reau of Fisheries, Bull. 22, 1937, pp. 376 and 432.

8
gen balance of streams may be affected by oils covering the sur-
face of the stream, thus preventing proper reaeration of the water.
As to the minimum limit of dissolved oxygen, quoting Ellis, "Con-
sidering the data from all sources and particularly from the field
and laboratory studies presented here, 5 p.p.m. of dissolved oxy-
gen seems the lowest value which may reasonably be expected to
maintain in good condition varied fish faunae of warm-water
fishes in our inland streams, if the water temperature be 20° C.
or above. This statement does not mean that 5 p.p.m. dissolved
oxygen is the lethal point for fresh-water fishes, but designated
5 p.p.m. as approximately the lower limit of favorable conditions."
In an extensive survey of oil pollution along the Atlantic and
Gulf coasts, Lane 1'and his associates found that oil contamina-
tion is detrimental to shellfish because it destroys the larval
forms. Oil contamination renders adult mollusks and finny fish
unfit for food and may change their migratory habits.
Recent studies of Galtsoffy2 and others give detailed data on
the effect of -crude-oil wastes on oysters, and their studies to date
indicate that the feeding organism of the oyster is affected ad-
versely by crude oil.
Quoting from the summary of their report: "The experimental
evidence presented in the report shows that the discharge of oil
into the sea produces profound changes in the normal environ-
ment of the oyster. The substances which gradually dissolve from
oil in the sea water irritate the delicate ciliated mechanism. In a
'very dilute solution they may act as stimulants, but in higher
concentrations they inhibit the activity of the ciliated epithelium
and may bring about complete stoppage of the current of water
through the gills. The same substances which reduce the rate of
feeding of the organism affect its food supply by retarding the
rate of propagation of diatoms. Obviously the presence of oil cre-
ates adverse conditions."

11
Lane, F. W., Bauer, A. D., Fisher, H. F., and Harding, P. N., Effect of
Oil Pollution on Marine and Wild Life: U S. Bureau of Fisheries Document
995, 1925, pp. 171-181.
12
Galtsoff, P. S., Prytherch, H. F., Smith, R. 0., and Koehring, Vera, Ef-
fects of Crude Oil Pollution on Oysters in Louisiana Waters: U. S. Bureau
of Fisheries, Bulletin 18, 1935, pp. 143-210.
'" See page 174 of work cited in footnote 11.

9
 The destructive action of oil pollution on fowl has been re-
ported officially by several State and Federal agencies. The fol-
lowing summation by Lane" and his associates is a condensed
statement of the effect of oil pollution on fowls. "It is stated that
the birds, either in walking on the flats or resting on the oil-cov-
ered water of tide pools, come in direct contact with the material,
which tenaciously sticks to their legs, wings, and on the sides of
their bodies. As the bird endeavors to remove this material, its
neck, head, and beak become more or less contaminated with it.
The feathers are matted together, and it is stated that when this
occurs with the wings the birds become helpless. Apparently they
find it impossible to fly, or at least to fly in the normal manner,
and they can only walk or roll over the flats. The oil not only
causes matting of the feathers, but is reported to penetrate to the
skin, causing irritation. It is said that a bird thus disabled will
inevitably perish. Death is stated to be due to the inability to (1)
navigate normally, (2) obtain food, and (3) maintain their nar-
mal body temperature."
Injury to water fowl is not confined to costal waters. Accord-
ing to Denmead," injury to water fowl from oil pollution is se-
rious on the Mississippi Wild-Life and Fish Refuge and along the
Ouachita River in Arkansas and Louisiana as well as on other in-
land waters.
Effect on Livestock
A search of available literature indicates that information on
the toxic effect of petroleum consumed by livestock is limited to
case records rather than detailed studies that show the toxic lim-
its under controlled conditions. However, many of the case histo-
ries contain much valuable information, as, for example, to quote
from a paper by Gish15, "Crude oil, insofar as I have been able to
learn, is only injurious when consumed in large quantites or when
it comes in contact with the body over a considerable area. If it is
accidentally consumed with water it is not probable that enough

14
Denmead, Talbott, assistant United States game conservation officer,
Bureau of Biological Survey: Hearings before the committee on Rivers and
Harbors, House of Representatives, 71st Cong. 2 session, on H. R. 10625,
part 1, pp. 61-65.
15
Gish, A. H., Observations on Relation of Oil Pollution to Livestock
Losses: North American Veterinarian, October, 1925, p. 51.

10
will gain entrance to do injury unless such ingestion continues
over an indefinite period. It must be remembered, however, that
a certain percentage of cattle in every large herd will deliberately
consume pure crude oil, high-test gasoline, benzine, coal oil, and
all. If the crude oil contains much of its volatile constituents, the
animal becomes intoxicated, bloats, and may or may not belch up
oil. The pupils dilate, respiration is accelerated, and the heart-
beats are fast and weak. Muscular incoordination develops, fol-
lowed by death. Mild cases will recover but as a consequence do
not put on flesh well ***.
"In pastures along polluted streams the cattle will often stand
in the streams or ponds during the summer in their battle against
flies and other pests. If the water is badly polluted (covered with
oil that has not been exposed to the air for a sufficient length of
time to affect evaporation of volatile ingredients), they will throw
oil over their bodies with their tails and become badly blistered.
The skin cracks, and unthriftiness results."
Miscellaneous
Crude petroleum, when released in sizable quantities, will
cover the entire surface of small bodies of water and streams. The
film of oil on the surface of the water interferes with the natural
exchange of gases constantly taking place between the water and
'the atmosphere. This natural exchange of gases is of vital im-
portance where sewage is discharged into streams for digestion.
Incomplete digestion of sewage in streams from which the water
is used for human consumption may have serious consequences
and result in epidemics such as typhoid.
The effect of oil pollution at bathing beaches and on aquatic
sports as well as on the public health has been studied by Lane'
and others. Among the harmful effects discussed by them in their
report are interference with healthful aquatic sports, the ten-
dency to lower hygienic standards of the community as a result
of unsightly appearance of oily refuse in a locality, retardation of
the normal oxidation of sewage, skin irritations resulting from

16
Lane, F. W., Bauer, A. D., Fisher, H. F., and Harding, P. H., Effect of
Oil Pollution of Coast and Other Waters on the Public Health: Report 936,
Public Health Reports, July 11, 1924, pp. 1657-1662; and Oil Pollution at
Bathing Beaches: Reprint 980, Public Health Report, Dec. 19, 1924, pp. 3195-
3208.

11
contact with oil and oily residues, and the discomfort resulting
from the obnoxious odors rising from oily wastes. Although in-
vestigations reported by Lane and his coworkers were confined
to the immediate vicinity of coastal cities, many of their findings
could be applied with equal emphasis to streams, lakes, and other
inland aquatic recreational centers.
Fresh crude petroleum and its highly volatile refined products
floating on the surface of the water in creeks, rivers, and bogs
present an acute fire hazard. Fortunately, the hazard is reduced
materially after the crude oil has been exposed to the atmos-
phere, as most of the more volatile and inflammable fractions
have evaporated. According to the American Petroleum In-
stitute", experiments conducted in New York Bay indicate that
oil of 175° F. flash point floating on the surface of water having
a temperature of 54° F. cannot be ignited by ordinary means
when the layer of oil does not exceed a thickness of 0.064 inches,
which is the thickness of the film when approximately 1,115,000
gallons of oil spread over an area of 1 square mile. However,
studies by the National Board of Fire Underwriters' 8 and local au-
thorities indicate there is a gradual accumulation of the oily
wastes on piling or wharf structures that is not washed away by
the water. Although these accumulations do not ignite readily, as
from a match or cigar, if a fire should be started by some other
means, the oily wastes might become heated to a temperature at
which they will ignite. At such a temperature, these accumula-
tions might melt, flow down over the surface of the water, and
spread the fire to neighboring structures.
Sometimes the detrimental effect of crude petroleum and oily
wastes is not noticed immediately. For example, the attention of
the writers was directed to a building on whose recently plastered
wall small discolored blotches appeared. Upon investigation, it
was found that the sand used in mixing the plaster was from a pit
in a dry river bed. Further investigation showed that when water
flowed down the river it carried crude petroleum and oil wastes

17
American Petroleum Institute, Disposal of Refinery Wastes: Sec. 1,
second ed. 1933, New York, p. 8.
" Oil Pollution of Navigable Waters: Report to the Secretary of State by
the Interdepartmental Committee, pp. 54-56, Government Printing Office,
1926.

12
upon its surface and, as the water receded, that the oil had en-
tered the sand bed. Although the oil in the sand was not discern-
ible to the eye, when the sand was mixed in the plaster and the
plaster dried on the wall the oil came to the surface and formed
unsightly spots that could not be covered with light-colored
paints.
Reduction of Crude-Oil Wastes on Oil-Producing Properties
The old axiom that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound
of cure is directly applicable to the reduction of crude-oil wastes
on oil-producing properties. It is true that from time to time ac-
cidents occur in which crude oil inadvertently is "spilled" on the
ground; also, in some areas crude-oil emulsions are produced that
are exceedingly difficult and sometimes costly to "break down."
Nevertheless, on most properties that present an unsightly ap-
pearance because of oil accumulations, and where oil wastes
are allowed to escape into streams during rainy seasons, these
slovenly conditions and unsanctioned principles can be remedied
by ordinary care and attention by the operator. The writers have
discussed good lease "housekeeping" with many operators in the
field, and every operator of a well-kept property has stated that
good practice is not only sound business but that it results in re-
duction of fire hazards and the size of damage claims, lessens in-
juries to workmen, and minimizes unnecessary loss of materials
and equipment. As one operator asked so pertinently, "Why
spend money to bring the oil to the surface and then allow it to
leak out or spill on the ground?"
Care of Surface Equipment of Oil Wells and Lead Lines
Poorly packed and neglected stuffing boxes are one of the
most constant and prolific causes of loss of crude oil at pump-
ing wells. Many wells equipped with "b!eeder" valves on the lead
lines near the wellhead also spill crude oil, as such valves often
become so badly worn that oil drips from them continuously.
Moreover, cracked or badly worn wellhead fittings and controls
often leak. From casual observation, such crude-oil leakage may
appear to be unimportant, but after a time the derrick floor and
the entire well location will become very unsightly. During pe-
riods of rainfall, the crude oil that has collected in depressions on
the surface of the ground is carried over surrounding vegetation

13
and into fresh-water courses. Figure 1 shows the surface equip-
ment at a small producing well, which, from the standpoint of
"good housekeeping," is operated very inefficiently.
Crude oil spilled when rods and tubing are pulled is responsi-
ble for unsightly well locations and, in addition, often is the
source of material surface pollution. Figure 2 shows how one
operator of a small producing well prevents oil from flowing over
the ground about the well site. A shallow ditch around the well
terminates in a sump, from which the oil may be recovered in the
event of an excessive spill or leak. Normally, a few shovels of
fresh earth leveled around the well location after a rod-pulling
job keeps the property looking neat and trim and helps to reduce
the possibility of oil being washed from the well site into drainage
channels that lead to fresh-water supplies.
In more recently developed fields, where the large volume of
oil produced warrants the additional expense, many companies
use either gravel or sand to surface ground-level derrick floors

Figure 2.— A properly maintained

well site, with drainage ditch to
prevent accumulations of oil from
Figure 1.—Slovenly well site. Note spills when tubing or rods are
leaking connections and oil-soaked pulled. There are no leaking con-
debris around surface equipment. nections.

14
Figure 3.—Modern well site in western Kansas oil field. Well is equipped
with individual pumping unit, derrick legs are set in concrete posts, and
the derrick floor consists of a gravel fill held in place with a concrete
retaining wall. Around the well-head is a wooden floor that is removable.
The site is well drained.

and surround them with concrete drainage ditches leading to con-

crete sumps. Many derrick floors also are made entirely of con-
crete. A modern derrick floor and surface equipment are shown
in figure 3. The steel drum at the wellhead collects the oil spilled
when the fluid in the tubing is sampled. The bottom drain in the
drum allows the fluid to flow back into the casing.
Lead lines from wells to oil and gas separators or tank bat-
teries and all pipe lines used for transporting oil on the properties
are a constant source of small leaks. Often small leaks caused by
corrosion of the pipe or due to worn connections are repaired by
using whatever material is immediately at hand. Usually such
repairs are very unsatisfactory and short-lived. Figure 4, for ex-
ample, shows the result of an attempt to repair leaks in a lead
line with wood plugs and a piece of rubber inner tube, soft rope,
and bailing wire. The repair of leaks in corroded oil pipe lines
and tanks by the use of wood plugs is a practice that should be
discouraged. Such repairs are not 100 percent effective and, in

15
 (Courtesy R. C. Mitchell, Kansas State Board of Health.)
Figure 4.—A lease lead line with leaks repaired with wood plugs and an old
tire inner tube and softrope.

addition, there is always the hazard of a big "spill" if one of the

pegs should be broken or blown out.
Progressive operators consider it good practice to bury all oil
pipelines on the leases to reduce the number of breaks and small
leaks caused by automobiles, trucks, wagons, and other vehicles
in crossing exposed lines. Furthermore, crude petroleum flowing
through pipe lines lying on the surface of the ground is heated to
a higher temperature by the sun's rays than is oil transported
through buried lines, and evaporation losses are increased ma-
terially when the oil enters the flow and stock tanks. High oil
temperatures are especially noticeable on properties that pro-
duce only a few barrels a day, as the movement of the crude oil
through the lines is slow.

Lease-Tank Batteries, Including Separators

The tank battery probably presents the most difficult problem
in good lease housekeeping. Leaks develop in the tanks and con-
nections, "spills" occur when tanks are carelessly overfilled, and
• no disposal is made of tank bottoms when the tanks are cleaned.

16
On many proeprties the problem is aggravated by the necessity of
separating the brine produced with the crude petroleum and the
breaking down of oil and water emulsions.
Figure 5 shows a tank battery where modern equipment is em-
ployed for the separation of gas, water, and other deleterious
substances from the oil. When a considerable amount of gas is
produced with the oil, the gas-oil mixture is run first into a gas
trap, where the gas is separated from the oil. On properties where
the volume of gas produced does not warrant the installation of
a special oil and gas separator, the production from the well is
run through lead lines direct to the flow tank, where the gas sep-
arates from the oil and is removed from the flow tank. The oil-
water-sand mixture is allowed to stand in the flow tank until the
water and sand settle out of the oil. The water is withdrawn from
the bottom of the flow tank, and the oil is run into the stock tanks.
The length of time the oil-water mixture stands in the flow tank
usually is regulated by a siphon on the water draw-off line. The
heavier emulsions settle to the bottom of the flow tank and are
removed whenever the accumulation interferes with the normal
operation of the tank. Water from the draw-off siphon often is

Figure 5.—Modern lease installation showing gas separator, flow tank for
separating oil and water, and lease storage tanks.

17
 (Courtesy R. C. Mitchell, Kansas State Board of Health.)
Figure 6.—Vegetation destroyed by oil-waste overflow from combination
oil-waste and brine ponds.

discolored by oily wastes, and although the amount of oil ac-

companying the water normally is small, it usually is enough to
discolor the banks of the drainage ditches, disposal ponds, and
pits. The separation of water from the oil in the flow tank is
rarely complete, and a certain amount of bottom sediment and
brine usually is carried over into the stock tank, from which it
must be removed at intervals.
Formerly it was general practice to take care of the brine,
bottom sediment, and other oily wastes from a tank battery in one
pond or pit where the oil and bottom sediment were "burned off"
periodically. Such installations now are considered to be very in-
efficient, and even with periodic burning of the oil and B.S. there
is a gradual accumulation of water-logged emulsions that will not
burn readily, if at all. Furthermore, some of the water-logged
emulsions settle to the bottom of the pond, whereas the unburned
portions that remain afloat often overflow from the pond during
periods of heavy rainfall and do considerable damage to vegeta-
tion, as shown in figure 6.

18
 A more efficient lease installation is shown in figure 7. All
brine, oily waste, and B.S. flow from the tank battery to the pre-
liminary pond, from which only the brine is siphoned into the
major brine pond. The accumulated waste is burned off the pre-
liminary pond periodically. If there is a major break or "run-
over," the oil will be trapped and can be reclaimed easily. As a
safety precaution, the dike separating the two ponds is lower than
the surrounding dike. Thus, if the preliminary pond should boil
over while burning, the flow would be trapped in the major brine
pond.
The location of brine ponds and "burn pits" should be con-
sidered carefully. In the majority of the installations observed
by the writers little or no consideration was given to the relative
positions of the ponds with respect to the general drainage of the
property. Apparently the only thought was to place the tank bat-
tery so that the production from the wells would flow by gravity
to the tanks and separators, and likewise that the brine and other
wastes would flow by gravity from the tanks to the ponds, with
some consideration given to fire hazard. Consequently, the brine
ponds often received the entire surface run-off of the producing
property, as well as the brine and other wastes from the tank

• Figure 7.—An oil-free brine pond with a separating pond for oil wastes.

19
 Figure 8.—Portable weed burner for cleaning up waste oil on the lease.

battery. Although gravity or natural flow is of major importance

in locating tank-battery and brine-pond sites, additional study of-
ten will provide sites for brine and burning pits where large
quantities of surface run-off will not collect, and usually such sur-
face drainage can be diverted by proper dikes or ditches.
As mentioned previously, petroleum wastes (especially if
water-logged) often are quite difficult to ignite, and some opera-
tors have found hand blow-torches quite effective for this pur-
pose. Figure 8 shows a portable weed burner used by engineers
of the Kansas State Board of Health that has proved very effec-
tive in cleaning up "oil spills" and burning old "water-logged"
emulsions.
Emulsions
It is evident from the foregoing discussion that crude-oil emul-
sions present one of the major difficulties tending to disrupt all
concerted efforts directed toward good lease-housekeeping. The
problem of minimizing the formation of emulsions and treating
those that are formed is one of the most difficult in oil production.
No attempt will be made to discuss the problem in detail in this

20
report, as a bulletin covering the prevention and treatment of
oil-field emulsions is in preparation". The following short dis-
cussion, however, may be of interest.
A crude-oil emulsion may be defined as a heterogeneous mix-
ture of oil and water, in which one of the liquids forms minute
droplets suspended in the other liquid. Since crude-oil emulsions
generally are water-in-oil emulsions, the water is in the form of
minute droplets suspended in the oil.
Crude-oil emulsions are formed by the agitation of water and
oil in contact with each other. As shown by Dow 20 , an emulsion
may be formed in the well hole on the face of the sand at the
point where the water and oil enter the well or back in the forma-
tion where the mixture is entering the well through cracks or
crevices, but generally it is formed at some later stage, either in
the well, in the tubing, or in the flow lines on the surface of the
ground. The formation of an emulsion is increased greatly by un-
necessary agitation of the fluid in the well. Worn or mechanically
imperfect pumping equipment reproduces a condition similar to
the pumping of the water and oil mixture through a small orifice
under high pressure. Forcing the mixture through the orifice by
high pressure will produce fine emulsion particles, which usually
are the most difficult to break down.
The close association of the oil and brine in the formation and
in the process of production results in the formation of an emul-
sion that may or may not be difficult to break dawn. There are
many methods for treating emulsions. The following are the most
commonly used in Kansas: (1) chemical treatment, (2) applica-
tion of heat, (3) some combinations of chemical treatment and
application of heat. In some areas "hay tanks" or electric dehy-
drators are very efficient in assisting in the breaking down of
emulsions, but these processes are not widely used in Kansas.
The oil-water mixture produced from the Mississippi limestone
formation in Kansas generally is more difficult to treat than that
produced from other limestone formations in the State. Opera-

19
Shea, G. B., Practices and Methods of Preventing and Treating Crude-
Oil Emulsions: Bulletin, Bureau of Mines. (In preparation.)
20
Dow, D. B., Oil-Field Emulsions: Bull. 250, Bureau of Mines, 1926,
pp. 8-9.

21
tors have found that in general the water can be separated from
the oil produced from other limestone formations without the ap-
plication of heat, but that the fluid produced from the Mississippi
limestone requires heating in addition to chemicals. Oil pro-
duced from limestone formations often reaches the surface at
0
temperatures ranging from 100 to 125° F. For successful sepa-
ration of the water from the oil, the temperature often is raised
to as high as 180° F.
Minimizing the Formation of Emulsions
The first step in the treatment of emulsions is to keep their
formation at a minimum. Since the agitation of the water and
oil causes the particles of water to break down into droplets small
enough to become colloidal, production methods should be such
that agitation is at a minimum.
Dow 21 recommends the following procedure for limiting the
formation of emulsions:
1. Flowing wells.
Separation of the oil, water, and gas under pressure by the
use of pressure separators. Complete expansion of the gas
is prevented by carrying a back pressure on the separator,
and as a result the amount of agitation is decreased.
2. Air- and gas-lift wells.
Limit agitation by not allowing slugs of gas or air to flow
through after the fluid in the well has reached the bottom
of the producing string. It was found that cutting of the oil
took place when the well was emptied and a violent flow of
air passed through the tubing. Where the air- or gas-lift is
operated so that alternate slugs of oil and gas or air are
raised through the tubing the flow is increasingly turbu-
lent.
3. Pumping wells.
Replace worn or leaking cups, barrels, plungers, or valves
in the working barrels. Discontinue pumping when the oil
in the hole is not sufficient to fill the working barrel, or,
"when the well pounds." Reduce "whipping" of the pump-

21
See footnote 20.

22
Figure 9.—Stationary emulsion-treating unit. (Courtesy 0. E. Randolph, Dist. Supt., Sinclair Prairie Oil and Gas Co.)
 ing rods within the tubing by means of a counterbalance
on the equipment above ground.
4. Lead lines.
Eliminate sharp turns or constrictions that cause accumu-
lations of scale or partly closed valves from lead lines.
Lead lines should be as short as possible and laid on a uni-
form grade; low spots, where water may accumulate and
mix, should be eliminated.

Treatment of Emulsions
As mentioned previously, the most generally used methods of
treatment of emulsions in Kansas include heat treatment or the
injection of chemicals, and often both. Where treatment is neces-
sary to produce pipe-line oil, the chemical is injected either into
the bottom of the well or lubricated into the flowline at the well-
head. If the emulsion is difficult to break down, some type of
heater is used in conjunction with the chemical.
An emulsion-treating unit is shown in figure 9. This unit is
in the Burrton field, Kansas, and is used for breaking the emul-
sion formed in producing oil from the Mississippi limestone hori-
zon. Chemical is lubricated into the lead line at the wellhead.
The oil flowing from the gas separator is circulated through the
boiler, where it is heated and from there it goes to the flow-tank,
where the brine settles out and is drawn off by a siphon while
the oil flows to the stock tanks. Tank bottoms and oil that has not
been dehydrated sufficiently are recirculated through the heating
unit. In this treating unit the heat is applied directly to the oil-
water mixture.
Other types of emulsion-treating units apply heat indirectly
to the oil-water mixture by means of steam coils placed either
immediately above or below the oil and water contact in the flow
tanks. The chemical usually is lubricated into the lead line at the
wellhead.
In oil fields where only small quantities of emulsions are
formed, operators have found that portable heaters can be used
to advantage. The emulsion is collected in one tank, and when
the quantity is large enough the portable heater is brought in.
Figure 10 shows two portable units in use in Kansas. In the

21
Type A

Type B (courtesy R. C. Mitchell, Kansas State Board of Health.)

Figure 10.—Types of portable emulsion-treating units.
operation of the type A unit shown in figure 10, the heat is sup-
plied by burning vaporized fuel oil sprayed into the fire-box at

25
the rear of the unit. The heat passes from the firebox through
4-inch flues to the stack. The fuel oil is vaporized by a centrifu-
gal blower driven by the engine, which also drives the pump for
circulating the tank bottoms through the unit. The tank bottoms
enter the jacketed firebox at the rear, into the section containing
the firetubes, and leave the unit at the front header on top of the
shell. The temperature to which the emulsion is heated is regu-
lated manually by adjustment of the fuel to the burner. Chemi-
cals are added to the emulsion in the tank before it is pumped
through the heating unit.
In the operation of the type B unit shown in figure 10, the
emulsion is pumped to and from the boiler through flexible hose
and the chemical is lubricated directly into the boiler. The fuel
oil for the burner is vaporized by compressed air from two stor-
age tanks mounted immediately below the shell of the boiler.
Pressure is maintained in the air-storage tanks by a compressor
driven by the engine, which also drives the pump for circulating
the emulsions.
Miscellaneous Sources of Petroleum Waste
Power plants used for pumping wells contribute considerable
petroleum waste on oil-producing properties. On the older prop-
erties the power plants generally consist of a central band-wheel
power-driven by a gas engine; on properties producing sizeable
quantities of oil, wells may be equipped with individual prime
movers, such as gas engines, electric motors, or steam engines.
There is always a certain amount of oil waste around engines and
other machinery, which, unless properly cared for and disposed
of, accumulates and presents a fire hazard. There is likelihood,
also, of such waste entering natural drainage courses and event-
ually destroying crops and ruining land for agricultural purposes.
Figure 11 shows a concrete sump designed to take care of the
oil-waste products from a gas-engine power.
Many leases are equipped with booster pumps to pump oil
from stock tanks to pipelines. Such pumps often leak and cause
unnecessary waste of petroleum oil. Figure 12 shows a poorly
maintained booster pump that has been responsible for the de-
struction of vegetation over an area of more than one acre in its
vicinity.

26
 Although warehouses and pipe yards seldom are a source of
petroleum waste, average salvage yards and lease junk heaps are
flagrant offenders. Piles of oil-covered junk, oily rags, oil-soaked
boards, discarded trucks and machinery usually are a source of
oil waste that may do considerable damage unless the drainage
from them is controlled. An example of damage to water fowl by
oil-waste drainage from salvage dumps was reported by Lin-
coln.22 He cites a case where oil-waste drainage from salvage
yards containing old automobiles and oil-soaked waste was so
detrimental to water fowl in the new bird refuge of Roaches Run
on the Potomac River near Washington, D.C., that it was neces-
sary to make provision to carry the drainage from the salvage
yards around the bird refuge.
Combination Brine- and Waste Oil-Disposal Plants
In several fields operators have formed brine-disposal com-
panies to take care of the drainage from well locations and tank
batteries on oil-producing properties. Although fresh and re-
claimable oil is separated from the brines and drainage on the
individual leases, an appreciable quantity of oil is reclaimed by
the brine-disposal companies.
Waste-water-disposal companies have been in operation for
several years in oil fields in Coastal States where the problem is
the separation of the oil from brine and subsequent disposal of the
waste petroleum; the brine is disposed of easily in nearby bodies
of salt water. Waste mud fluids from drilling operations also must
be disposed of and for best results they are handled separately
from the brines and oil refuse.
The amount of petroleum wastes incident to the production
of crude petroleum is shown by information furnished the writers
by one of the waste-water-disposal companies operating in Cali-
fornia. This company is owned cooperatively by the operators in
the Santa Fe Springs, Whittier, Montebello, and Rideout Heights
oil fields. The initial cost of the plant and pipe lines was approxi-
mately $507,000. In 1936, the quantity of waste water handled by
the company was approximately 72,000 barrels per day.

22
Lincoln, F. C., The Effect of Oil Pollution on Waterfowl: Proceedings,
North American Wildlife Conference, Feb. 3-7, 1936, Senate Committee Print,
74th Congress, 2nd Session, Washington, D. C., 1936, p. 556.

27
 Table 1 shows the operating costs, quantity of oil reclaimed,
and value of reclaimed oil that was sold.

Operating costs, amounts of oil re-

claimed, and value of reclaimed oil
from 1930 to 1935, inclusive, of a
waste-dater-disposal company op-
erating in the Santa Fe Springs
area, Calif.:

Yr. Cost Bbls. Rev.

1930 $45,130 74,900 $41,140
1931 40,026 68,900 20,554
1932 31,059 52,200 16,333
1933 30,333 61,000 16,017
1934 42,799 42,500 17,149
1935 30,663 39,156 20,142

Figure 11.—Concrete Sump for gas-

engine wastes.

Figure 12.—A poorly maintained booster pump.

28
 The reclaimed oil was sold either for fuel, or road oil and the
income derived from its sale, as shown in table 1, paid almost 60
percent of the operating expense over the 6-year period.
One of the major problems confronting operators of waste-
water-disposal systems is to separate oily wastes and emulsions
from brines before discharging the brines into the ocean. The
writers were informed that at the Santa Fe Springs waste-water-
disposal plant the maximum limits were 13 p.p.m. of oil in the
brines and a normal minimum of 5 p.p.m. In other words, in a
plant handling 72,000 barrels of brine per day, the maximum
amount of oil discharged with the brine did not exceed 39.3 gal-
lons of oil per day. Under most efficient operation only 15.1 gal-
lons of oil would enter the ocean per day. Such concentrations of
oil in brine are not easily discernible by the eye.
The thickness of oil film, appearance of the film, and the quan-
tity of oil required to form the bright bands of color observed on
water surfaces covered with small quantities of oil have been re-
ported by the American Petroleum Institute Committee on Dis-
posal of Refinery Wastes 23 to be as follows:
Thickness Appearance Gal, oil. film
0.0000015 Barely visible under most favorable cond. 25
.0000030 Visible as silvery sheen on surface of water 50
.0000060 First trace of color may be observed 100
.0000120 Bright bands of color are visible 200
.0000400 Colors begin to turn dull 666
.0000800 Colors are much darker 1,332
Stroop 24 reported that laboratory tests and large-scale tests
made at sea indicated that oil films up to 0.0000013 inch thick usu-
ally disappeared within 5 hours where the surface of the water
was agitated and that oil films 0.00004 inch thick usually disap-
peared in less than 24 hours.
Oil and Water Separators
Mention already has been made of the difficulty experienced
in obtaining complete separation of the oil from the water in oil-
water separating systems. The writers witnessed an example of

23
See footnote 17.
24
Stroop, D. V., Report on Oil-Pollution Experiments—Behavior of Fuel
Oil on the Surface of the Sea: Hearings before the Committee on Rivers and
Harbors, House of Representatives, Seventy-first Congress, 2nd Session, on
H. R. 10625, Part I, May 2, 3, and 26, 1930, pp. 41-49.

29
this difficulty in a brine-disposal system in an area in Texas
where controlled disposal of the brine in surface streams was per-
mitted. The brine from the flow tanks at the batteries in the sys-
tem drained to a small concrete pit, where a second separation of
oil and water took place. A siphon, operating below the fluid
level in the pit, allowed the brine to flow to a large collecting
pond after first passing through another pit-and-siphon arrange-
ment. The brine was pumped several miles from the collecting
pond to an auxiliary pond of a large reservoir. The water in the
auxiliary pond was maintained at a constant level by a siphon
that trapped any oil that might otherwise be carried through.
After five distinct processes of separation of the oil from the
water, a trace of oil still was present in the auxiliary pond of the
large reservoir.
The gravity-type oil-water separator in general use in the
Mid-Continent area depends for its operation on the difference
in specific gravity of the oil or emulsion and the brine. For effec-
tive performance, the separator must have considerable depth,
the rate of flow should be slow and the retention period long. In
many areas gravity separation of oil and water is assisted by the
application, independently or in combination, of chemicals and
heat. Chemicals reduce the interfacial tension between the oil
and water, and heat reduces the viscosity of the oil—two phenom-
ena that aid in separating oil from brine. The amount of prelim-
inary treatment necessary, of course, depends primarily upon the
type of oil and the type of emulsion.
The oil-water separators may be constructed of concrete,
steel, wood, vitrified tile, or brick. Concrete has the advantage
over other materials in that it resists corrosion, is fireproof, may
be shaped easily to meet certain requirements in design, and, if
properly designed and placed, will be leakproof.
The design of a separator necessarily is influenced by the type
of oil-water mixture, because the rate of flow and the required
retention time for complete separation of oil and water may be
considerably less for certain mixtures than for others. The Amer-
ican Petroleum Institute,25 in its manual relating to waste water,
recommends an average horizontal velocity not exceeding 2 feet
per minute, a partition velocity not exceeding 4 feet per minute,

30
and a displacement time of not less than 1 hour. Under such con-
ditions of operation, the quantity of oil in the effluent will not
exceed 30 parts per million.
A detailed study was made by Lane 26 and others of typical
methods and devices in use and proposed for the separation of oil
from water and the disposal of oily water from industrial plants
and ships. Included in their report of this study was a general
description of a separator designed after their study of several
waste refinery separators. A summation of their recommenda-
tions for the design and operation of an efficient oil-water sepa-
rator includes the following:
1. The cross-sectional area should be such that the average
velooity will not exceed 1 to 11/2 feet per minute. The partition
area should be such that turbulence is not created as the liquid
passes from one compartment to another. The bottom openings
preferably should be 11/2 to 2 feet vertically, and discharge areas
above baffles should be at least 2 feet in height.
2. The volumetric capacity should allow a displacement time
1
of 2 /2 hours, preferably more. The depth of the liquid in the
separator should be at least 6 to 8 feet.
3. The separator should have at least 4 compartments, prefer-
ably 6 to 10. The baffle walls are placed between the partition
walls to divert the oil to the surface and to prevent direct flow
through the submerged apertures. However, baffles should be
placed so that turbulence does not occur.
4. The inlet should be placed as far below the surface as prac-
ticable to avoid creating eddies and whirls. The outlet area
should be large enough to prevent sludge sediment being carried
from the bottom. The preferable velocity of the outlet is 25 feet
per second, or less.
5. Frequent skimming of the surface and removal of bottom
sediment is necessary for efficient operation of the separator.
By building two separators in parallel, one can be kept in oper-
ation while the other is shut down for cleaning or repairs.
The above recommendations apply to separators handling

25
See footnote 17.
26
Lane, F. W., Bauer, A. D., Fisher, H. F., and Harding, P. N., Typical
Methods and Devices for Handling Oil-Contaminated Water from Ships and
Industrial Plants: Technical Paper 385, Bureau of Mines, 1926, 66 pp.

31
large volumes of oil and water. For small volumes of fluid, the
minimum measurements can be reduced proportionally within
reasonable limitation. However, the design should be influenced
also by possible future requirements.
Table 2 shows the relationship of the length, width, and depth
to the volume handled, with the resultant velocity, for designing
a separator as recommended by the American Petroleum In-
stitute.27 The figures are approximate, since they were scaled
from curves.
TABLE 2.—Relation of separator measurements to volume capacity.
Capacity, Capacity,
million cu. ft. Length, Width, Depth, Velocity
gallons per mm. feet feet feet ft. per min.
1 93 63 17 5 1.1
2 186 87 22 6 1.45
3 278 100 25 6 1.7
4 371 110 28 7 1.85
5 464 118 30 7 1.95
A diagrammatic sketch of an oil-water separator is shown in
figure 13. Necessarily, the design is general, since it is dependent
on the type of mixture and the volume to be handled.
Sumnary
Petroleum wastes flowing over agriculture lands or into creeks
and streams often result in serious damage to vegetation and
aquatic and wild life, and render the waters unfit for domestic,
rural, and industrial use. In addition to possible fire hazards,
such practices also often make areas along streams and other
bodies of water unfit for recreational purposes.
The preliminary studies by the writers indicate that operators
have found, first, that by keeping pumping machinery, tanks, and
other lease equipment in good repair and by proper operating
methods and treatment of emulsions, much of the so-called petro-
leum wastes can be reduced materially; second, by the proper
design, location, and operation of oil and water separators and
brine pits and proper drainage from well sites, powers, material
yards, etc., petroleum wastes can be disposed of without injury
or damage to other properties.

27
See footnote 17.
 SECTION *AA

PLAN
Figure 13.—Diagrammatic sketch of an oil-water separator.
SOIL REGIONS KANSAS STATE PLAN

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1

LEGEND 11VE.1-..,,1" 10 0
KANSAS
317,45,1^"V",5 El =A AV. 8E1 ,T,TZW: I [CB :f 'AV.. 13
$1.7....7•14 MEAL

311.0 TaltZ" 6 VOW'. 9 El 0 r 2M

STATE PLANNING BOARD

Daia, supplzc1 e.
BY THE Depb -
OF,49rorzorny - Kan.sa,s SLATE, Coblege
Figure 14.—Soil map of Kansas. Data supplied by Department of Agronomy, Kansas State College, at Manhattan.
 SOIL AND WATER RESOURCES OF THE KANSAS
OIL AREAS
By Ogden S. Jones

Soil and water are the most important natural resources of

the State; their preservation and conservation constitute a real
problem. The protection of these resources is vitally important
to the future economic growth of the State.
Soil can be defined as that portion of the earth's crust that
contains the elements essential to plant growth. Depletion of
these elements not only lowers land values, due to lessened
productivity, but also results in decline in purchasing power of
the community. It has been estimated that it takes 500 to 800
years to evolve 1 inch of soil from the basic rock material. Bet-
ter ways and means should be studied and put into practice to
protect more effectively this product of nature, which is created
so very slowly.
Kansas soils range from fertile to almost barren types. Dif-
ferences in basic material are responsible for the wide range in
fertility. It may be stated, however, that for the most part Kansas
soils are fertile. Both farming and oil-field practices that destroy
valuable elements in the soil should be abandoned.
Like other Midwest States, Kansas has a limited supply of
fresh water. An adequate and usable water supply is essential,
not only to agriculture but to the many municipalities and indus-
tries that depend upon surface- and ground-water resources.
The surface streams and ground-water horizons must be main-
tained in as pure a state as possible. The future development of
an agricultural or industrial community with a contaminated
water supply is definitely limited.
How properly to dispose of brines produced with the oil is one
of the major problems of the oil industry. At present, returning
the brine to deep horizons or utilizing that energy to flood or
water drive are accepted by most operators as the most practical
and expedient method of disposal for safeguarding fresh-water
horizons and surface streams.

35
 MUNICIPAL WATER .SOURCES KANSAS STATE PLAN

0,14.

rn. — ^ ^L \ t..-*•23/-•

A to

I
a
""""

acua

LEGEND THE SOURCE Cf DATA KANSAS

KANSAS STATE BOARD Or HEALTH
0 SHALLOW WELL 0 SURFACE STREAMS STATE PLANNING BOARD
b, DEEP WELL o IMPOUNDED
1 REATED SUPPLIES SHOWN SOLID

Figure 15.—Municipal water sources. Compiled from records of the Division of Sanitation, State Board of Health at Lawrence.
 The oil frontier, like the older economic frontier of 75 years
ago, has progressed in this State from east to west. Wasteful lease
practices of the young oil industry are still in evidence in parts of
eastern Kansas. Fortunately for that portion of the State, the
soils are fairly impervious, tending to hold mineralization at or
near the point of occurrence. Due to the prevalence of this type
of soil, the trees along mineralized streams in eastern Kansas do
not show the damage that the trees suffer in western Kansas,
where the contaminated water spreads out from the channel
because of porous bank material.
Soil and Water Resources in the Oil Areas
By discussing soil types brieflly, as well as fresh-water for-
mations present in the more important oil-producing areas in
the State, it is hoped that the oil producer and oil-field personnel
will realize the necessity for controlling oil waste and salt water.
Southeast Kansas
The following counties are embraced in what is commonly
known as the southeastern Kansas oil fields: Franklin, Miami,
Greenwood, Coffey, Anderson, Linn, Bourbon, Allen, Woodson,
Elk, Wilson, Neosho, Labette, Montgomery, and Chautauqua.
The soils found in the above counties are for the most part res-
idual from limestone, sandstone, and shale. The soils in the
"Flint Hills" or "Blue Stem" Region were, in the main, formed
from limestone and as a rule are quite shallow. A residual soil
is one that is formed by disintegration and decomposition of rock
at the place of its occurrence. The presence of nearly water-
tight earthen reservoirs, lakes, and channel storage in this area
emphasizes the impervious nature of these soils.
It should not be concluded from the above remarks that no
damage can result from oil spills or improper disposal of oil-field
brines in this area. While it is true that the soil is relatively
impervious to infiltration, much of the bed rock exposed is of the
laminated and fractured type. Fractured limestone or limestone
beds containing solution channels have been known to carry
chloride waters miles from the point of occurrence.
Southeastern Kansas, it is true, has the most abundant rain-
fall in the State, but it also has a high run-off ratio and a sur-

37
 STREAM GAGING STATIONS KANSAS STATE PLAN

00

LEGEND KANSAS
• STREAM GAGING STATIONS FOR WHICH RECORDS ARE AVAILABLE
, STATE PLANNING BOARD
Dale , supplied by the, LI S Ceoloqz-caL Survey Topeka, Karisa,s
Figure 16.—Stream-gaging stations. Information furnished by the engineer's office of the U.S. Geological Survey in Topeka.
prising lack of beds suitable for ground-water storage. This
sharply limits the supply of potable water. Operators contem-
plating flooding operations in this area will realize this fact.
While bed-rock aquifers28 in normal years yield sufficient water
for farm demands, the towns depend largely upon surface sup-
plies. Care therefore must be exercised that brines are ilot al-
lowed to escape into the surface drainage because of the danger
of contaminating bed-rock water aquifers that supply farm wells
and drainage basins that furnish surface water supplies. It may
be anticipated that the improperly plugged and abandoned wells
of the early operators will continue to damage these none too
adequate water supplies.
The ElDorado Area
The ElDorado area may be taken to include all fields north
and south of the original ElDorado pool, which would include
Marion, Butler, and Cowley Counties. The eastern parts of the
above Counties are in the Flint Hills area and, as before stated,
those soils are more or less protected (owing to their impervious
nature) from a deep infiltration of oil-field wastes.
The Flint Hills are the valuable pasture country of Kansas,
and water for livestock during the pasture season presents a
real problem. Bed-rock water, except in a few cases, does not
meet the demand, and consequently impounded supplies are de-
pended upon in most of the pastures. Much of this area has ex-
posed at the surface the cherty, flintlike bed of the Florence Flint
formation, which, due to its unconsolidated nature, makes a very
good water bed. However, its porous composition will transport
contaminated as well as potable water. Therefore, protection of
these beds against mineralized water produced in oil and gas
operations is essential. Fractured limestone is also found in the
same area and likewise constitutes a conduit for infiltrated water.
The oil fields on the west side of the above counties are in a
more permeable surface-soil area. As a rule, the ground water
is much nearer the surface and separated from the surface by a
more porous material. The soils of this last-mentioned area are
of the western residual type.

28
Porous rock strata that carry water.

39
Figure 17.—Reinforced concrete gathering pit for use in a field having a porous surface soil,
 Equus Bed Area .
For the purpose of this report, the Equus Bed area will em-
brace the following counties: McPherson, Reno, Harvey, and that
part of Sedgwick north of Wichita. The following principal oil
fields are in this area: Ritz-Canton, McPherson, Chindberg, John-
son, Voshell, Nikkel-Hollow, Burrton, Bentley, and Valley Cen-
ter. The reason for this arbitrary division is that the above fields
lie within the boundaries of the Equus Beds of the McPherson
formation. The Equus Beds are an alluvial deposit some 600
square miles in area, embracing all of the above oil fields. These
beds may be defined as being in an old north-south river channel,
the valley fill of which constitutes one of the State's most abun-
dant fresh-water reserves. As stated by the Kansas Geological
Survey,29 "The evidence suggests a south-flowing stream of rela-
tively large size, and it is possible that the deposit marks the
position of the outlet drainage from the entire northwestern part
of the United States, when ice of the continental glaciers blocked
eastward passage along what is now the valleys of the Missouri
and Kansas." Not only has this water bed been adequate for farm
use, but several towns and cities depend upon it as a source of
supply. The potential reserves of this great water bed are being
studied at the present time with the possibility of more extensive
agricultural and municipal use. This section of Kansas is one of
the best farming areas in the State, which again emphasizes the
importance of proper control of oil-field wastes.
Oil Areas Northwest of Hutchinson
The oil fields north and west of Hutchinson are placed in one
category because most of them are overlain with soils of the
same general type, with the exception of a portion of Ellsworth
County, which is composed of soils built up or broken down from
the Dakota sandstone, the basal section of the Cretaceous system.
The following counties in this classification are covered for the
most part by the western residual and wind-blown deposits: Rice,
Ellsworth, Barton, Russell, Ellis, and Rush. The soils of this area
are of a sandy loam type of a very pervious nature. While the

29
Moore and Landes, Underground Resources of Kansas: Kansas Geologi-
cal Survey.

41
fields in this area are not over a great water bed such as the
Equus, most of them are over shallow water deposits that supply
the only water available in that area.
Careful oil-field practice as regards water disposal should be
exercised in this area owing to the thin mantle of porous soil
overlying the water beds. Dead trees and vegetation in and near
mineralized areas bear witness to the extremely high water
conductivity of this area. Farm wells in the path of such min-
eralization inevitably will be contaminated, some to the point
of abandonment. Farm wells, apparently not in the path of vis-
ible surface mineralization, likewise may be damaged because
ground-water movement does not always coincide with surface
drainage.
The use of earthen storage in an area of highly porous soil
is almost certain to cause future trouble. It should be emphasized
that no earthen dam is entirely free from leaks and seepage.
Attempting to store water or brines in soils of high porosity re-
sults in a two-way water movement: (1) Through the embank-
ment and into the surface drainage and (2) downward into the
fresh-water beds. It is not expedient to impound brines, even
in the most impervious soils in the State, as it has been shown
that water travels, aside from capillarity, through compact clays
in the same manner as it does in coarser material, though not
so readily.3° Note figure 17, which shows a concrete gathering pit
under construction in a field of porous surface soil.

Ground-Water Movement
A given body of ground water seldom is static or at rest. It
can be assumed that ground water in Kansas, especially the
ground water associated with defined drainage basins, is always
moving, the movement usually being in the general direction of
the surface drainage. The rate of movement is much slower
than that of surface streams and generally is less than 10 feet
per day. The rate of ground-water movement depends upon the
slope or gradient of its floor or upon the differential in pressures.

30
Dr. Charles Terzaghi, Determination of Permeability of Clay: Engineer-
ing News-Record, November, 1925.

42
Darcy's law states "The rate of movement varies directly with
the hydraulic gradient."
In steep, narrow valleys, ground water travels toward the
stream channel, while in the lower reaches of major streams the
movement is approximately parallel to the stream flow. Due to
the very slow rate of ground-water travel, it may take years for
contaminated water to appear in a farm well located less than
a mile from the source. In areas of coarse water-bearing gravels
the time would be considerably less.
In a State such as Kansas, which is primarily agricultural, a
fertile soil plus an adequate water supply are prime essentials
to continued growth. A careful application of modern methods
of oil production can do much in the way of conservation of
these two great resources and cause widespread favorable com-
ment in the use of lease practices designed to bring that conser-
vation about.

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