Saint Jude Parish School

Trece Martires City, Cavite

WRITTEN REPORT FOR

UCSP

BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION: FROM

AUSTRALOPITHECUS TO HOMO SAPIENS

GROUP FOUR

SUBMITTED TO:
JENNY STEPHAN P. SAMPOLE
 BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION

Biological evolution
 It refers to the changes, modifications, and variations in the genetics and inherited traits of biological
populations from one generation to another.
 Evolution occurs through genetic variation and reproduction, and involves the transfer of genes from one
generation to the next.
 Scientists study the changes in the physical body of humans, the changes in the shape and size of their
bones, brain, dentition, and fingers.
Cultural evolution
 It refers to the changes or development in cultures from simple to complex form of human culture.
 Evolution occurs through the development of customs and languages, and involves the transfer of
information either within a generation or across many generations.
 Scientists study the cultural evolution of human by analysing the changes in the latter’s way of life.

Charles Robert Darwin (February 12,1809 –April 19,1882)

 An English naturalist, geologist, and biologist .Best known for his contributions to the science of
evolution.
Theory of evolution

 First formulated in Darwin's book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, is the process by which organisms
change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or behavioral traits. Changes that allow an
organism to better adapt to its environment will help it survive and have more offspring.
Natural selection
 The outcome processes that affect the frequencies of traits in a particular environment. Traits that enhance
survival and reproductive success increase in frequency over time.
3 Principles of Natural selection
 Variations - Every species is made up of a variety of individuals wherein some are adopted to their
environments compared to others
 Heritability – Organisms produce progeny with different sets of traits that can inherited
 Differential reproductive success –Organisms that have traits most suitable to their environment will
survive and transfer these variations to their offspring in subsequent generations.
 FROM HOMINIDS TO HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS:
THE BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION OF MODERN
HUMANS

Hominid

 a term used by scientist to categorize the group of early human and other humanlike creatures that can
walk erect during the prehistoric times.

Four Categories of hominids: The Sahelanthropus , Ardipithecus ,

Australophitecus , and the Homo.

1. AUSTRALOPITHECUS
 as the first stage of human evolution.
 Australopithecus although the term australopithecine has a broader meaning as a member of the
subtribe Australopithecina, which includes this genus as well as the Paranthropus , Kenyanthropus,
Ardipithecus, and Praeanthropus genera) is a 'genus' of hominins.
 The Australopithecus or “southern ape” was the next group of hominids. They lived in the
African jungle from 5 million to 1 million years ago.

 Australopithecus species were bipedal, although it is speculated that they lived mostly arboreally, that is,
mainly in trees; the length of their arms was larger than modern humans (Mayr 2001).
 The brains of most species of Australopithecus were roughly 35 percent of the size of that of a modern
human brain. Mayr (2001) reports that both A. afarensis and A. africanus had brains of about 430–485 cc.
Most species of Australopithecus were diminutive and gracile, usually standing no more than 1.2 to 1.4 m
(approx. 4 to 4.5 feet) tall.
 Australopithecus is a hominid, a term whose meaning has changed over time. Originally, the term was
restricted to humans and their extinct relatives. Such a meaning is still assumed by many anthropologists
and lay people. Technically, today, however, the term hominid refers to any member of the biological
family Hominidae (the "great apes"), a group of primates that includes chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans,
and as well extinct and extant humans.
 Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus are among the most famous of the extinct
hominids.
 Although opinions differ as to whether the species aethiopicus, boisei, and robustus should be included
within the genus Australopithecus, the current consensus in the scientific community is that they should
be placed in the distinct genus of Paranthropus, which is believed to have developed from the ancestral
Australopithecus line.
 The species aethiopicus may not be distinguishable from boisei (Mayr 2001).
  Africanus lived in the same region of southern Africa as a member of the robust lineage, P. robustus (or
A. robustus); in eastern Africa, the robust species P. boisei lived from about 3.5 to 3.0 mya with the gracile
species A. afarensis and with Homo from about 2.4 to 1.9 mya (Mayr 2001).

Some characteristics of Australophitecus:

1. Brain size of 500 cubic centimeters or almost 1/3 of the size of the modern human brain
2. Upright
3. Biped
4. Tool users only and not tool makers
5. Used sticks and stones for digging
6. Lived in small social groups
7. Distance of movement was estimated to be 15 kilometers (9.3 miles) or more to search for stones to be
used as a tools
8. Food scavengers
9. Are insects, eggs, plants, fruits, and sometimes meat

 There are six species of Australopithecus and they divided into two major categories: the gracile
and the robust. The gracile australopithecine had small teeth and jaw. Included in this group are
the Australopithecus anamensis, Australopithecus afarensis, and the Australopithecus
africanus.

 The robust Australopithecus group, include the Australopithecus aethiopicus,

Australopithecus robustus, and the Australopithecus boisei.

 The Australopithecus Afarensis is considered as the common ancestors of the Australopithecus

species namely the Australopithecus africanus, Australopithecus robustus, and Australopithecus
boisei. The 3.3 million-year-old Australopithecus afarensis fossil named “Lucy” was considered
as one of modern human’s earliest ancestors and remains as th most famous hominid fossil
discovered. Lucy was discovered in Hadar, Ethiopia in November 1974 by paleoanthropologists
led by Dr. Donald Johanson.

 The Australopithecus disappeared in the evolutionary map after almost one million years.

2. ARDIPITHECUS
 Ardipithecus, the earliest known genus of the zoological family Hominidae (the group that
includes humans and excludes great apes) and the likely ancestor of Australopithecus, a group
closely related to and often considered ancestral to modern human beings. Ardipithecus lived
between 5.8 million and 4.4 million years ago, from late in the Miocene Epoch (23 million to 5.3
million years ago) to the early to middle Pliocene Epoch (5.3 million to 2.6 million years ago).
The genus contains two known species, Ardipithecus kadabba (5.6 million years ago) and
Ardipithecus ramidus (4.4 million years ago). Ardipithecus means "ape on the ground", while
ramidus means "root".
Characteristics of Ardipithecus:

1. Height about 4 feet

2. Weight of about 120 pounds
3. Skull size similar to an ape
4. Small brain
5. Biped ( walked on two legs or feet)
6. Lived in jungles and forests like the chimpanzee

ARDIPITHECUS RAMIDUS

 Ardipithecus ramidus was first reported in 1994; in 2009, scientists announced a partial skeleton,
nicknamed ‘Ardi’. The foot bones in this skeleton indicate a divergent large toe combined with a
rigid foot – it's still unclear what this means concerning bipedal behavior. The pelvis, reconstructed
from a crushed specimen, is said to show adaptations that combine tree-climbing and bipedal
activity. The discoverers argue that the ‘Ardi’ skeleton reflects a human-African ape common
ancestor that was not chimpanzee-like. A good sample of canine teeth of this species indicates very
little difference in size between males and females in this species.
ARDIPITHECUS KADABBA

 Ardipithecus kadabba was bipedal (walked upright), probably similar in body and brain size to a
modern chimpanzee, and had canines that resemble those in later hominins but that still project
beyond the tooth row. This early human species is only known in the fossil record by a few post-
cranial bones and sets of teeth. One bone from the large toe has a broad, robust appearance,
suggesting its use in bipedal push-off. Ardipithecus kadabba (‘kadabba’ means ‘oldest ancestor’
in the Afar language).
 Ardi’ fossil were found alongside faunal remains indicating she lived in a wooded environment.
This contradicts the open savanna theory for the prigin of bipedalism, which states that humans
learned to walk upright as climate.
3. SAHELANTHROPUS
 Is one of the considered prehuman stage of evolution.
 The first hominid came from the lineage of the Sahelanthropus tchadensis species (6-7 million
years ago).
 It had both apelike and humanlike characteristics: A skull similar to the Australophitecus and
Modern human; height almost similar with the chimpanzee; brain size of about 320 – 380 cubic
centimeters; Small teeth similar to other hominids and had the ability to walk upright
 Sahelanthropus tchadensis is one of the oldest known species in the human family tree.
 Some of the oldest evidence of a humanlike species moving about in an upright position comes
from Sahelanthropus. The foramen magnum (the large opening where the spinal cord exits out of
the cranium from the brain) is located further forward (on the underside of the cranium) than in
apes or any other primate except humans. This feature indicates that the head of Sahelanthropus
was held on an upright body, probably associated with walking on two legs.
4. HOMO
 An intelligent group of hominds that belonged to a new genus. The Homo are classified as humans
and not humanlike creatures because that had bigger brains and were bipedal. According to fossil
evidences, the Homo first lived in Africa about 2.4 million years ago. The Homo species included
the Homo habilis (handy man), Homo erectus (upright man), and the Homo sapiens (wise man)
HOMO SAPIENS

 The last genus in the evolution ladder in homo family was the Homo sapiens (thinking man).
Include in this species are the archaic homo sapiens of Africa, homo nearderthalensis, and the
Homo sapiens sapiens. Homo sapiens are considered as modern humans. Their physical anatomy
is very similar to the modern human beings that is why it is considered as the species where all
modern human where belong to.
Characteristic of homo sapiens:

1. Large brain size (1,400 cc) that is almost similar to the brain of modern human
2. Lives in shelter
3. Food gatherers
4. Ate plant and fruits
5. hunted animals
6. learn to gather and cook shellfish (164,000 years ago)
7. used fire
8. Grafted metals

 Despite the argument that the Homo erectus was the first to use language some anthropologist
believed that it was the Homo sapiens the first to develop oral language because they have more
developed brain and speech organ and through that Homo sapiens use that to communicate with
each other to be more efficient to work together in hunting.

 Compared to other homo species Homo sapiens made more sophisticated in making tool and
shelters because they made more smooth tools and more develop shelters and they also made other
tools like fishing tools, harpoons, bows and arrow, spear thrower and sewing needles

 For many years, the homo nearderthalensis and the cro-magnon were considered the first group of
homo sapiens but in 1997, after conducting a DNA analysis of the Neanderthal it was proven that
the Neanderthal is not an ancestors of human. Because of that the cro-0magnon is now the first
fossil skeleton to be considered as a species of the Homo sapiens called as the homo sapiens
sapiens

 Homo sapiens sapiens (wise man). the name cro-magnon was taken from the rock in France where
the fossil was excavated in 1868. The cro-magnon was considered as the oldest population of homo
sapiens In Europe. It appears 40,000 years ago and was about 5 ½ inches in height and brain of
about 1,400 cc. cro-magnon fossil was first found in Europe but it is believed that the first cro-
magnon was first appears in north Africa ang traveled to Europe and Asia.
HOMO ERECTUS
 Where lived: Northern, Eastern, and Southern Africa; Western Asia (Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia); East
Asia (China and Indonesia)
 When lived: Between about 1.89 million and 143,000 years ago
 Homo erectus is also called Homo ergaster.
 Homo erectus are the oldest known early humans to have possessed modern human-like body proportions
with relatively elongated legs and shorter arms compared to the size of the torso. This features are
considered adaptations to a life lived on the ground, indicating the loss of earlier tree-climbing adaptations,
with the ability to walk and possibly run long distances. Compared with earlier fossil humans, note the
expanded braincase relative to the size of the face. The appearance of Homo erectus in the fossil record is
often associated with the earliest hand axes, the first major innovation in stone tool technology. Homo
erectus is considered a highly variable species, spread over two continents (it’s not certain whether it
reached Europe), and possibly the longest lived early human species- about nine times as long as our own
species, Homo sapiens, has been around.
Turkana Boy – most complete fossil individual of this species.

 A well-preserved skeleton, dated around 1.6 million years old.

 Microscopic study of the teeth indicates that he grew up at a growth rate similar to that of
a great ape.

Year of Discovery: 1891

History of Discovery:
 Eugène Dubois, a Dutch surgeon, found the first Homo erectus individual (Trinil 2) in Indonesia in 1891.
In 1894, Dubois named the species Pithecanthropus erectus, or ‘erect ape-man.’ At that time,
Pithecanthropus (later changed to Homo) erectus was the most primitive and smallest-brained of all
known early human species; no early human fossils had even been discovered in Africa yet.

Height: Ranges from 4 ft 9 in - 6 ft 1 in (145 - 185 cm)

Weight: Ranges from 88 - 150 lbs (40 - 68 kg)

How They Survived:

 The tall bodies and large brains of Homo erectus individuals required a lot of energy on a regular basis
to function. Eating meat and other types of protein that could be quickly digested made it possible to
absorb nutrients with a shorter digestive tract, making more energy available faster. There is also
speculation that honey and underground tubers may have been significant food sources for Homo
erectus.
 Soon after we see evidence in the fossil record of the earliest Homo erectus fossils (by about 1.9 million
years ago), we see evidence in the archeological record for the first major innovation in stone tool
technology (by about 1.76 million years ago). Known as the Acheulean stone tool industry, it consisted
of the creation of large cutting tools like handaxes and cleavers. Increased reliance on a broader set of
tools may have helped Homo erectus survive during changing climates.

 The earliest evidence of hearths (campfires) occur during the time range of Homo erectus. While we
have evidence that hearths were used for cooking (and probably sharing) food, they are likely to have
been places for social interaction, and also used for warmth and to keep away large predators.

Evolutionary Tree Information:

 Some scientists distinguish between the African (Homo ergaster) and Asian (Homo erectus sensu stricto)
fossils of this taxon, while others lump them together as Homo erectus sensu lato. In either case, there
is general agreement that it descended from an earlier species of Homo (e.g., Homo habilis) and
represents one of the widest dispersals of early humans in our evolutionary history. It is likely that
distinct populations of Homo erectus sensu lato led to the emergence of later hominin species, such as
Homo heidelbergensis, and ultimately to our own species, Homo sapiens.
  At the beginning of its time range, around 1.9 Mya, H. erectus coexisted in East Africa with several other
early human species including Homo rudolfensis, Homo habilis, and Paranthropus boisei. Sometimes
they were even found at the same fossil sites. At the end of its time range, around 143,000 years ago, it
coexisted with Homo sapiens and possibly Homo floresiensis in Indonesia.

HOMOHABILIS
 Homo habilis Where Lived: Eastern and Southern Africa When Lived: 2.4 million to 1.1 million
years ago Homo habilis means Handy man was the direct ancestors of the human ancestors because
of its ability to produce tools. One of the earliest member of the genus Homo, has a slightly larger
braincase and smaller face and teeth than in Australopithecus or older hominin species. Made and
used the first stone tools found in the archeological record however, this hypothesis is difficult to
test because several other species of early human lived at the same time, and in the same
geographic area, as where traces of the earliest tool use have been found.
 Early Homo had smaller teeth than Australopithecus, but their tooth enamel was thick and their jaws were
still strong indicating their teeth were still adapted chewing some hard foods (possibly only seasonally
when their preferred foods became less available). Was flexible and versatile and that they were capable
of eating a broad range of foods, including some tougher foods like leaves, woody plants, and some animal
tissues, but that they did not routinely consume or specialize in eating hard foods like brittle nuts or seeds,
dried meat, or very hard tubers.
 Year discovery : 1960
 Height: average 3 ft 4 in- 4 ft 5 in (100-135 cm)
 Weight: average 70 lbs (32 kg)
 REFERENCE
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Australopithecus
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Leakey, R. 1994. The Origins of Human Kind. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0465031358

Mayr, E. 2001. What Evolution Is. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0465044263

White, T. D. et al. 2006. Asa Issie, Aramis, and the Origin of Australopithecus. Nature 440:883–89. Retrieved July 11,
2019.

Undestanding Culture , Society and Politics Phoenix Publishing by Antonio P. Contreras

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Undestanding Culture, Society and Politics Phoenix Publishing by Antonio P. Contreras