Flower Anatomy :
“The study of internal structures or internal working of floral parts is
known as flower anatomy.”
Flower :
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the
reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the
division Magnoliophyta, also called angiosperms).
Function :
The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by
providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs.
Flowers may facilitate outcrossing (fusion of sperm and eggs from
different individuals in a population) or allow selfing (fusion of sperm
and egg from the same flower).
Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization
(parthenocarpy). Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where
gametophytes develop.
Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to cause
them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen. After fertilization, the
ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds.
In addition to facilitating the reproduction of flowering plants, flowers
have long been admired and used by humans to bring beauty to their
environment, and also as objects of romance, ritual, religion, medicine
and as a source of food.
In their range of colour, size, form, and anatomical arrangement,
flowers present a seemingly endless variety of combinations. They
range in size from minute blossoms to giant blooms.
In some plants, such as poppy, magnolia, tulip, and petunia, each
flower is relatively large and showy and is produced singly, while in
other plants, such as aster, snapdragon, calla lily, and lilac, the
individual flowers may be very small and are borne in a distinctive
cluster known as an inflorescence.
Floral parts :
Carpels
Stamens
Petals
Sepals
Carpels :
Carpel is the unit of female reproductive whorl of the flower known as
‘gynoecium’. Each carpel consist of three parts namely stigma, style
and ovary. Stigma is the extreme top most part of carpel where
landing of pollen grains takes place. The basal swollen portion of the
carpel is ovary which contain ovules. Style is a tubular structure that
serve as connecting link between stigma and ovary. The style may be
either solid or hollow. After pollination and fertilization the ovary of
the carpel develop into fruit and ovules into seeds; and stigma and
style withers away.
Stamens :
The stamen (plural stamina or stamens) is the pollen-producing
reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the
androecium .
A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filament and an anther
which contains microsporangia. Most commonly anthers are two-
lobed and are attached to the filament either at the base or in the
middle area of the anther.
The sterile tissue between the lobes is called the connective.
A pollen grain develops from a microspore in the microsporangium.
The stamens in a flower are collectively called the androecium. The
androecium can consist of as few as one-half stamen (i.e. a single
locule) as in Canna species or as many as 3,482 stamens which have
been counted in Carnegiea gigantea. and contains the male
gametophyte.
Carnegiea gigantea
The androecium in various species of plants forms a great variety of
patterns, some of them highly complex. It surrounds the gynoecium
and is surrounded by the perianth. A few members of the family
Triuridaceae, particularly Lacandonia schismatica, are exceptional in
that their gynoecia surround their androecia.
Lancandonia schismatica
Pollen grain :
Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen grains
which are male microgametophyte of seed plants, which produce
male gametes (sperm cells).
Structure :
Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects
the gametophytes during the process of their movement from the
stamens to the of flowering plants, or from the male cone to the
female cone of coniferous plants.
If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone, it germinates,
producing a pollen tube that transfers the sperm to the ovule
containing the female gametophyte. Individual pollen grains are small
enough to require magnification to see detail.
Palynology :The study of pollen is called palynology and is highly
useful in paleoecology, paleontology, archaeology, and forensics.
Petals :
Petals are modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts of
flowers. They are often brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract
pollinators. Together, all of the petals of a flower are called Corolla .
Variations :
Petals can differ dramatically in different species. The number of
petals in a flower may hold clues to a plant's classification. For
example, flowers on eudicots (the largest group of dicots) most
frequently have four or five petals while flowers on monocots have
three or six petals, although there are many exceptions to this rule.
Symmetry :
The petal whorl or corolla may be either radially or bilaterally
symmetrical .If all of the petals are essentially identical in size and
shape, the flower is said to be regular or actinomorphic (meaning
"ray-formed"). Many flowers are symmetrical in only one plane (i.e.,
symmetry is bilateral) and are termed irregular or zygomorphic
(meaning "yoke-" or "pair-formed").
In irregular flowers, other floral parts may be modified from the
regular form, but the petals show the greatest deviation from radial
symmetry. Examples of zygomorphic flowers may be seen in orchids
and members of the pea family.
In many plants of the aster family such as the sunflower, Helianthus
annus, the circumference of the flower head is composed of ray
florets. Each ray floret is anatomically an individual flower with a
single large petal. Florets in the centre of the disc typically have no or
very reduced petals.
In some plants such as Narcissus the lower part of the petals or tepals
are fused to form a floral cup (hypanthium) above the ovary, and
from which the petals proper extend.
Parts of petal :
Blade :Petal often consists of two parts: the upper, broad part, similar
to leaf blade, also called the blade .
Claw :The lower part, narrow, similar to leaf petiole, called the claw,
separated from each other at the limb. Claws are developed in petals
of some flowers of the family Brassicaceae, such as Erysimum cheiri.
Erysimum cheiri
Function of petals :
Petals have various functions and purposes depending on the type of
plant. In general, petals operate to protect some parts of the flower
and attract/repel specific pollinators.
Main function :
The buttercup having shiny yellow flower petals which contain
guidelines amongst the petals in aiding the pollinator towards the
nectar. Pollinators have the ability to determine specific flowers they
wish to pollinate. Using incentives flowers draw pollinators and set up
a mutual relation between each other in which case the pollinators
will remember to always guard and pollinate these flowers (unless
incentives are not consistently met and competition prevails).
Scent :
The petals could produce different scents to allure desirable
pollinators or repel undesirable pollinators. Some flowers will also
mimic the scents produced by materials such as decaying meat, to
attract pollinators to them.
Colour :
Various colour traits are used by different petals that could attract
pollinators that have poor smelling abilities, or that only come out at
certain parts of the day. Some flowers are able to change the colour
of their petals as a signal to mutual pollinators to approach or keep
away.
Many flowering plants reflect as much light as possible within the
range of visible wavelengths of the pollinator the plant intends to
attract. Flowers that reflect the full range of visible light are generally
perceived as white by a human observer. An important feature of
white flowers is that they reflect equally across the visible spectrum.
While many flowering plants use white to attract pollinators, the use
of color is also widespread (even within the same species). Color
allows a flowering plant to be more specific about the pollinator it
seeks to attract.
The colour model :The color model used by human color reproduction
technology (CMYK) relies on the modulation of pigments that divide
the spectrum into broad areas of absorption. Flowering plants by
contrast are able to shift the transition point wavelength between
absorption and reflection. If it is assumed that the visual systems of
most pollinators view the visible spectrum as circular then it may be
said that flowering plants produce color by absorbing the light in one
region of the spectrum and reflecting the light in the other region.
With CMYK, color is produced as a function of the amplitude of the
broad regions of absorption. Flowering plants by contrast produce
color by modifying the frequency (or rather wavelength) of the light
reflected. Most flowers absorb light in the blue to yellow region of the
spectrum and reflect light from the green to red region of the
spectrum. For many species of flowering plant, it is the transition
point that characterizes the color that they produce. Color may be
modulated by shifting the transition point between absorption and
reflection and in this way a flowering plant may specify which
pollinator it seeks to attract. Some flowering plants also have a limited
ability to modulate areas of absorption. This is typically not as precise
as control over wavelength. Humans observers will perceive this as
degrees of saturation (the amount of white in the color).
Shape and size :
Furthermore, the shape and size of the flower/petals is important in
selecting the type of pollinators they need. For example, large petals
and flowers will attract pollinators at a large distance or that are large
themselves. Collectively the scent, colour and shape of petals all play
a role in attracting/repelling specific pollinators and providing suitable
conditions for pollinating. Some pollinators include insects, birds, bats
and the wind.
In some petals, a distinction can be made between a lower narrowed,
stalk-like basal part referred to as the claw, and a wider distal part
referred to as the blade (or limb). Often the claw and blade are at an
angle with one another.
Sepal :
It is a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Usually
green, sepals typically function as protection for the flower in bud,
and often as support for the petals when in bloom.
Calyx :
Collectively the sepals are called the Calyx .
After flowering, most plants have no more use for the calyx which
withers or becomes vestigial. Some plants retain a thorny calyx, either
dried or live, as protection for the fruit or seeds. Examples include
species of Acaena, some of the Solanaceae (for example the
Tomatillo, Physalis philadelphica), and the water caltrop.
Morphologically, both sepals and petals are modified leaves. The calyx
(the sepals) and the corolla (the petals) are the outer sterile whorls of
the flower, which together form what is known as the perianth .
Perianth :
“After blooming, the sepals
of Hibiscus sabdariffa
expand into an edible
accessory fruit.”
Reproductive parts of flower :
Androecium :
Androecium (from Greek andros oikia: man's house): the next whorl
(sometimes multiplied into several whorls), consisting of units called
stamens. Collectively stamens form the Androecium. Stamens consist
of two parts: a stalk called a filament, topped by an anther where
pollen is produced by meiosis and eventually dispersed.
Gynoecium :
Gynoecium (from Greek gynaikos oikia: woman's house) the
innermost whorl of a flower, consisting of one or more units called
carpels. The carpel or multiple fused carpels form a hollow structure
called an ovary, which produces ovules internally. Ovules are
megasporangia and they in turn produce megaspores by meiosis
which develop into female gametophytes. These give rise to egg cells.
Pistil :
The gynoecium of a flower is also described using an alternative
terminology wherein the structure one sees in the innermost whorl
(consisting of an ovary, style and stigma) is called a pistil. A pistil may
consist of a single carpel or a number of carpels fused together. The
sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen. The
supportive stalk, the style, becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to
grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma.
Hypogynous :The relationship to the gynoecium on the receptacle is
described as hypogynous (beneath a superior ovary).
Perigynous : The perigynous (surrounding a superior ovary), or
epigynous (above inferior ovary).
Epigynous :
Flowers with inferior ovaries are termed epigynous.
Some examples of flowers with an inferior ovary are orchids (inferior
capsule), Fuchsia (inferior berry), banana (inferior berry), Asteraceae
(inferior achene-like fruit, called a cypsela) and the pepo of the
squash, melon and gourd (Cucurbitaceae) family.
Flower of Magnolia wieseneri showing the
many pistils making up the gynoecium in
the middle of the flower.
Ovary :
Ovary is enlarged basal portion of the pistil, the female organ of a
flower. The ovary contains ovules (a plant structure that develops into
a seed when fertilized. In gymnosperms (conifers and allies) the
ovules lie uncovered on the scales of the cone. In angiosperms
(flowering plants), one or more ovules are enclosed by the ovary
(portion of the carpel, or female reproductive organ),which develop
into seeds upon fertilization. It will mature into a fruit, either dry and
parchmentlike or fleshy, enclosing the seeds.
Structure of Ovary
Unicarpellate ovary :
A simple or unicarpellate ovary is formed from a single carpel, an
evolutionarily modified leaf. It has one chamber (locule), within which
are the ovules.
Multicarpellate ovary :
A multicarpellate ovary consists of more than one carpel and may
have one or more locules.
Types of Gynoecium :
If a gynoecium has a single carpel, it is called monocarpous.
If a gynoecium has multiple, distinct (free, unfused) carpels, it is called
as Apocarpus .
If a gynoecium has multiple carpels "fused" into a single structure, it
is syncarpous. A syncarpous gynoecium can sometimes appear very
much like a monocarpous gynoecium.
The degree of connation ("fusion") in a syncarpous gynoecium can
vary. The carpels may be "fused" only at their bases, but retain
separate styles and stigmas. The carpels may be "fused" entirely,
except for retaining separate stigmas. Sometimes (e.g., Apocynaceae)
carpels are fused by their styles or stigmas but possess distinct
ovaries. In a syncarpous gynoecium, the "fused" ovaries of the
constituent carpels may be referred to collectively as a single
compound ovary. It can be a challenge to determine how many
carpels fused to form a syncarpous gynoecium. If the styles and
stigmas are distinct, they can usually be counted to determine the
number of carpels. Within the compound ovary, the carpels may have
distinct locules divided by walls called septa.
If a syncarpous gynoecium has a single style and stigma and a single
locule in the ovary, it may be necessary to examine how the ovules
are attached. Each carpel will usually have a distinct line of
placentation where the ovules are attached.
Pistil development :
Pistils begin as small primordia on a floral apical meristem, forming
later than, and closer to the (floral) apex than sepal, petal and stamen
primordia.
Morphological and molecular studies of pistil ontogeny reveal that
carpels are most likely homologous to leaves. A carpel has a similar
function to a megasporophyll, but typically includes a stigma, and is
fused, with ovules enclosed in the enlarged lower portion, the ovary.
Placentation :
Within the ovary, each ovule is born by a placenta or arises as a
continuation of the floral apex. The placentas often occur in distinct
lines called lines of placentation.
In monocarpous or apocarpous gynoecia, there is typically a single
line of placentation in each ovary.
In syncarpous gynoecia, the lines of placentation can be regularly
spaced along the wall of the ovary (parietal placentation), or near the
center of the ovary.
Locules : In the latter case, separate terms are used depending on
whether or not the ovary is divided into separate locules.
Axile placentation : If the ovary is divided, with the ovules born on a
line of placentation at the inner angle of each locule, this is axile
placentation.
An ovary with free central placentation, on the other hand, consists
of a single compartment without septae and the ovules are attached
to a central column that arises directly from the floral apex (axis). In
some cases a single ovule is attached to the bottom or top of the
locule (basal or apical placentation, respectively).
Pollination :
The primary purpose of a flower is reproduction. Since the flowers are
the reproductive organs of plant, they mediate the joining of the
sperm, contained within pollen, to the ovules — contained in the
ovary.
Pollination is the movement of pollen from the anthers to the stigma.
The joining of the sperm to the ovules is called fertilization. Normally
pollen is moved from one plant to another, but many plants are able
to self pollinate. The fertilized ovules produce seeds that are the next
generation. Sexual reproduction produces genetically unique
offspring, allowing for adaptation. Flowers have specific designs which
encourages the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of the
same species. Many plants are dependent upon external factors for
pollination, including: wind and animals, and especially insects. Even
large animals such as birds, bats, and pygmy possums can be
employed.
Anthesis :The period of time during which this process can take place
(the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called anthesis. The
study of pollination by insects is called anthecology.
Pollination mechanism :
The pollination mechanism employed by a plant depends on what
method of pollination is utilized.
Most flowers can be divided between two broad groups of pollination
methods:
Entomophilous: flowers attract and use insects, bats, birds or other
animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. Often they are
specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that
ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the
pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar,
pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of
the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—
arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits.
Many flowers rely on simple proximity between flower parts to
ensure pollination.
Others, such as the Sarracenia or lady-slipper orchids, have elaborate
designs to ensure pollination while preventing self-pollination.
Anemophilous: flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower
to the next, examples include the grasses, Birch trees, Ragweed and
Maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend
not to grow large blossoms. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous
flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in protein (another
"reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-
grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to insects, though it
may still be gathered in times of dearth. Honeybees and bumblebees
actively gather anemophilous corn (maize) pollen, though it is of little
value to them.
Some flowers with both stamens and a pistil are capable of self-
fertilization, which does increase the chance of producing seeds but
limits genetic variation. The extreme case of self-fertilization occurs in
flowers that always self-fertilize, such as many dandelions. Some
flowers are self-pollinated and use flowers that never open or are
self-pollinated before the flowers open, these flowers are called
cleistogamous. Many Viola species and some Salvia have these types
of flowers. Conversely, many species of plants have ways of
preventing self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the
same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, or pollen
from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The
latter flower types, which have chemical barriers to their own pollen,
are referred to as self-sterile or self-incompatible.
Attraction methods :
Plants cannot move from one location to another, thus many flowers
have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals
in dispersed populations. Flowers that are insect-pollinated are called
entomophilous; literally "insect-loving" in Greek. They can be highly
modified along with the pollinating insects by co-evolution.
Nectaries : Flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on various
parts that attract animals looking for nutritious nectar. Birds and bees
have color vision, enabling them to seek out "colorful" flowers.
Nectar guides :Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that
show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible only
under ultraviolet light, which is visible to bees and some other insects.
Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and some of those scents are
pleasant to our sense of smell. Not all flower scents are appealing to
humans; a number of flowers are pollinated by insects that are
attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals,
often called Carrion flowers, including Rafflesia, the titan arum, and
the North American pawpaw (Asimina triloba). Flowers pollinated by
night visitors, including bats and moths, are likely to concentrate on
scent to attract pollinatnators and most such flowers are white.
Mimicry :Other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some
species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female
bees in color, shape, and scent. Male bees move from one such
flower to another in search of a mate.
Role of stigma and style in Reproduction :
Stigmas can vary from long and slender to globe-shaped to feathery.
The stigma is the receptive tip of the carpel(s), which receives pollen
at pollination and on which the pollen grain germinates.
Function : The stigma is adapted to catch and trap pollen, either by
combining pollen of visiting insects or by various hairs, flaps, or
sculpturings.
The style and stigma of the flower are involved in most types of self
incompatibility reactions. Self-incompatibility, if present, prevents
fertilization by pollen from the same plant or from genetically similar
plants, and ensures outcrossing.
Inflorescence :
In those species that have more than one flower on an axis, the
collective cluster of flowers is termed an inflorescence. Some
inflorescences are composed of many small flowers arranged in a
formation that resembles a single flower.
Examples :The common example of this is most members of the very
large composite (Asteraceae) group. A single daisy or sunflower, for
example, is not a flower but a flower head—an inflorescence
composed of numerous flowers (or florets).
Bracts : An inflorescence may include specialized stems and modified
leaves known as bracts.
The familiar calla lily is not a single flower.
It is actually an inflorescence of tiny flowers
pressed together on a central stalk that is
surrounded by a large petal-like bract.
Flower-pollinator relationships :
Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific
pollinating organisms. Many flowers, for example, attract only one
specific species of insect, and therefore rely on that insect for
successful reproduction. This close relationship is often given as an
example of coevolution, as the flower and pollinator are thought to
have developed together over a long period of time to match each
other's needs.
This close relationship compounds the negative effects of extinction.
The extinction of either member in such a relationship would mean
almost certain extinction of the other member as well. Some
endangered plant species are so because of shrinking pollinator
populations.
Pollen allergy :
There is much confusion about the role of flowers in allergies. For
example, the showy and entomophilous goldenrod (Solidago) is
frequently blamed for respiratory allergies, of which it is innocent,
since its pollen cannot be airborne.
Types of pollen that cause allergies :
The types of pollen that most commonly cause allergic reactions are
produced by the plain-looking plants (trees, grasses, and weeds) that
do not have showy flowers. These plants make small, light, dry pollen
grains that are custom-made for wind transport.
The type of allergens in the pollen is the main factor that determines
whether the pollen is likely to cause hay fever. For example, pine tree
pollen is produced in large amounts by a common tree, which would
make it a good candidate for causing allergy. It is, however, a
relatively rare cause of allergy because the types of allergens in pine
pollen appear to make it less allergenic. Instead the allergen is usually
the pollen of the contemporary bloom of anemophilous ragweed
(Ambrosia), which can drift for many miles. Scientists have collected
samples of ragweed pollen 400 miles out at sea and 2 miles high in
the air. A single ragweed plant can generate a million grains of pollen
per day.
Among North American plants, weeds are the most prolific producers
of allergenic pollen .Ragweed is the major culprit, but other important
sources are sagebrush, redroot pigweed, lamb's quarters, Russian
thistle (tumbleweed), and English plantain.
It is common to hear people say they are allergic to colorful or
scented flowers like roses. In fact, only florists, gardeners, and others
who have prolonged, close contact with flowers are likely to be
sensitive to pollen from these plants. Most people have little contact
with the large, heavy, waxy pollen grains of such flowering plants
because this type of pollen is not carried by wind but by insects such
as butterflies and bees.
Flowers as symbolism :
Many flowers have important symbolic meanings in Western
culture.The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is known as
floriography. Some of the more common examples include:
Red roses are given as a symbol of love, beauty, and
passion.
Poppies are a symbol of consolation in time of death. In
the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia and Canada,
red poppies are worn to commemorate soldiers who have
died in times of war.
Irises/Lily are used in burials as a symbol referring to
"resurrection/life". It is also associated with stars (sun) and
its petals blooming/shining.
Daisies are a symbol of innocence.
Because of their varied and colorful appearance, flowers have long
been a favorite subject of visual artists as well. Some of the most
celebrated paintings from well-known painters are of flowers, such as
Van Gogh's sunflowers series or Monet's water lilies. Flowers are also
dried, freeze dried and pressed in order to create permanent, three-
dimensional pieces of flower art.
Many cultures around the world have a marked tendency to
associate flowers with femininity.The great variety of delicate and
beautiful flowers has inspired the works of numerous poets,
especially from the 18th–19th century Romantic era. Famous
examples include William Wordsworth's I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud
and William Blake's Ah! Sun Flower .
Lilies are often used to denote life or
resurrection .
Flowers are common subjects of still life
paintings, such as this one by Ambrosius
Bosschaert the Elder.
Their symbolism in dreams has also been discussed, with possible
interpretations including "blossoming potential".
The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is
Flora. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is Chloris.
In Hindu mythology, flowers have a significant status.One of the three
major gods in the Hindu system, is often depicted standing straight on
a lotus flower. Apart from the association with Vishnu, the Hindu
tradition also considers the lotus to have spiritual significance. For
example, it figures in the Hindu stories of creation.
In modern times people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or
otherwise be around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of
their agreeable appearance and smell. Around the world, people use
flowers for a wide range of events and functions that, cumulatively,
encompass one's lifetime:
For new births or christenings
As a corsage or boutonniere worn at social functions or for holidays
As tokens of love or esteem
For wedding flowers for the bridal party, and for decorations for the
hall
As brightening decorations within the home
As a gift of remembrance for bon voyage parties, welcome-home
parties, and "thinking of you" gifts
For funeral flowers and expressions of sympathy for the grieving
For worshiping goddesses. In Hindu culture adherents commonly
bring flowers as a gift to temples
People therefore grow flowers around their homes, dedicate entire
parts of their living space to flower gardens, pick wildflowers, or buy
flowers from florists who depend on an entire network of commercial
growers and shippers to support their trade.
Flowers provide less food than other major plants parts (seeds, fruits,
roots, stems and leaves) but they provide several important foods and
spices. Flower vegetables include broccoli, cauliflower and artichoke.
The most expensive spice, saffron, consists of dried stigmas of a
crocus. Other flower spices are cloves and capers. Hops flowers are
used to flavor beer. Marigold flowers are fed to chickens to give their
egg yolks a golden yellow color, which consumers find more
desirable; dried and ground marigold flowers are also used as a spice
and colouring agent in Georgian cuisine. Flowers of the dandelion and
elder are often made into wine. Bee pollen, pollen collected from
bees, is considered a health food by some people. Honey consists of
bee-processed flower nectar and is often named for the type of
flower, e.g. orange blossom honey, clover honey and tupelo honey.
Hundreds of fresh flowers are edible but few are widely marketed as
food. They are often used to add color and flavor to salads. Squash
flowers are dipped in breadcrumbs and fried. Edible flowers include
nasturtium, chrysanthemum, carnation, cattail, honeysuckle, chicory,
cornflower, canna, and sunflower. Some edible flowers are
sometimes candied such as daisy, rose, and violet (one may also come
across a candied pansy).
Flowers can also be made into herbal teas. Dried flowers such as
chrysanthemum, rose, jasmine, camomile are infused into tea both
for their fragrance and medical properties. Sometimes, they are also
mixed with tea leaves for the added fragrance.
Flowers have been used since as far back as 50,000 years in funeral
rituals. Many cultures do draw a connection between flowers and life
and death, and because of their seasonal return flowers also suggest
rebirth, which may explain why many people place flowers upon
graves. In ancient times the Greeks would place a crown of flowers on
the head of the deceased as well as cover tombs with wreaths and
flower petals. Rich and powerful women in ancient Egypt would wear
floral headdresses and necklaces upon their death as representations
of renewal and a joyful afterlife, and the Mexicans to this day use
flowers prominently in their Day of the Dead celebrations in the same
way that their Aztec ancestors did.
Flower market
References :
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