T h e O rig in an d D ev elo p m en t o f the

B o d h isattva D octrine

by Y. K r is h a n

I t i$ a c o m m o n b e lie f a m o n g th e sc h o la rs o f B u d d h is m t h a t th e c o n c e p t
o r d o c tr in e o f th e b o d h is a ttv a b e lo n g s to th e M a h a y a n a p h a s e o f B u d d h ism ,
I n f a c t i t is b e lie v e d th a t th e fo llo w e rs o f th e M a h a y a n a {*) s e t u p th e id e a l o f
t h e b o d h is a ttv a in s te a d o f th a t o f th e a rh a t o f th e fo llo w e rs o f th e H in a y a n a .
T h e m o n k s o f th e H in a y a n a w e r e se lf c e n te re d a n d c o n te m p la tiv e a n d co n se
q u e n tly b e c am e 'in a c tiv e a n d in d o le n t’ (*). T h e b o d h is a ttv a d o c trin e w as prom *
u lg a te d as a p r o te s t a g a in s t a 'th e o r y o f arh a t s h ip w h ic h w a s re g a rd e d as
d o u b ly d e fe c tiv e . I t d is re g a rd e d th e h ig h e r d u t y o f a c q u irin g th e p e rf e c t w is
d o m o f a B u d d h a ; a n d i t d e p riv e d th e w o r ld o f th e se rv ic e s o f h o ly m e n a n d
w o m e n w h o h a d a tta in e d n irv a n a a n d p a sse d aw ay . A b o d h is a ttv a w a s d e fin e d
as o n e w h o s tro v e to g a in b o d h i a n d s c o rn e d su c h n irv a n a , as h e w is h e d to
h e lp a n d s u c c o u r h is fe llo w c re a tu re s in th e w o rld o f s o rro w , s in a n d im p e r
m a n e n c e ’ (3).

(') M. W interniu: A History o f Sanskrit Literature Vol. II, Calcutta, 1933, p. 229.
B.L. Suzuki: Mabay&na Buddhism, London, 1948, p. 51: 'The first conception io
M ahiyana is thai of the Bodhisattva\
Christmas Humphreys: T he W isdom of Buddhism, London, I960, p. 111. ‘The Bodhi-
satrva ideal i$ ... central to the practice ... of ihc Mahayana'.
Jaidcva Singh: Introduction to Th. Stcherbatsky: The Conception o f Buddhist Nir
vana, Varanasi, p. 29. ‘The ideal of Hinayana is Arhatship ... the ideal of Mahayana is
that of the Bodhisattva'.
E. Conze: Buddhism, Its Essence and Development, Oxford, 1951, p. 125. Bodhisattva
is one of the tw o key words o a almost each page of the Mahayana writings. H e, however,
hastens to add ‘i t would be a mistake to assume that the conception of a Bodhisattva
was a creation of the Mfihayana’-
E.A, Burtt: The Teachings o f the Compassionate Buddha, New York, 1955, pp.
123-124: 1'he spiritual ideal of the Thcravada is symbolised by the arhat and that of the
Mahayana is the supreme enlightenment (bodhi) to be attained by all.
W.M. McGovern: A n Introduction to Mahayana Buddhism, Varanasi, 1968, p. 12:
... In early Mahayana atl its own followers were called Bodbisattvas, Buddhas-to-be, as
compared to the adherent of Hinayana, who were termed sravakas or aspirants only after
Arhatship'.
(*) H ar Dayal: The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature, London. 1932,
p. 2-3.
(3) H ar Dayal op c i l , p. 4,

\99
 T h is v ie w o f th e d o c tr in e o f th e b o d h is a ttv a se em s to h a v e b e e n d e riv e d
fro m G m d r a k lr ti ( 6 th c e n tu ry A .D .). I n h is M d d b y o m a k d v a ta ra , C a n d r a k ir ti (*}
o b s e rv e d th a t th e H in a y a n a k n o w s n o th in g o f th e v e h ic le o f th e b o d b isa ttv a s
w h ic h is th e c h a ra c te ris tic t r a it o f th e M a h ay a n a .
A c c o rd in g to h im , w h a t d istin g u is h e s th e M a h a y a n a is th e s ta g e s o f th e
c a re e r o f th e b o d h is a ttv a , th e f u tu r e B u d d h a , th e p d ra m itd s (p e rfe c tio n s o r v ir
tu e s ) , th e v o w to sa v e all c re a tu re s , th e a p p lic a tio n o f m e r it to th e a c q u isitio n
o f th e q u a lity o f B u d d h a i.e. c o m p a ssio n .
S uch a v ie w o f th e b o d h is a ttv a d o c tr in e is c o n fu s in g a n d e rro n e o u s . T h e
c o n c c p t o f b o d h is a ttv a is c o m m o n in H in a y a n a lite r a tu r e th o u g h i t d o m in a te s
th e M a h a y a n a te x ts . T h e re is n o th in g special a b o u t th e p a ra m ita s o f th e
M a h a y a n a in a s m u c h a s th e H in a v a n is ts h a d a ls o a d o p te d p a ra lle l a n d o v e rla p
p in g a n d o n ly s o m e w h a t d iff e re n t par a n t i t as (s). A g a in , th e te r m ‘b o d h is a ttv a ’
d id n o t h a v e o n e fix e d m e a n in g , a c a n d id a te f o r b o d h i o r e n lig h te n m e n t, a
f u tu r e B u d d h a , as is th e te e m g e n e ra lly u n d e rs to o d . I t w a s c o n tin u o u s ly i n te r
p r e te d a n d r e in te r p r e te d a n d c lo th e d w ith d iff e re n t m ea n in g s in th e d iffe re n t
te x ts o f th e v a rio u s sch o o ls o f th e H in a y a n a a n d M a h ay a n a .
T h e v ie w h e ld b y c e rta in sc h o la rs th a t th e c o n c e p t o f b o d b is a ttv a s a s one
w h o m ak e s th e s u p re m e s a c rific e o f r e n o u n c in g n irv a n a f o r th e b e n e f it o f h is
fello w c rc a tu re s , a n d fo llo w s th e b o d h i s a ttv a y a n a , w a s a c o n tr ib u tio n o f th e
M a h asa m g h ik a s w h o la te r d e v e lo p e d i n t o th e M a h a y a n a sc h o o l, is e q u a lly er*
ro n c o u s . I n fa c t th e classical c o n c e p t o f th e b o d h is a ttv a w a s n o t a n ex clu siv e
c o n tr ib u tio n o f th e M a h a sa m g h ik a s o r o f th e M a h a y a n a schools.
T h e S a rv a stiv a d in s, a H in a y a n a s e c t, also b e lie v e d in th e b o d b isa ttv a y a n a .
T h e A b b id b a r m a k o s a (*) o f V a s u b a n d h u ( 4 th c e n tu ry A .D .) say s th a t th e b o d h i-
s a ttv a s u n d e r ta k e In fin ite la b o u r 'f o r th e g o o d o f e t h e r s , b e c a u s e th e y w a n t
t o b e c o m e c a p a b le o f p u llin g o th e r s o u t o f th is g re a t flo o d o f s u f f e r in g ../.
‘ ... T h e B o d b is a ttv a s , c o n firm e d in p ity , f in d p le a s u re in d o in g g o o d t o o th e rs
w ith o u t a n y e g o is tic p re o c c u p a tio n ,.. L ik e w ise ... th e b o d b is a ttv a s , b y th e
fo rc e o f h a b it, d e ta c h th em se lv e s fro m th e D b a rm a s w h ic h c o n s titu te th e ir
so -c a lle d “ S e lf’' , d o n o lo n g e r c o n s id e r th e s e D b a rm a s a s “ I ” o r “ m in e * ,

<4) de La Vallec Poussin; ‘Mahayana’, Encyclopaedia of Religion & Ethics fE.R.E.)

Vol. V III, Edinburgh, 1963 repr,, p. ^34 (a) and tb).
(5) There were originally six paraniias in the Mahayana: dina (giving), sda (virtuous
conduct), ksSnti (forbearance), vrnya i energy), dbyana (concentration) and prajna (wisdom).
The four supplementary paramitas were; updya kauit/lya (sktMuJlness in selection of means
for enlightenment), pranidbdna (aspiration or resolution), bala (strength) and jndna (knowl
edge), In the Hinayana paramts (or pjra/nitas) were: dans (giving), Slla (virtuous conduct),
nekkhama (renunciation), panna (wisdom), kham i (forbearance), vJriya (energy!, sacca (truth*
fulness), adbuihdna (resolution), m c tti (friendliness) and upekkba (equanimity).
(*) Quoted by Con2 c op. c i t , pp. 125-26. The Abhitiharmakota IV. 39 says: Para-
mdrtba bhiksutvam sandbayaiiauktant (altruism is the inseparable quality of a bbiksti).

200
g ro w in g in p ity in g s o lic itu d e f o r o th e r s , a n d a re r e a d y t o s u ffe r a th o u s a n d p ain s
f o r th is s o lic itu d e ’. T h u s th e S a rv a s tiv a d in b o d h is a ttv a is a c a n d id a te fo r
b u d d h a h o o d w h o a sp ire s to d e d ic a te h im s e lf co th e se rv ic e o f h u m a n ity .
T h e b o d h is a ttv a o f th e M a h a y a n a in th e P ra jn d p d ra m ild ( 1 s t c e n tu iy B.C.
to 1 st c e n tu ry A .D .) is s im ila r. I t d e scrib es b o d b is a ttv a s a s ‘th e g r e a t b e in g s w h o
h a v e s e t o u t to w in s u p re m e e n lig h te n m e n t. T h e y d o n o t w is h to a tta in cheir
o w n p r iv a te N ir v a n a ' (’). W h ile 'd e s ir o u s to w i n s u p re m e e n lig h te n m e n t, th ey
h a v e re s o lv e d : " W e w ill b e c o m e a s h e lt e r f o r th e w o r ld , th e w o r ld 's p la c e of
r e s t, th e fin a l re lie f o f th e w o r ld , isla n d o f th e w o r ld , lig h ts o f th e w o r ld , le a d e rs
o f th e w o r ld , th e w o r ld ’s m ea n s o f salvation"” (“). T h e b o d h is a ttv a re so lv e s: ’M y
s e lf I w ill place in S u ch n ess a n d f o r th e s a k e o f h e lp in g a ll th e w o r ld , I w ill
a ls o p la c e a ll b e in g s in S u c h n e ss, th e im m e a s u ra b le w o rld o f b e in g s , I w ill
le a d t o n irv a n a ’ {’).
T h e S a d d h a rm a p u n d a rtk a (T h e L o t u s o f th e G o o d L a w ) a n d th e o th e r
M a h a y a n a s u tr a s lik e S u k b a v a ti, P ra jn d p d ra m itd , H rd a y a , e tc . a n d th e C h in e se
p ilg rim s , F a -h sie n a n d I*tsing, h o w e v e r, s p e a k o f a b o d h is a ttv a w h o is o f an
e n tire ly d iffe re n t sp ecies. I n th e la t e r C h a p te rs o f th e S a d d b a rm a p u n d a rtk a it
is th e b o d b isa ttv a s w h o d o m in a te th e scen e in s te a d o f th e B u d d h a a n d th e
b o d b isa ttv a s b e c o m e th e p rin c ip a l o b je c t o f d e v o tio n . S a n tid e v a (1(>) d istin g u ish e s
b e tw e e n th o s e b o d b is a ttv a s w h o a re d e d ic a te d to a c h ie v e e n lig h te n m e n t, b o d h i
p r a n id h ic itta a n d fo llo w th e p a ih lea d in g to e n lig h te n m e n t, b o d b i p rasthdna
{B odb/caryavatdra 1 .1 5 ) a n d th e g re a t b o d b is a ttv a s , w h o alo n g w ith th e B u d d h a
a n d D h a rm a , a c t as a re f u g e f o r th e s in n e r s , g re a t c o m p a ssio n a te b o d h tsa ltv a s
{ib id ., 1 1 .2 6 -2 7 ) a n d s o th e s in n e rs se ek p ro te c tio n o f S a m a n ta b h a d ra , A v a lo k ita ,
A k a sa g a rb h a , M a n ju g h o sa , K s itig a rb h a {ib id ., 1 1 .5 0 -5 2 ). S p e a k in g a b o u t M a d h v a d e sa ,
F a*hsien ( 11) say s th a t w h e re a s th e b h ik s u n is h o n o u r A n a n d a , sra m a n era s o ffe r to
R lh u la , th e m a s te rs o f A b h id b a r m a t o A b h id b a r m a a n d th e m a s te rs o f th e

(T) Conze: op. c i t , p. 128

{*) Quotation by Con^e: op. cit., p. 128. See also Abbisamaydlankara IV. 5. 3 (ed. & jr.
E, Conze, Rome, 195-1).
(8) Quoted by CoJi2 e. op c i l , p. 127,
(,c) Marion L. Maiics <tr.): The Rodbicaryavatdra/Entenng the Path o f Enlighten
ment, London, 1970.
Daiabhumika-Vibbdsd speaks of bodhisattvaydna of the mahdbodht bodbisattvas a* dis
tinct from ordinary bodbisattvas.
A. Hirakawa: T he Rise o f Mahayana Buddbifm Memoirs of the Research Department
of Toyo Bunko, Japan No. 22, 1963, p. 82. Nagirjuna also appears to have tw o classes
of bodbisattvas jn view when be distinguished between the state of bodhisattva in the
first stages of the path when kU saridra is destroyed sod the last stage, the dharmakaya,
when skandamara is destroyed,
James W . Boydr Satan & Mara, Leiden, E J . Brill, 1975.p. 123.
<u ) Beal dr.): Si-Yu-Ki, TiuJdhisi Record* of the W estern World, Calcutta, 1957 ed.

201
V in a y a to th e V in a y a , ‘m e n a tta c h e d to th e M a h a y a n a o f f e r to th e P rajn ap ara*
m ita , M a n ju sri a n d A v alo k itesv ara* . I*tsing r e p o r te d ( ls), 'T h o s e w h o w o rs h ip
th e b o d b isa ttv a s a n d r e a d th e M a h a y a n a s u tr a s a re c a lled th e M a h a y ln is ts (rh e
g re a t) w h ile th o s e w h o d o n o t p e rfo rm th e s e , a re c a lled th e H ln a y a n is ts (th e
s m a ll)’. T h e s e b o d b is a ttv a s , w h o a re t h e o b je c t o f w o r s h ip , b e lo n g to a n e n tire ly
d iffe re n t p la n e th a n th e b o d b is a ttv a s t h a t fig u re in e a rlie r lite r a tu r e .

T h e n a tu re o f th e b o d h is a ttv a in B u d d h is t L ite ra tu re

T h e b o d h is a ttv a d o c tr in e is p ra c tic a lly a b s e n t f r o m th e a b h id b a rm a . It

f ir s t a p p e a rs in th e B u d d h a v a m s a a n d th e C a rty a p tta ka (2 n d c e n tu r y B .C .) in
th e D iv y a v a d d n a ( IS) ( 3 rd a n d 4 th c e n tu r y A .D .) o f th e S a rv a stiv a d a a n d in
th e M a b a v a stu ( 2 n d c e m u ry B .C . to th e 4 t h c e n tu ry A .D .) o f th e L o k o tta -
ra v a d in c an o n s.
I n th e T h e ra v a d a a n d S a rv a stiv a d a ( u ) w o rk s h e is a c a n d id a te fo r b o d h i,
a fo llo w e r o f th e b o d b isa ttv a y a n a a n d is n o t a n o b je c t o f w o r s h ip lik e th e
B u d d h a . T h e b o d h is a ttv a e v e n in th e la s t s ta g e is a n a v e ra g e m a n o n ly .
A c c o rd in g t o V a s u m itra ’s (15) t r e a ti s e o n th e d o c trin e s o f d iff e re n t B u d d h is t
sc h o o ls, I p u ’-tsu n -lu n -lu n (2 n d c e n tu r y A .D .), th e S a rv a stiv a d in s h e ld th a t
th e b o d b isa ttv a s a re c o n s id e re d to b e a v e ra g e m e n {p rth a g ja n a ) th e i r b o n d s
a re n o t y e t d e s tro y e d (V .3 9 ). L ik e w ise , rh e H a im v a ta s c o n s id e r th a t th e
b o d b isa ttv a s a re still a v e ra g e m e n (p r t hag/ana). E v e n th e C a ity a sa ila , Apara*
!>aila a n d U tta ra s a lla schools h e ld th a t th e b o d b isa ttv a s a re n o t fre e fro m (m e t
e m p sy c h o sis in to ) th e b a d s ta t e o f e x is te n c e (d u rg a ti) ( IV I ) . T h is is inter*
p r e te d in Sbu-C.bi C o m m e n ta r y ( lf) o n th is w o r k to m e a n th a t th e b o d h i-
sa ttv a s a re still a v e ra g e m e n ( p rth a g ja n a ).
I t is th e M a h a sa m g h ik a s w h o , h o w e v e r , h o ld th a t n o n e o f th e b o d b isa ttv a s

(tJ) Takakusu (tr,): A Record of the Buddhist Religion as practised in India and the
Malay Archipelago by I-t sing, Delhi, 1966 ed., p. 15.
(**) Wintcrmt?. points out that Avedanasaiaka, the oldest of the avadana works of the
2nd ccntury A.D, is a Hinayanic work of the 2nd century A.D. Buddha worship plays a
prominent part in ihc work but there is no tracc of bodhisattva cult. It shows how one
can become a Buddha or a PrJtyekabuddha. History of Sanskrit Literature Vo!. I I , p. 279,
Calcutta, 1933.
(M) It appears that the term hodhisai/aiSkt. bodhisattva) does not occur in ihc Sar>
vastivada a&atnas as it does in the Pali nikdyas. Bhjk?u Thich Minh Chan in The Chinese
Mddhyama Agatna and the Pah Maffhima Nikava, A Comparative Study, Saigon, 1964, p. 34
has proved that rhe term bodhisa/tva does not occur in the Chinese version of the Mddhyama
agama whereas it is found in the Pali Majjhimamkdya.
(IS) J . Masuda's translation of Hsuan Chwang version of Vasumitra’s Treatise, Origin
end Doctrines o f Early Indian Buddhist Schools, Asia Major, Vol. II
(“ ) Masuda: op. a t., p. 38, footnote 3.

202
p ass th ro u g h th e fo u r e m b ry o n ic sta g e s in th e i r m o th e r s ’ w o m b s, th e y a re n o t
a ffe c te d b y g re e d a n d a n g e r a n d ‘f o r th e b e n e fit o f s e n tie n t b e in g s (s a liv a )
th e b o d b isa ttv a s a re b o r n in to b a d s ta t e s ig a ti) a t w ill a n d c a n b e b o r n (in to
a n y o f th e m ) as th e y like* (1 .1 6 , 19 a n d 2 0 ).
A f u r t h e r s h if t is n o tic e d in th e M a h a y a n a te x ts . T h e c h ie f in te r e s t o f th e
f ir s t 2 0 c h a p te rs o f T h e L o iu s o j th e G o o d L a w , S a d d b a rm a p u n d a rxka <i;) (1 st
c e n tu ry B .C . to 1st c e n tu ry A .D .) is th e B u d d h a s a n d th e i r q u a litie s . But
in th e C h a p te rs X X I to X X V I, w h ic h a rc a la t e r a d d itio n ( 3 rd c e n tu r y A .D .),
th e B u d d h a ceases to b e th e d o m in a n t th e m e ; i t is th e b o d h is a ttv a . C h a p te r
X X II d e a ls w ith th e B o d h is a ttv a S a rv a sa ttv a p riy a d a rs'a n a o r B h a isa jy a ra ja , C h a p
t e r X X III d e a ls w ith B o d h is a ttv a G a d g a d a s v a ra , a n d C h a p te r X X IV d e a ls w ith
A v a lo k ite s v a ra ; C h a p te r X X V I d e a ls w i t h S a m a n ta b h a d ra .
I n th e L a rg er S u k h a v a ti V y u b a (19) ( 1 s t c e n tu ry B .C .) S 3 1 , 13, A v a lo k i
te s v a ra is r e f e rr e d to a s B u d d h a -s o n . A g a in in § 3 4 it says ‘in t h a t B u d d h a
c o u n tr y , th o s e w h o a re S ra v ak a s a re p o s s e s s e d o f th e lig h t o f a f a th o m , and
th o s e w h o a re B o d b is a ttv a s a re p o s s e s s e d o f th e lig h t o f a h u n d r e d th o u s a n d
k o ti s o r yojanas; b a rr in g alw ay s th e t w o B o d b is a ttv a s , b y w h o s e lig h t th e
w o rld is e v e ry w h e re sh in in g w ith e te r n a l s p le n d o u r ’. T h e s e tw o B o d b isa ttv a s
a re id e n tifie d as A v a lo k k e s'v a ra a n d M a h a s th a m p ra p ta . I n S 3 5 it is s a id 'A n d ,
O A n a n d a , th o s e B o d b is a ttv a s w h o h a v e b e e n b o r n in t h a t c o u n tr y a re all
e n d o w e d w i t h th e th ir tv - tw o sig n s o f a g r e a t m a n , p o s s e s s e d o f p e rfe c t mem*
b e r s \ I n $ 4 0 it is said ‘S ra v ak a s s p re a d th e i r lig h t o v e r a f a th o m , a n d th e
B o d b is a ttv a s s p re a d th e ir lig h t o v e r a h u n d r e d th o u s a n d k o ti s o r yo ja n a s'.
A g a in in th e L a rg er a n d th e S m a lle r P ra jn a p d ra m ita H r d a y a S u tra s (5 th -
6 th c e n tu rie s A .D .) it is th e B o d h is a ttv a f A ry a v a lo k ite sv a ra a n d A v a lo k ite sv a ra
w h o e x p la in h o w th e P rajndpdram itas a re to b e s tu d ie d . D u r in g th is e x p o s itio n
th e B u d d h a is in m e d ita tio n a n d p la y s o n ly a p a s s iv e role.
I n tb e A m ita y u r d b y d n a - s u tr a ( lv) ($ 1 9 ) a f t e r th e N i n t h M e d ita tio n o n th e
fo rm s a n d b o d ie s o f th e B u d d h a , th e h e a re r is a d v is e d 'W h e n y o u h a v e se en
B u d d h a A m ita y u s d is tin c tly , y o u s h o u ld th e n f u r t h e r m e d ita te u p o n B o d h is a ttv a
A v a lo k ite s v a ra , w h o s e h e ig h t is e ig h t h u n d r e d th o u s a n d o f n iy u ta s o f yo ja n a s;
t h e c o lo u r o f h is b o d y is p u r p le g o ld , h is h e a d h a s a t u r b a n ( u sn lsa sira k a td ) a t
th e b a c k o f w h ic h th e r e is a h a lo ; ( th e c itc u m fe re n c e o f) h is face is a h u n d r e d
th o u s a n d yo ja n a s. I n th a t h a lo , th e r e a re fiv e h u n d r e d B u d d h a s m ira c u lo u sly
tra n s fo rm e d ju s t lik e th o s e o f S a k y a m u n i B u d d h a , e a ch tra n s fo rm e d B u d d h a is
a tte n d e d b y fiv e h u n d r e d tra n s fo rm e d B o d b is a ttv a s w h o a re also a tte n d e d by
n u m b e rle s s g o d s '.

(17) K e r n ( i r . ) : Saddbormar>undarika. The Saired Books of ike East (S.&.E.). Vol. XXI,
D e lh i, M o tilo l B a n a r s jd a s s , 1 9 6 5 r e p r ., p . x x x iv .
('*) 5.B.E., Vol. XLIX , This sutra was translated i n t o C h in e s e in 424 A D.
<’*> I b i d . p p . 181182.

203
 T h e s u tr a $ 19 c o n tin u e s : 'N e s t you s h o u ld m e d ita te o n B o d h is a ttv a
M a h a s th a m a p ra p ta , w h o s e b o d ily sig n s, h e ig h t a n d size a re e q u a l to th o s e o f
A v a lo k ite s v a ra , th e c irc u m fe re n c e (lit- su rfa c e ) o f h is h a lo is o n e h u n d r e d a n d
tw e n ty f iv e y o ja n a s... T h e ray s o f h is w h o le b o d y s h in e o v e r th e c o u n trie s of
th e t e n q u a r te r s ...’ {").
‘I f o n e b u t sees th e ra y th a t iss u e s fro m a sin g le r o o t o f th e h a ir o f th is
b o d h is a ttv a , w e w ill a t th e s a m e tim e se e rh e p u r e a n d e x c e lle n t rays o f all
th e in n u m e ra b le B u d d h a s o f th e t e n q u a r t e r s ’. 'F o r th is r e a s o n , th is B o d h is a ttv a
is n a m e d th e U n lim ite d L ig h t: i t is w i t h th is lig h t o f w is d o m t h a t h e sh in e s
o v e r a ll b e in g s a n d c a u se s th e m to b e re m o v e d f r o m th e t h r e e p a th s o f e x is t
e n c e (H e lls , P r e ta s a n d th e b r u te c r e a tio n ) , a n d to o b ta in th e h ig h e s t p o w e r.
F o r th e sam e re a s o n , th is B o d h is a ttv a is c a lled th e B o d h is a ttv a o f G r e a t S tre n g th
(M a h a s th a m a )’. ‘T h e s e t w o B o d b is a ttv a s a ssist A m ita y u s in h is w o r k o f uni*
v e rs a l s a lv a tio n ’ (21) (S 2 1 ) . T h is s u tr a is a ls o in te r alia, c a lle d ‘T h e m e d ita tio n
o n B o d h is a ttv a A v a lo k ite s v a ra a n d M a h a s th a m a , b e s id e s o n A m ita y u s ’ (“ ) (S 3 2 ).
T h a t s h o w s th e e m p h a sis la id o n a n d th e im p o rta n c e a tta c h e d to th e tw o B o d b i
sa ttva s.
A g a in th e A v a lo k ite s v a r a G tin a K a ra n d a V y u h a ( M)(p e rh a p s 3 r d c e n tu ry
A .D .) is d e v o te d to th e B o d h is a ttv a A v a lo k ite s v a ra . T h e e a rlie r p ro s e p o rtio n
m u s t b e lo n g to th e 2 n d o r 3 r d c e n tu rie s A .D . T h e m e tric a l v e rs io n , w h ic h m o st
lik e ly b e lo n g s to th e 4 th c e n tu ry A .D ., says th a t A v a lo k ite s v a ra , w h o a ro se
o u t o f th e s p ir it o f A d in a th a , ‘also ta k e s p a rr in th e w o r k o f c re a tio n , c re a tin g
g o d s o u t o f h is o w n b o d y ’.
I t is e v id e n t th a t th e b o d b is a ttv a s o f th e s e M a h a y a n a te x ts a re n o t
p rlh a g ja n a s o r o rd in a ry b e in g s . T h e y a re m o re th a n th e s u p e rn a tu ra l b o d b i
sa ttv a s o f th e M a h a sa m g h ik a s w h o a rc b o r n d o c e tic a lly a n d w h o a re tra n s c e n
d e n ta l in c h a ra c te r. T h e s e b o d b is a ttv a s a r e d iv in e b e in g s.
T h e w o r d b o d h is a ttv a h a s v a rie d , in c o n s is te n t a n d e v e n c o n tra d ic to ry
m ea n in g s. O rig in a lly , th e w o r d b o d h is a ttv a m e a n t a c a n d id a te f o r b o d h i o r
e n lig h te n m e n t. I t w a s a n e p ith e t a p p lie d to G a u ta m a B u d d h a b e fo re h e a t
ta in e d th e s u p re m e k n o w le d g e . I n th e P a li J a ia k a s, h e is id e n tif ie d w i t h th e
B u d d h a in h is p r e v io u s b irth s , th a t is, w ith a n im a ls . T h is a p p e a rs to b e th e
e a rlie s t fo rm o f th e b o d h isa ttv a .
I n th e e a rly M a h a y a n a lite r a tu r e , h o w e v e r, a b o d h is a ttv a is d istin g u is h e d
f r o m a n d c o n s id e re d s u p e rio r t o a rh a ts a n d p r a ty e k a b u d d h a s . A n a rh a t is said
to c o n c e n tra te o n a tta in m e n t o f n irv a n a , o n fre e d o m fro m tra n s m ig ra tio n : hence

(*) Ibid., p. 184

<21) Ibid., p. 187.
(“ ) Ibid., p. 200.
{**) W internitz: op. c h ., p 305.

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h e is a n e g o tis t w h o is p re o c c u p ie d w ith h is p e rs o n a l sa lv a tio n A p r a ty e k a b u d -
d h a is n o d iff e re n t fro m an a rh a t e x c e p t th a t h e a tta in s e n lig h te n m e n t th ro u g h
h is p e rs o n a l e ff o r ts u n a id e d by a n y B u d d h a . T h e b o d b is a ttv a s a s p ire fo r
b o d h i o r s u p re m e k n o w le d g e fo r th e sa k e o f su ffe rin g h u m a n ity a n d in c o n s e
q u e n c e , re n o u n c e e n te r in g in to n irv a n a till th e ir fello w m o rta ls a re lib e ra te d .
B u t as w e h a v e p o in te d o u t e a rlie r, S a rv a stiv a d in s, a H in a v a n a sc h o o l, also
s u b s c rib e d to th is c o n c e p t o f th e b o d h is a ttv a . I t m ay b e th a t th e M a h a y a n ist
e x to lle d th is c o n c e p t a n d e x p re s s e d c o n te m p t fo r th e n a rro w id e a l o f arh a t b u t
th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e H in a y a n a a n d th e e a rly M a h a y a n a in th is re s p e c t is
o n ly o n e o f d e g re e a n d n o t o{ s u b s ta n c c . T h e b o d h is a ttv a w a s s till a c a n d id a te
f o r e n lig h te n m e n t. T h e b o d h is a ttv a 's p r a n id h a n a w a s also n o t a lie n to H in a v a n a .
'T h e G r e a t V e h ic le , in i ts f ir s t sta g e s ... c o n tin u e s to b e lie v e th a t th e b o d h i-
sa ttv a is a m a n , “ n o t a g o d " ’ (2‘ ).
B u t th e g re a t b o d b isa ttv a s o f th e S a d d h a rm a p u n d a rik a , th e L a rg e r Suhha-
v a ti, A m ita y u r d b y a n a S u tr a , K a ra n d a V y& ha, e tc . a re d iff e re n t fro m th e b o d h i-
sa ttv a w h o is a n a s p ira n t f o r e n lig h te n m e n t a n d w h o v o w s to d e d ic a te h im s e lf
to lib e ra te all s e n tie n t b e in g s a n d fo r th is p u rp o s e s p u rn s n irv a n a . T h e y a re ,
m o re p rec isely , b o d b isa ttv a s m a h a sa ttv a s, a lm o s t e q u a l t o th e B u d d h a h im se lf,
w h o p a rtic ip a te in c re a tio n a n d in c o n fe r rin g b o o n s a n d re lie v in g s u ffe rin g o f
t h e i r d e v o te e s.
T h e o r d e r in w h ic h th e b o d b is a ttv a s a re m e n tio n e d in th e M a h ay a n a
l ite r a tu r e in th e tria d o f sra va k a s, p r a ty e k a b u d d h a s a n d b o d b isa ttv a s , in d ic a te s
t h e th e b o d b isa ttv a s ra n k e d h ig h e r th a n a n d s u p e rio r to th e p r a ty e k a b u d d h a s
S u re ly th is c o u ld n o t b e if rh e b o d h is a ttv a w a s o n ly a c a n d id a te fo r e n lig h te n
m e n t, a f u tu r e B u d d h a , w h o h a d y e t to a tta in b u d d h a h o n d . S u c h a p e rs o n or
b ein g c o u ld n o t b e s u p e rio r to a fu lfle d g e d b a d d b a as a p r a ty c k a b u d d b a is.
S uch a n an o m a ly o r c o n tra d ic tio n can h e sa tisfa c to rily re s o lv e d o n lv if th e
b o d h is a ttv a o f th e a b o v e tr i a d is ta k e n to b e a b o d h is a ttv a m a h a s a ttv a , an e n
lig h te n e d b e in g a n d n o t a p o te n tia l b u d d b a o r a c a n d id a te f o r b u d d b a b o o d . I t
is sig n ific a n t th a t S a n tid e v a in th e B o d b ica rya va la ra {*') says:

‘I w o rs h ip th e B u d d h a s a n d B o d b is a ttv a s in v ie w o f u n d e rta k in g th e
v o w o f B o d h iv a n d a n a ... I g iv e m v se lf u n re s e rv e d ly ... to th e B u d d h a s
a n d to th e i r so n s th e d iv in e b o d b isa ttv a s '.

T h e s e b o d b isa ttv a s m o re a p p ro p ria te ly b e te r m e d a s b o d h is a ttv a m a h a sa ttv a

o r m a b a b o d b is a ttv a o r d a ia b h u m isv a r a b o d h is a ttv a . T h e y a re w h a t m ay b e
c a lle d d iv in e b o d b isa ttv a s as d is tin c t f r o m th e h u m a n b o d b is a ttv a s , w h o a re
e ith e r c a n d id a te s f o r n irv a n a o r w h o t a k e th e g r e a t v o w o f u n d e rta k in g a c tiv ity

(3 4 ) de I.a ValWe P o u lin : E . R . F . , Vol. V II, 196-1 rcpt., p. 188 (a).

(” } de I a Vallee Poussin. F . R . F . , Vol. H . 1964 rcpt., p. 749 (a). The divine b o d h i -
sattvas, were Samantabhadra, ManjugHosa, Avaloknesvara and Akasagarbha. See p 201 s u p r a .

205
 fo r th e sa lv a iio n o f h u m a n ity . T h is d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n d iv in e a n d h u m a n
b o d b isa ttv a s s h o u ld c le a r u p th e c o n fu s io n a n d m is -u n d e rs ta n d in g a b o u t th e
m e a n in g a n d sig n ific a n ce o f th e te r m b o d h is a ttv a . I n th e K a n g y u r M d o (J$)
V o l. V , a b o d h is a ttv a is k n o w n a B y a n g -C b b u b -S e m -P a C h a n g c b u p se m p a ‘th e
b ra v e -m in d e d p ie c e o f p e rf e c tio n ’. C h a n g c h u p s e m p a ( b o d h is a ttv a ) is d e fin e d as
'o n e w h o h a s a tta in e d e n lig h te n m e n t b u t re fu se s n irv a n a a n d rem a in s a m o n g
th e liv in g w ith th e so le a im o f b e in g a n e x a m p le a n d te a c h e r t o su ffe rin g
c re a tu re s . I h c b o d h is a ttv a assu m es a v isib le b o d y a n d . to th e w o rld in w h ic h
h e is to a cco m p lish h is m is s io n , g iv e s th e im p re ssio n o f b e in g h o r n , stu d y in g ,
p re a c h in g a n d d y in g ; w h e re a s in fa c t, h e is b e y o n d a ll th a t b e c au se h e is
b e y o n d life a n d d e a th , o m n is c ie n t, u n to u c h e d by a n y th in g . A n d s o w c h a v e
th e tr iilk u s o r in c a rn a tio n s T ib e t a b o u n d s in , so m e tim e s e rro n e o u s ly called
•L iv in g B u d d h a s ’ (2T).
T h e b o d h is a ttv a m a h a sa ttv a b e lo n g s to th e la s t th r e e o f th e te n b h u m is o f
th e D a fa b h u m a k a S u tr a ( 3 rd c e n tu ry A .D .), th e M ahayana S u tra la n k a ra o f M a itre y a -
A sa h g a ( 3 rd c e n tu ry A .D .), a n d th e M a d b y a m k a v a ts r a o f C a n d r a k ir ti {600
A .D ). I n th e s e v e n th s ta g e , th e far-g o in g (d u ra h g a m d ) (•*), p re c e d in g th e last
th r e e s ta g e s , ‘th e b o d h is a ttv a d w e lls a t rh e a p e x o f e x is te n c e ( b b u ta k o tw ih J r a ),
b u t h e d o e s n o t realise a n n ih ila tio n {nirodbarh s a k s d tk a r o tiY . 'H e h a s n o t y e t
e sca p c d fro m th e d o m a in o f p a s sio n { k ie fa ). D e s ire , in c o n n e c tio n w i t h th e
c o n scio u sn e ss h e h a s o f h is a c tio n (a b h isa m skd ra ) a n d w ith “ th e n e t o f tu rn in g
o n e s e lf" (abboga) to w a rd s a n o b je c t, h a s n o t y e t p a s s e d a w a y . H e is n o t
s u b je c t to p a s sio n {na sa klesa b ) in th e sen se th a t a n y p a s sio n w h a ts o e v e r w o u ld
w o r k in h im ; h e is n o t fre e fro m p a s sio n {na n ih k le s a h ) becau se h e d e sire s th e
k n o w le d g e o f a B u d d h a , a n d b e c au se h is in te n tio n s (o f u n iv e rs a l s a lv a tio n ) a re
n o t fu lfille d '. I n th e e ig h th stage c a lled th e s te a d fa s t o r r a th e r th e im m o v a b le
{aeala) (89), che f ir s t o f th e la s t th r e e s ta g e s , th e c h a ra c te ris tic is th e p o ssessio n
o f th a t s u p re m e v ir tu e c a lled th e Q n u ta p a ltik a 'd k a r m a k s a n ti {‘u p h o ld in g th e
d o c tr in e o f th e n o n -p ro d u c tio n o f th in g s'? . T h e b o d h is a ttv a , n o w , ‘is f re e n o t
o n ly fro m all n m itta g r a h a n a (‘'p a r t i c u l a r a n d e a g e r a c t o f a tte n tio n " ) b u t also
fro m all a bhoga ( “ tu rn in g to w a rd s , ta k in g in to c o n s id e r a tio n " ) . H e is im
m o v a b le . H is a c tio n s, o f b o d y a n d v o ic e as m u c h as o f m in d , a r e in fin ite ly
n u m e ro u s , m e rc ifu l a n d fru itf u l... ’. I n th e la st o r th e te n t h s ta g e , ‘c lo u d of
L a w ’ (*D) (m a b d m c g h d ) also called th e ‘s ta g e o f C o n secratio n * (a b h is e k a b h u m i) o r
's ta g e o f th e A r r iv a l a t th e End* { n istb ig a m a n a -b b u m i), 't h e b o d h is a ttv a b e
c o m e s w o r th y o f th e ro y a lty o f th e L a w , w h ic h w ill m a k e h im e q u a l, o r a lm o st

(*) G o m a dc Koros The Life and Teachings of /be Buddha, Calcutta, 1957 ed.,
p. 114.
Tucci: Tibet, London, 1967, p. 73.
(u ) de La Vallee Poussin. CK.2-:., Vol. I I , p. 747 (b).
(2*> Ibid., p 747 (fc).
{*> Ibid., p. 748 (a).

206
e q u a l, w ith th e B u d d h a s . H e realizes th e la st o f th e s a m id b ts ( “ c o n te m p la tio n s
t h a t o f “ th e e x c e lle n t c o n s e c ra tio n in o m n is c ic n c e ” [sa rv a jh a n a v ise sa b b ise k a )'.
T i e a c q u ire s in n u m e ra b le " d e liv e ra n c e s ’', " m a g ic a l fo rm u la s " , o r “ c o n te m p la tio n s '’
( d b ir a n h ) , s u p e rn a tu ra l p o w e r s ’. ‘H a v in g h im s e lf b e c o m e a “ c lo u d o f th e
L a w ” , h e is s e n d in g u p o n c rc a tu re s th e g o o d r a in w h ic h lay s th e d u s t o f p assio n s
a n d cau ses th e g ro w th o f th e h a rv e s t o f m e rits ; h e is s till a B o d h is a ttv a and
r e n d e rs h o m ag e ro th e B u d d h a s , as w e se e in th e L o tu s o f th e T r u e L a w ', b u t
a cco rd in g to th e B o d b is a ttv a b b u tn i, ‘h e is a B o d h is a ttv a w h o h a s b c c o m c T a t ha -
g a ta [ta tb ig a ta s ta /h a g a ta b b u ta s ca b o d b u a ttv a b ... d b a r m a m d e s a y a n ti)' (3').
T h e s e b o d b is a ttv a s ‘a re d e s c rib e d as p lay in g th e p a r t o f a u n iv e rs a l provi*
d e n c e a n d re ig n in g in P a ra d is e ’ (“ ) lik e A v a lo k ite sv a ra . A g a in , a c c o rd in g to
S a n tid e v a ‘b o d b is a ttv a s ( ,3) in p o ssessio n o f s ta g e s , g re a t b o d b isa ttv a s { b o d h isa ttv a
m a h a sa ttv a o r n ta b a b o d h isa ttv a o r d a sa b b u m lsva ra b o d h isa ttv a ) in te rv e n e only
as p r o te c tin g a n d h e lp fu l s a in ts '. T h e n a tu r e ( " ) o f th e b o d h is a ttv a d w e llin g
in th e b h u m is (e ig h th to th e te n th ) w a s a k in d o f G o d -P ro v id c n c e , m u ltip ly in g
h is v a rio u s m a n ife s ta tio n s o f fo rm in all th e u n iv e rs e s , e tc , W h e re a s ‘th e b o •
d b is a ttv a s o f th e M a h d v a stu d o n o t a p p e a r to h a v e th is n a tu r e , e v e n in th e
h ig h e r w o r ld s ’, ‘Is v a r a ... is a n e p ith e t c o m m o n to th e B o d b isa ttv a s, o r a t lea st
... to all th e B o d b is a ttv a s w h o a re in c o m p le te p o ssessio n o f ih c q u a lific a tio n s of
B o d b is a ttv a s v iz. th o se w h o a re “g r e a t B o d b is a ttv a s " IB o d h isa ttv a m a b is a U v a ) (3S).
T h u s A v a lo k ite s v a ra (3<1) is ‘ th e c o n c re te c o u n te r p a r t o f th e B o d y o f L a w {D bar-
trtakaya)'. Tn th e h e a v e n o f A m r tib h a th e t w o b o d b isa ttv a s , A v a lo k ita a n d M aha-
s th a m a p ra p ta , a re ‘a lm o st a s g re a t a n d lu m in o u s as B u d d h a , w h o s it o n th ro n e s
e q u a l to h is . A v a lo k ita is th e m o re m aje stic... A n d it is h e , r a th e r th a n A m i-

(ai) Ibid.. p. 74& U ). li may be mentioned rhai the Jaina Jcarya Hariblwdra Suri
(8th century A.D.) in Yogabirtdu (ed & tr. K.K, Dixit, Ahmedabad, 1968) verses 270*
274 identifies a Jaina who has attained Samyagdrsti (spiritual development in the fourth
gunasthdna) with the bodbisatlva; both are parartbarasiko, lover of doing pood to others
{Yogabindu 272). According to Yogebindu 274 the bodhi sattva sod itrihankera possess the
supreme type of wisdom.
(s ) de La Vallee Poussin- E R E . Vol. I I , p. 743 (b).
Conze: Huddhat Thought tn India, London, 1962, p. 234«2?5 suggests that three
extra bbuntis, Rth, 9th and the 10th were added to the original seven so as to find a
place for the bndhisattvs w/ibusaitua in the scheme of bhumis.
(“ ) de La Vallee Pousstm E R.E., Vol. I I . p. 749 (a).
(*) Ibid., p . 744 (a) f.n. T..
'Although the Mahavasiu gives a sketch of the theory of the bhumis (“spiritual
stages") of the Bodbisattvas. although It abounds with “areas"' o r “fields of ttiiiM IW i/W -
dbakselra), there arc no G reat Bodbisattvas in it, playing the part of prc'tcctor of creatures
and patron of Buddhas ...’ [ibid., p, 257 h).
(*) Ib id , p. 256 (b).
(»> I b id , p 257 (a).

207
ta b h a h im se lf, w h o is th e lo rd o f th e S u k h a v a ti’ (” ) a n d is c a lled S u k h a v a tisv a ra .
T h u s th e te rn ) b o d h is a ttv a m e a n s (a) a p e rs o n w h o is o n th e w ay to th e
a tta in m e n t o f p e rf e c t k n o w le d g e i.e. a p o te n tia l o r a f u tu r e B u d d h a \ b ) o n e
w h o u n d e rta k e s th e v o w to fo rg o h is p e rs o n a l n irv a n a fo r th e sa k e o f h u m a n ity
a n d (c) 'o n e w h o s e e sse n c e is p e rfe c t k n o w le d g e ’ i.e. w h o lik e th e B u d d h a is
fu lly e n lig h te n e d a n d possesses s u p e r n a tu r a l, n a y , d iv in e p o w e rs.

I c o n o g r a p h y o f B o d b isa ttv a s

G rtin w e d e l (3H) id e n tif ie d th e 'y o u th f u l fig u re s in ric h a t t i r e ' in G a n d h a r a

s c u lp tu re s as b o d b is a ttv a s . H e a v e rre d ch at ‘th e B o d h is a ttv a r e p re s e n ta tio n of
la te r a r t is th a t o f a ro y ally a ttir e d y o u n g m a n d e v e lo p e d fro m th e le g e n d o f th e
h is to ric B u d d h a , w h o w a s a p rin c e ’. H e m a in ta in e d t h a t 't h e B o d h is a ttv a s ... be*
lo n g o n ly to th e n o r th e r n o r M a h a y a n a s c h o o l’.
T h e te x tu a l e v id e n c e d o e s n o t s u s ta in th is c o n c lu sio n . I n th e M a h d v a stu (**),
in th e 9 th b b u m iy a b o d h is a ttv a a tta in s ya u v ra jy a td (i.e . th e T u s ita h e a v e n ) a n d
in th e 1 0 th b h u m i h e is in o b h ise k a ta i.e . th e s ta g e o f c o n s e c ra tio n . A c c o rd in g to
th e M a b iv a s tu I , 5 1 , 5 th e c o n se c ra tio n o f a b o d h is a ttv a as a c ro w n p rin c e is
th e f if th a n d la s t d u t y o f a B u d d h a . T h e r e f o r e d e L a V a lle e P o u s s in ( ,0) h a d
su g g e ste d th a t th is p e rh a p s e x p la in e d th a t in ic o n o g ra p h y , b o d b isa ttv a s alw ay s
a p p e a r w i t h ro y a l o rn a m e n ts .

T h e O rig in a n d D e v e lo p m e n t o f B o d h isa ttv a y a n a

I r is e v id e n t ch at th e te r m b o d h is a ttv a h a s a c q u ire d a n e w m e a n in g . I t n o
lo n g e r m ea n s a n a s p ira n t fo r b o d h i o r e n lig h te n m e n t w h o ach ie v e s h is o b je c tiv e
th ro u g h n u m e ro u s b ir th s ; n o r d o e s i t m e a n o n ly a n e n lig h te n e d b e in g , w h o
re n o u n c e s o r p o s tp o n e s a tta in in g n irv a n a , o r m o re p re c ise ly m a h a p a rin irvd n a
( p e rm a n e n t c e ssio n fro m r e b ir th ) f o r th e s a k e o f h u m a n ity a n d w h o u n d e rta k e s
in fin ite la b o u r fo r th e g o o d o f o th e r s . I t n o w also m ea n s a g re a t b e in g w h o is
w o rs h ip p e d fo r sa fe ty , p r o te c tio n a n d a b o v e all f o r e sc a p e fro m th e c o n s e
q u e n c e s o f e v il k a rm a o r a c ts. T h e B u d d h a ’s life its e lf illu s tr a te s th e f ir s t tw o
a sp e c ts o f th e b o d h is a ttv a c o n c e p t. T h e f ir s t recalls to u s S id d h a rth a G a u ta m a
‘s tru g g lin g to a tta in b o d h i, e n lig h te n m e n t, a n d th e se c o n d , th e p e rio d o f his
m in is try as a B u d d h a w h e n h e d e v o te d h im s e lf to th e ta s k o f im p a rtin g to
o th e r s h is re a lis a tio n o f th e t r u t h in s te a d o f s e e k in g a n escap e fro m th e w o rld

(*> Ibid., pp. 258 (b). 259 (a).

(’*) Grunwcdel: The Buddhist A rt o f India, London, 1912, p 182-83.
f3*) F.L. W oodward (ir.): The M afavailn. London. The identification of Gandhara
a n as a product of Mahayana Buddhism ha* been deputed. Set* Y. Krishan: ‘Was Gan
dhara Art a Product of Mahayana Buddhism?', JRAS, Oct. 1964. pp. 10+119.
(*°> de La Vallee Poussin. E.R.E., Vol. I I . p. 747 (b) foot note.

20$
as h e w a s f ir s t te m p te d (” ) to d o im m e d ia te ly a fte r h e g a in e d th e S u p re m e
k n o w le d g e . A f te r m o re m a tu r e re fle c tio n , in th e M a h d p a rin ib b d n a S u ttd n ta (**)
X V I. 3 .3 5 th e B u d d h a re c o u n ts th a t a f t e r h is e n lig h te n m e n t h e a d d re s s e d M a ra
th u s : ‘I sh a ll n o t p a s s a w a y , O E v il o n e ! u n t il n o t o n ly th e b r e t h r e n a n d
s is te rs o f th e o r d e r , b u t a ls o th e la y d isc ip le s o f e ith e r se x s h a ll h a v e b e c o m e
tr u e h e a re rs , w ise a n d w e ll tra in e d ... w a lk in g a c c o rd in g t o th e p re c e p ts ... u n til
th e y ... s h a ll b e a b le to te ll o th e rs o f i t , p re a c h i t , m a k e i t k n o w n , e s ta b lis h i t ’.
T h e B u d d h a h a d , th e r e fo r e , a d v is e d th e m o n k s to w o r k f o r th e b lessin g s o f th e
m a n y , f o r th e h a p p in e s s o f th e m a n y , th e h a p p in e s s o f d e v a s a n d m e n ... (**).

T h e S u tta N ip d ta (* ) o b se rv e s:

'A s a m o th e r c a re s f o r h e r son,
H e r o n ly s o n , all h e r days,
So to w a rd s all th in g s liv in g ,
A m a n ’s m in d s h o u ld b e all e m b ra cin g .
F rie n d lin e s s fo r th e w h o le w o r ld ,
A ll e m b ra c in g h e s h o u ld ra is e in h is m in d ,

... fre e fro m h a te a n d ill-w ill’.

S u m e d h a (* ) in th e I n tr o d u c tio n to th e J d ta k a T h e S to r y o f S u m e d h a
v o w s to a c h ie v e o m n isc ie n c e a n d ‘c o n v e y a c ro ss’ m u ltitu d e s , m e n a n d g o d s.
T h e id e a l o f th e b o d h is a ttv a b rin g in g h a p p in e s s t o a ll b e in g s re c e iv e s con*
f irm a tio n in e p ig ra p h ic a l so u rc e s. I n th e B ra h m i in s c rip tio n s o f K a n is k a I a t
S a m a th y e a r 3 (81 A D ), a t M a th u r a ( " ) , y e a r 2 3 (1 0 1 A D ) re c o rd in g
th e e re c tio n o f th e s ta tu te o f b o d h is a ttv a , a n d th e in s c r ip tio n o f H u v is k a a t

(41) The danger of a Buddha leading a self-centred life was realised early. W hen it
became evident that Vipassi, afier attaining enlightenment, was not inclined ro preach the
T ruth, one of the Mahabrahmas said; ‘Alas “the world will perish" ... now that the heart
of Vipassi, the Exalted one, Arahant, Buddha Supreme, inclines to be averse from exertion
and not cowards preaching the T ruth', The Mabdpadana Suttdnta. Rhys Davids: Dialogues
o f the Buddba ii, 37.
(tt) Rhys Davids (tr.); Dialogues of she Buddha, The Sacred Books of the Buddhists
(5.B.B.) Vol. I l l , P t. I I . D ii, 113 p. 12(1.
J43) Vinaya. Oldcttberg (ed,) London, 1879-1883, Vol. I, T he Mahdvagga i, 31*1, Ca
ra/ha bhikkbave Carikam behujanehildya, bahujanasukbdya lokdnukampdya attbdya bitdya su-
khdya devamanussdnam.
(*) Theodore de Bary (ed.); Sources o f Indian Tradition, New York, 1958, p. 121.
(*) H,C, W arren: Buddhism in Translation, New York, 1963, $ 1, 66-68.
(*) D,C. Sircar: Select Inscriptions, Calcutta, 1965, Vol. I, No. 37-39, p. 137.
(rt) Ibid., No. 45A, p. 146.

209
M a th u r a C48), y e a r 51 ( 1 2 9 A D ), r e c o r d in g th e e re c tio n o f th e s ta tu te o f
$ a k y a m u n i a v e r th a t th is w a s d o n e fo r th e w e lfa re a n d h a p p in e s s o f all b ein g s
—- sarva sa tta ( o r sa ttv a n a n t) b ite — s u k h a y a (o r s u k h a rth a m ).
I n th e t h ir d a s p e c t, th e b o d h is a ttv a is a m a b a s a ltv a , a g r e a t b e in g w h o p o s
sesses d iv in e p o w e rs to p r o te c t h is d e v o te e s a n d t o g r a n t re m iss io n fro m sins.
T h u s th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e b o d h is a ttv a c o n c e p t w a s in th r e e p h a s e s : in
th e f ir s t p h a s e , th e c o n c e p t o f b o d h is a ttv a as a n a s p ir a n t f o r th e b o d h i, a can*
d id a te f o r se lf‘re a lis a tio n , c ry sta llise d ; in th e s e c o n d p h a s e , th e b o d h is a ttv a
b e c am e a m issio n a ry w o rk in g fo r th e b e n e fit o f h u m a n ity , h e p ra c tis e d sarva
s u k h a carya d h a rm a ; in th e t h ir d p h a s e , th e b o d h is a ttv a ta k e s o n th e c h a ra c te r
o f a d e m i-g o d w h o is a n o b je c t o f w o r s h ip a n d is a p r o te c tin g an g el fo r his
d e v o te e s.
T h e r e w e re v a rio u s fa c to rs w h ic h w e r e re s p o n s ib le fo r th e o rig in and
d e v e lo p m e n t o f th is c u lt o f b o d h isa ttv a .
T h e id e a l o f th e o ld e r sch o o ls o f B u d d h is m , th e s tk a v ira s , th e a rh a ts, w as
e sc a p e fro m punar^anm a o r r e b ir th . T h is c o u ld b e a tta in e d by th e a rh a t o r
a r h a n t, th e h ig h e s t a m o n g th e h ie r a rc h y o f th e B u d d h is t m o n k s. T h e a rh a n t,
o rig in a lly m e a n t a p e rs o n w h o h a d a tta in e d th e fiv e c o n tro llin g p o w e rs ifa ith ,
en e rg y , m in d fu ln e s s , c o n c e n tra tio n a n d in sig h t (S a m y u tta n ik a y a V . 1 9 4 ) {k1<) o r
' I n w h o m th e dsavas a re d e s tro y e d , o n e w h o h a s liv e d th e life , d o n e th e ta s k ,
lif te d th e b u r d e n , a w in n e r o f h is w e lfa re , o n e w h o h a s o u tw o r n th e fe tte rs
o f r e b ir th , o n e re le a se d b y p e rf e c t in s ig h t’. (S a m y u tta n ik a y a V . 2 0 5 ).
W h ile th e a rh a t w a s a fu lly e m a n c ip a t e d a n d e n lig h te n e d b e in g , h e w as
in fe r io r t o B u d d h a . T h e l a t te r is s u p e r i o r (w) in a s m u c h a s h e d isc o v e rs th e
tr u t h a n d p ro c la im s it fo r th e b e n e fit o f o th e rs .

<*) I b id , No. 54, pp. 157-158.

The Kharosthi Inscriptions, Swat Relic Vase inscriptions of Meridarkh Theodoros (1st cen*
tury B.C.), Sircar, op. a t , No. 20, p. I l l , the Marhura Lion Capital inscription (10*25 A.D.),
Sircar, op. c i t , No. 24, p 118, and the Sui Vi har inscription of Kaniska l89 A.D.). Sircar,
op. a t ., No. 41, p, HO, likewise record that the relics of the Buddha were enshrined in a
stupa for the benefit of many - bahu/ana hitaya, sarvesam m u kti hrtaya, sarva sattvanam
bita sukbdya.
(w) Mrs. Rhys Davids and Woodward ( tr ) : The Book of Kindred Sayings P.T.S. Lon
don, 1917-30.
(M) Samyuttanikaya I I I , 66 (Mrs Rhys Davids & W oodward, tr.) is quite specific
on the point: ' ,. W hat is the distinction, what is the specific fcarurc, what is the difference
between the Tathagaea who, being arhant is a fully enlightened one, from the brother
who is freed by insight?'.
'The Tafhagata, it is he who doth cause a way to arise, which had not arisen before;
w ho doth bring about a way not brought about before; who does proclaim a way not
proclaimed before; who is koower of a way, who understand doth a way, who is skilled in

210
 T h e o rig in o f th e id e a l o f b o d b is a ttv a -b o o d o f th e s e c o n d p h a s e in w h ic h
h e w o rk s as a m issio n a ry fo r th e b e n e f it o f th e c o m m o n p e o p le , as d is tin c t
fro m th e id e a l o f a rb a t, c a n b e tra c e d to th e stru g g le f o r d o m in a tio n in th e
B u d d h is t sam g b a b e tw e e n th o s e w h o e m p h a s is e d th e p rim a c y o f d isc ip lin e ,
siladbaras o r vinayadbaras w h o e v e n tu a lly cam e to h e id e n tifie d w ith s tb a v i•
ravada, and chose w h o sto o d fo r th e su p re m a c y o f th e d o c trin e o r te a c h in g s of
th e m a s te r, v iz. b a b u fr u ta s , u p h o ld e rs o f th e s u tr a s o r d b a r m a w h o la te r cam e
t o b e id e n tif ie d w i t h dcaryavdda. T h e r o o t issu e w a s th e re la tiv e s u p e rio rity o f
th e d b a rm a a n d th e vin a ya . T h e e v id e n c e o f th is c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e s e tw o
g ro u p s is to b e f o u n d in th e a c c o u n ts o f th e f ir s t tw o c o u n c ils a n d th e B u d d h is t
C o u n c il h e ld by K a n isk a a s c o n ta in e d in th e te x ts o f th e v a rio u s sc h o o ls. T h e
F i r s t C o u n c il h e ld im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e d e a th o f th e B u d d h a s e ttle d th e d b a rm a
a n d vin a ya . A n a n d a , th e fa v o u rite d is c ip le o f th e B u d d h a , w a s a t f ir s t ex c lu d e d
o n th e g ro u n d th a t h e w a s n o t a n a r b a t. H e w a s e v e n tu a lly a d m itte d to th e
C o u n c il m e e tin g a fte r h e h a d a tta in e d a rb a tb o o d . U paK , w h o re c ite d th e
v in a y a , w as g iv en th e place o f p r id e . A g a in , e v e n th o u g h A n a n d a h a d re c ite d
th e d b a rm a te x ts a n d as a n a rb a t h e w a s to ta lly p u rifie d a n d f re e fro m all ta in t
o f e v il a n d e r r o r , y e t h e w as a rra ig n e d fo r c e rta in s h o rtc o m in g s o f h is , such
as fa ilu re to fo rm u la te th e m in o r p r e c e p ts , h is p le a w i t h th e B u d d h a fo r ad
m is s io n o f w o m e n i n to th e o r d e r e tc.
A c c o rd in g to th e T h c ra v a d in s a n d th e S a rv a stiv a d in s, th e scco n d B u d d h ist
C o u n c il h e ld a t V a isa li (1 0 0 years a fte r ih e d e a th o f th e B u d d h a a c c o rd in g lo
P a li te x ts a n d 1 1 0 y e a rs a fte r th e B u d d h a ’s d e a th a c c o rd in g to C h in e s e and
T ib e ta n v ersio n s) c o n d e m n e d ten p o in ts in v o lv in g m in o r d e v ia tio n s fro m th e
m o n a s tic d isc ip lin e . T h is a g a in e x e m p lifie d th e c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e p u rita n ic a l
siladharas, i.e. a rb a ts a n d th o s e w h o d id n o t c o n s id e r a rig id e m p h a sis o n m in o r
d isc ip lin a ry m a tte r s as w a r ra n te d a n d w h o , it can b e sa fe ly p re s u m e d , e m p h a
sise d th e p ra c tic e o f d b a r m a o r th e d o c tr in e .
A c c o rd in g to th e M a h a sa m g h ik a a n d c e rta in S a rv a stiv a d in te x ts , th e seco n d
c o u n c il w a s h e ld a t P a ta lip u tr a 1 1 6 o r 1 3 7 years a fte r th e B u d d h a 's nirvana.

• way. And now, brethren, his disciples are wayfarers who follow after him, Thar ...
U the distinction, the specific features
The Anguttaranikaya (F.L Woodward and E.M. Hare, tr.), P.T S London, 1932-36.
I. 168-69, emphasises lhat the Buddha is an incomparable charioteer o t men to be tamed.
• teacher of devas and mankind, ,., According to Asanga, a Buddha, a Pratyekabuddha and
4 havaka are equal and alike with regard to their purification from the obstructions of
defilements {kleiavarnavtit/ddbi). Bnj only a Buddha achieves the deliverance from obstruc
tion to knowledge i/neyivarnaviiuddbi). Malalasekera, Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Vol. II,
Ceylon, 1966.

211
O n e M a h a d e v a ra is e d fiv e (M) th e s e s o n t h e s ta tu s a n d a tta in m e n ts o f a n arhat
vi2 . th a t a n arh a t is o p e n to te m p ta tio n , s u ffe rs fro m ig n o ra n c e a n d d o u b t a n d
is in n e e d o f e n lig h te n m e n t. I n b r ie f , th e d h a rm a d h a ra s w e r e d is p u tin g th e
a u th o rity o f th e a rb a ts re p re s e n tin g fila d b a r a s to lay d o w n th e la w .
I n h is a c c o u n t o f th e B u d d h is t C o u n c il h e ld u n d e r K a n is k a , H s u a n -ts a n g (5a)
t d l s u s th a t th e C o u n c il w a s re s tric te d to 4 9 9 a rh a ts, o t h e r h a v in g b e e n
sc re e n e d o u t o n th e g ro u n d t h a t th e a s se m b la g e w a s u n m a n a g e a b le a n d h e te ro
g e n e o u s: th e s e w e r e (i) s till n o t fre e fro m w o rld ly in flu e n c e s ik le s a s ) , (ii) w e re
in th e s ta g e o f th e le a r n e r (srd m a tiera s) a n d h a d n o r a tta in e d fre e d o m fro m
s tu d y {arhats) a n d (iii) h a d n o t a tta in e d ’th r e e e n lig h te n m e n ts a n d six s p iritu a l
fa c u ltie s ( a b h ijw ) . F in a lly all th o s e w h o w e r e th e m a s te rs o f th e p ita k a s a n d
t h e f iv e v id y a s (u ) w e r e a llo w e d to stay.
V as a m i era w a s s o u g h t to b e e x c lu d e d fro m th e C o u n c il o n th e g ro u n d th a t
h e w a s n o t a s a rh a t b u t o n ly a s a k rd S g a m in t ill h e d e m o n s tra te d t h a t h e h a d
g o n e b e y o n d t h e s ta g e o f le a rn e r, ir o ta p a n n a .

(M) I t is an erroneous assumption (hat the five theses of Mahadeva related to doc
trinal disputes. J.J. Nattier and Charles Prebish in their article ‘Mahasamghika Origins:
The Beginnings of Buddhist Sectarianism’, History of Religions, Vol. 16, No. 3, Feb. 1977,
have set out the 'five points’ of Mahadeva as recorded by different authorities — Vasu-
mitra, Mabjvibbasa, Bhavya, Vinttadeva, Parma rtha and the Kathavatibu. The first point of
Vasumiira is 'Arbats are tempted by others’. This Has been interpreted as referring to
‘nocturnal emissions’. Surely this could not be an issue of doctrinc.
Point No, 2 of Va&umitra is that arbats ‘have still ignorance’. This has been inter
preted as referring to 'non-defiling ignorance’, that is, ignorance of worldly matters but not
religious matters. This again could not be a ‘doctrinal weakness’.
Point No. 3 of Vasumiira is that arbats 'have still doubts’. This point is essentially simi
lar to point No. 2. I t was interpreted by Parmartha as implying doubt 'w ith regard to
exterior things’ and not doubt or ignorance about the way to deliverance. H ere again there
is no deficiency of a doctrinal nature in the arhat.
Point No, 4 of Vasumitra refers to arbats ‘enlightenment through the others’ implying
rhac he is not all-knowing and self-suificient, This again is essentially the same as points
No. 2 ar.d 3 because a person suffering from ignorance and doubt would need enlighten
m ent from others. I t again involves no point of doctrine.
Point No. 5 of Vasumitra states that ‘the path (of an arbat is accompanied by emission
of voicc’. I t is merely an outward symbol, chbrnba of the fact that one had entered the
path.
These five points of Mahadeva only relate to the qualities possessed by an arbat and
not to issues of doctrine. In fact Bareau recognises the disciplinary characrcr of these points
when he observes ‘In fact, although the five theses above are never mentioned or dis
cussed in the works of Vinaya, they are nevertheless intimately connected to the monastic
discipline'. See Prebish: 'A Review of Scholarship on the Buddhbt Councils’, Journal o f Asian
Studies, Vol. X X X III, No. 2, Feb. 1974, p. 252.
(5-J Beal (tr,): S i-Y u K i, Vol. I I , pp. 191-193.
(®) Grammar, medicine, philosophy. logic and technical arts and crafts.
 T h is e p is o d e o f V a s u m itra is re m in is c e n t o f A n a n d a ’s e x p u ls io n a t th e
F irs t C o u n c il o n th e g ro u n d th a t h e h a d n o t a tta in e d a r h a ts h ip .
T h e a ttitu d e o f th e a rb a ts h a d a ll a lo n g b e e n m o s t o v er* w een in g , T hat
fin d s e x p re s s io n in th e S a d d b a rm a p u n d a rik a ( “ ) 1. 5 3 : ‘S o m e s o n s o f th e jtrta
p a tie n tly e n d u re a b u s e , c e n s u re a n d th re a ts fro m p r o u d m o n k s..
T h is c o n tro v e rs y o v e r th e s ta tu s o f th e arh a t a p p e a rs t o h a v e le f t its
m a rk o n th e H in a y a n a lite r a tu r e in S a n s k rit. O rig in a lly in th e P a li S a m y u tta -
n ik d y a V . 1 9 5 a n d V . 2 0 6 a rh a n t is o n e w h o h a s d e s tro y e d th e dsavas, o n e o f
th e six a b h tjn d s. B u t in th e A v a d d n a S a ta ka I I . 38*2 ( 4 0 0 A .D .), a n d th e D iv y d -
vaddna 5 0 .9 a n d 1 6 6 -7 (3 rd -4 th c e n tu ry A .D .) th e a rh a t is d e s c rib e d as o n e w h o
h a s a b a n d o n e d th e k l t i a s {“ ) (k le sa p ro h d n a ) a n d n o t o n e w h o h a s a b a n d o n e d
th e d sra va <**) {dsrava k s a y a ). H e p o ssesse s o n ly fiv e a b h ijn a s (d iv in e eye,
d iv in e e a r, c a p a c ity f o r th o u g h t re a d in g , re c o lle c tio n o f p r e v io u s b i r t h s a n d
s u p e rn a tu ra l p o w e r s ). I n th e l a t te r l it e r a tu r e o n ly th e p e rf e c t B u d d h a a n d so m e
e m in e n t sa in ts (* ) c o u ld p o ssess th e six a b h ijn a s, th e s ix th b e in g k n o w le d g e o f
t h e d e s tru c tio n o f dsrava s.
I n th e M a h a y a n a s u tr a S a d d h o r m a p u n d a r ik a , f u r t h e r , c o n te m p t w a s p o u r e d
o n th e a rhats in a n u n c o n c e a le d m a n n e r . I t su g g ests th a t p e rs o n s o t h e r th a n
b o d b isa ttv a s a re in c a p a b le o f u n d e rs ta n d in g th e la w a n d srd va ka yd n a a n d
p r a ty e k a b u d d h a y d n a a re o n ly e x p e d ie n ts (u p d yakauSalya) a n d n o t t r u e d o c trin e .
T h is w a s n a tu ra lly a n a ff r o n t to rh e srd va k a s a n d th e p r a ty e k a b u d d h a s
a n d th e ‘fiv e th o u s a n d p r o u d m o n k s, n u n s a n d lay d e v o te e s o f b o th se x e s in th e
c o n g re g a tio n ro se fro m th e ir s e a ts a n d w e n t to le a v e th e assem b ly ... th in k in g
th e m se lv e s a g g rie v e d , th e y w e n t to le a v e th e a s s e m b ly ...' ib id ., 1 1 .3 6 (M).
'T h e r e u p o n , th e L o r d a d d re s s e d t h e v e n e ra b le S a rip u tra : M y c o n g re g a tio n ,
S a rip u tra , h a s b e e n c le a re d f r o m th e c h a ff, fre e d f r o m th e tr a s h ; i t is firm ly
e s ta b lis h e d in th e s tr e n g th o f f a ith £ i.e, d ie d is s id e n ts a re g o n e ] . I t is g o o d ,
S a rip u tra , t h a t th o s e p r o u d o n e s a re g o n e a w a y ' ib id ., 11.36.
‘N o w , S ir ip u tr a , s u c h d isc ip le s, or h a ts o r p r a ty e k a b u d d h a s w h o d o n o t
h e a r th e i r a c tu a lly b e in g c a lle d to th e B u d d h a* V eh icle b y th e T a th d g a ta , w h o
d o n o t p e rc e iv e n o r h e e d i t , th o s e , S a r ip u tra , s h o u ld n o t b e a c k n o w le d g e d as
d isc ip le s o f th e T a th d g a ta , n o r as A r h a ts , n o r a s p r a ty e k a b u d d h a s ' ib id ., 11.36 {'•).
T h is re a d s lik e th e th r e e C o u n c ils m e n tio n e d e a rlie r , in re v e rs e a t w h ic h
th e a rb a ts e x c lu d e d th e non-arbats.

(*) 5.B.E., Vol. X X I, p. 13.

(“ ) Kltias are faults of characccr like greed, hatred, ignorance, pride, doubt, attach,
m ent, etc,
Asrevas are karmic sins or errors.
(" ) H ar Dayal: T he Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Literature, p. 109.
(■) S.B.E., Vol. X X I, pp. 3S-39.
<*) Ibid., pp. 4243.

213
 S a rip u tra is m a d e to say: ... I f e lt e x tre m e ly s o rry , e x tre m e ly v e x e d to be
d e p riv e d fro m s o g ra n d a sig h t as th e T a tb a g a ta -k n o w le d g e . A n d ... O L o rd
... I w a s alw ay s o c c u p ie d w ith th e sam e a n d e v e r-re c u rrin g th o u g h t: " W h e re a s
th e e n tra n c e i n to th e fix e d p o in ts o f th e la w is n o m in a lly e q u a l, w e h a v e b e e n
d ism isse d b y th e L o rd w i t h th e in fe rio r V e h ic le ” . I n s ta n tly , h o w e v e r, O l o r d ,
I f e lt th a t it w a s o u r o w n fa u lt, n o t th e L o r d ’s . F o r h a d w e re g a rd e d th e L o rd
a t th e tim e o f h is g iv in g th e all* su rp assin g d e m o n s tra tio n o f th e la w , t h a t is,
th e e x p o s itio n o f su p re m e , p e rf e c t e n lig h te n m e n t, th e n , O L o r d , w e sh o u ld
h a v e b e c o m e a d e p ts in th o s e law s. B u t b e c au se , w ith o u t u n d e rs ta n d in g th e
m y ste ry o f th e L o r d , w e , a t th e m o m e n t o f th e b o d b is a ttv a s (w) n o t b e in g as
s e m b le d , h e a rd o n ly in a h u r ry , c a u g h t, m e d ita te d , m in d e d , to o k to h e a r t th e
f ir s t le sso n s p ro n o u n c e d o n th e la w , th e r e f o r e , O L o r d , I u s e d to p a s s d a y and
n ig h t in self*reproach. (B u t) to d a y , O L o r d , I h a v e re a c h e d c o m p le te e x tin c
tio n ; to d a y , O L o rd , I h av e b e c o m e calm ; to d a y , O L o rd , I a m w h o lly co m e to
r e s t; to d a y , O L o rd , I have re a c h e d A r h a ts h ip ...' ib id ., I l l T ') .
T h e s ta te m e n t is a re m a rk a b le e x p re s s io n o f th e fee lin g s o f a c o n v e rt fro m
s tb a v ira v d d in school to b u d d h a y a n a o r b o d h isa ttva y a n a .
S a rip u tra g o e s o n t o sa y th a t ‘w h e n I f ir s t h e a r d th e v o ice o f th e L o r d , I
h a d g re a t te r r o r , le s t i t m ig h t b e M a ra , th e e v il o n e , w h o o n th e o c c a sio n h a d
a d o p te d th e d isg u ise o f B u d d h a ’ ib id , I I I . 15. B u t a fte r th e u n s u rp a s s e d B u d d h a -
w is d o m h a d b e e n d isp la y e d , 't h e n I w a s c o n v in c e d : T h is is n o t M a ra ; it is th e
L o rd o f th e w o r ld , w h o h a s s h o w n th e t r u e c o u rse ; n o M a ra s can h e re a b id e . .’
ib id ., I I I . 2 0 (*v). W e se e in th e re fe re n c e co M a ra a re p ly to th e c h a rg e th a t
M a ra , th e e v il o n e , in th e g u is e o f B h a d ta (o r (M a h a d e v a ) h a d c a u s e d d iss e n
sio n in th e c h u rc h a t th e S e c o n d C o u n c il o f M a h d sarhgbikas a t P a ta lip u tr a by
c h a lle n g in g th e s ta tu s o f sth a v ira s w h o w e re n o w re d u c e d to th e s ta tu s of
ira va ko s.
S in ce a rh a t a s a n id e a l h a d b e e n a ssa ile d , a n e w s u b s titu te w a s n ecessary .
A s i t w a s a c c e p te d t h a t th e B u d d h a w a s s u p e rio r to all o t h e r b e in g s , th a t h e w as
u n iq u e , th e d h a rm a d h a ra s o r siitra d h a ra s m a d e th e B u d d h a a n d h e n c e B u d d h a -
h o o d or c o m p le te e n lig h te n m e n t as th e i r id e a l in p la c e o f th e id e a l o f a n arbat.
I n p u r s u i t o f th is id e a l, th e b h ik s u b e c a m e a b o d h is a ttv a , a n a s p ir a n t fo r b o d h i,
a s d is tin c t fro m a n a rh a t, a n a s p ir a n t f o r n irv a n a , a fo llo w e r o f th e b u d d h a y a n a
as d is tin c t fro m th e fo llo w e r o f srd va k a y d n a , h e a re rs in th e S a rv a stiv a d a and
M a h a sa m g h ik a se cts.
B u t h o w d o w e a c c o u n t fo r th e g ro w th o f b o d h isa ttv a y a n a in w h ic h , f ir s t
th e b o d h is a ttv a re so lv e s n o t o n ly to a tt a in c o m p le te e n lig h te n m e n t, b o d h i, b u t

(w) This allusion 10 ‘Bodbisattvas not being assembled’ presumably refers to the period
when the bodhisattva ideal had not yer emerged.
(6J) S.B.E., Vol. X X I, pp. 60*63.
(c ) Ibid., pp. 63-64.

214
also to fo rg o th e id e a l o f n irv a n a in f a v o u r o f r e d e m p tio n o f h u m a n itv , e v e n
th o u g h th is m ig h t in v o lv e re p e a te d r e b i r th s in th e w o rld o f s u ffe rin g , a n d la te r
i h t b o d h h iitlv c b e c o m e s b o d b is a ttv a m a b a s a ttv a w h o is w o rs h ip p e d ?
T h e B u d d h a h a d ta u g h t th a t a tta in m e n t o f n irv a n a o r lib e r a tio n w as n o t
p o ssib le in w o rld ly life . I n th e S d fn a h n a p h a la s u i t a n t a ( " ) h e says ‘F u ll of
h in d era n ce * is h o u s e h o ld life , a p a th fo r th e d u s t o f p a s sio n ... H o w d iffic u lt
is it f o r th e m a n , w h o d w e lls a t h o m e , to liv e th e h ig h e r life in all its fu lln e ss,
in all its p u r ity , in all its b r ig h t p e rf e c tio n ’. S o h e h a d re n o u n c e d th e house*
h o ld life . I n th e S a m y u tta n ik a y a (M) I . 1 3 2 -3 3 , a B u d d h is t n u n tells M ara
‘D y in g is fo r th e b o r n ; h e th a t is b o r n sees ill: b o n d s , m ise rie s a n d ca la m itie s.
T h e re fo re I ta k e n o p le a s u re in b i r t h ...’. T h e M a fjb im a m k a v a I , X X II, p . 1 4 0 ,
sings:

‘O n e th in g o n ly d o I tea c h :
W o e , a n d h o w its e n d to r e a c h ’.

T h e id e a l o f fle e in g th e w o r ld , o f r e n o u n c in g lay life , o f g o in g fro m h o m e in to

h o m le ssn ess, w a s h a rd ly a p ra c tic a l id e a l. I t w a s q u i te c o n tra ry to h u m a n
n a tu re a n d to th e fu n d a m e n ta l u rg e s o f a ll c re a tio n v iz . r e p r o d u c tio n a n d re a rin g
u p th e o f f s p r in g . I n fact th e fu lfilm e n t o f th e se x u al u rg e is e s se n tia l fo r th e
s u rv iv a l o f th e sp ecies. L ik e w ise th e b a sic n e e d o f th e sp e cie s fo r fo o d o r
n u tritio n n e c e ssita te s th a t m a n m u s t e n g a g e h im s e lf in fo o d p ro d u c tio n in ste a d
o f m en d ican cv .
I t m av b e p o ssib le fo r a fe w in d iv id u a ls lik e th e B u d d h a , M a h a v lra o r
S a n k a ra to h a v e re n o u n c e d th e w o rld a n d ta k e to m o n a s tic ism . B u t su c h a
c o u rse w j s w h o lly im p ra c tic a b le f o r th e m a jo rity o f m a n k in d .
I t w a s n o i p o s s ib le f o r th e M a h a y a n a B u d d h is ts to d isc a rd th e id e a l of
re n u n c ia tio n o f lay life as th is w o u ld h a v e m e a n t a to ta l r e p u d ia tio n o f w h a t
th e M a s te r h a d ta u g h t a n d p ra c tis e d in h is life . So in s te a d o f th e B u d d h ist
Iav m a n re n o u n c in g th e lay life , th e m o n k re n o u n c e d th e a tta in m e n t o f h is goal
o f m rv a n a . T h is m a d e th e B u d d h is t m o n k so cially m o re m e a n in g fu l a n d , to
th is e x te n t, less irre le v a n t to so c ia l p r o b le m s ; a t th e s a m e tim e h e w a s n o t
d iv o rc e d fro m society.
B u t th e g e n e sis o f b o d h is a ttv a ’i, p r a n id b s n a th a t o n e s h o u ld w o rk fo r th e
re d e m p tio n o f h u m a n ity in s te a d o f fo r p e rs o n a l n irv a n a c a n b e tra c e d r ig h t b a c k
to th e F i r s t C o u n c il o f E ld e rs h e ld im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e B u d d h a 's d e a th .
B u*ston ( “ ) re c o rd s th a t P u m a , o n e o f th e e ld e rs , in v ite d G a v a m p a ii, a n o th e r

{M) Rhys Davids: Dialogues of the Buddha, Vol. 11. London, 195&-57 repr.
(M) Conzc: Buddhist Texts Through the Ages, London. 195-1. p. 81.
Bu-ston: History o f Buddhtsw in Indiu u/id Tibet translated bv Ohcrmiller, Heidel
berg. 1931-32. Part I I , pp. 75-77,

215
e ld e r to jo in th e C o u n c il s o th a t d o c trin a l d is p u te s can b e s o r te d o u t a n d th e
c o n tin u a n c e o f th e d b a r m a e n s u re d . B u t G a v a m p a ti re fu s e d say in g 'B u t , a s h e
(th e B u d d h a ) h a s n o w d e p a rte d to th e o t h e r w o r ld o f p e rf e c t p la c e , w h o , rea lly
w is e , w ill g o in to th is w o r ld ’ a n d a tt a in e d n irv a n a th ro u g h th e e x e rc is e o f h is
m ira cu lo u s p o w e rs . T h e re a c tio n o f K a s y a p a w a s m o s t sig n ific a n t. H e said:
'H a r k e n ye, O M o n k s.

T h i s o n e h a s p a s s e d a w a y lik e a sa in t,
‘B u t th e o th e r s m u s t n o t d e p a r t to p e rf e c t p e a ce in s u c h a m a n n e r;
‘A s lo n g as th e r e is n ecessary w o r k to d o ,
‘T h o s e w h o h a v e p o w e r m u s t asse m b le a n d d a te n o t d e p a rt
‘L ik e th is h ig h -m in d e d G a v a m p a ti th e re c e p ta c le o f
v irtu o u s d e e d s , w h o re s id e d in S irisa k a,
‘I n su c h a w a y y o u m u s t n o t th in k ,
‘B u t asse m b le a n d e x e r t y o u r m in d s
‘H o w to a c t f o r th e s a k e o f m a n k in d ../

T h e y a ls o c h id e d A n a n d a f o r n o t h a v in g p r a y e d to th e B u d d h a 'n o t to
p ass aw ay in to n irv a n a '.
I n th e E k o tta ra g a m a o f th e S a rv a s tiv a d in s th e B u d d h a te lls K a ly a p a :
‘T h e T a t h ig a ta h a s a i p r e s e n t f o u r g r e a t sra va k a s c a p a b le o f p e rfo rm in g th e
d u tie s o f a p o s tle s h ip a n d conversion*. T h e y w e r e M a h a k a s y a p a , K u n dopadha*
n ly a , P in d o la a n d R a h u la . T h e B u d d h a d ire c ts ‘Y o u f o u r g r e a t ir 2 v a k a s > i t is
e s se n tia l th a t y o u s h o u ld n o t a tta in P a rin irv a n a . I t is n ecessary o n ly a f t e r th e
d isa p p e a ra n c e o f m y L a w th a t y o u s h o u ld re a c h th e s ta te o f P a rin irv a n a ’ (T ri-
p i/a k a T o k y o e d ., X I I . 3, 3 4 b . col. 9 , ib id . I V , 5 , 4 8 b c o l. 5 , tra n s la te d in
L e v i & C h a v a n n e s, L * s S e ize A r b a t P r o te c te u r s d e la L o i t P a ris 1 9 1 6 , p . 5 3 ).
S im ilarly in th e S a rip u tra p a rip ric b c b a , th e B u d d h a is q u o te d a s h a v in g
a d v is e d 'A f te r I h a v e q u i tt e d th e w o r ld , th e f o u r g r e a t b b ik s u s , M a h a k is y a p a ,
P in d o la , K u n d o p a d h a n ly a a n d R a h u la w o u ld s ta y o n w ith o u t a tta in in g N irv a n a ;
th e y s h a ll p r o p a g a te a n d s p re a d m y l a w ’ (T r ip ita k a T o k y o e d ., X V I I . 10, 2 0 a ,
L ^ v i & C h a v a n n e s, op. cit.> p . 5 4 ) ( M).
P rz y lu s k i h a s e x p la in e d (*?), a fte r a s tu d y o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f eschatologicaJ
ideas in B u d d h is m , th a t ‘m e ssia n ic b e lie fs d o n o t h o ld a v e ry im p o r ta n t place

(M) J, Pr 2 yluski; T he Legend of E nperor A ioka in Indian and Chinese Texts, transl.
by D.K. Biswas, Calcutta, 1957, pp. 173-174.
{” ) Przyluski: op. cit., pp. 176-177.
The suggestion of Preyluski {op. c it , pp. 206-208) that it was the Mulasarvistivadins of
Kashmir who exhibit the change and that the Buddhism of M athuia (Sarvastivada) and Kau-
Sambi (Sthavtravada) were evtemially of the same form as w e find in the Pali canon viz. abstract
and scholastic, subordinated to the arhat preoccupied with the ideal of nirvana is not correct.
The Sarvastivadins of Mathura equally accepted the ideal of bodhisattva.

216
 Bahuśruta:多聞

in th e P a li c a n o n . T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e re lig io u s id e a s re a g a rd in g M a itre y a
i s a c h a ra c te ris tic f e a tu re o f th e S a rv a s tiv a d in sc h o o l a n d th e M a h a y a n a se c ts’.
W h a t w a s th e m o tiv a tio n f o r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m issio n a ry b o d h is a ttv a ?
T h e d iv is io n o f th e sarhgba a t th e F irs t C o u n c il b e tw e e n b a b u sru ta s, a n d
siladbaras id e n tifie d a s a rbats a n d th e s p lit a t th e s e c o n d C o u n c il b e tw e e n
a rbats a n d tton-arhats a n d th e c o n s e q u e n t d e s ire to e s ta b lis h th e i r re la tiv e su*
p c rio rity , p e rs e c u tio n o f B u d d h is ts in th e n o r th - w e s t o f I n d ia by fo re ig n in
v a d e rs , S ak as, Y a v a n a s , P a h a la v a s , a s n a r r a te d in ih e C h in e s e re c e n s io n o f th e
A so ka va d S rta , A -Y u -W a n g -C h u a n g (**), a n d th e th r e a t th is p o s e d to th e e x is te n c e
o f B u d d h is m , w e r e a d v e rs e fa c to rs w h ic h u n d e rlin e d th e n e e d f o r m issio n a ry
a c tiv ity f o r p re s e rv a tio n a n d p ro p a g a tio n o f th e fa ith . S in ce d e s tr u c tio n o f th e
m o n a s te rie s a n d h o s tility to w a rd s th e m o n k s w a s n o t w id e s p re a d a n d a c u te in
th e re g io n o f th e n o r th - w e s t I n d ia u p to M a th u r a , th e S a rv a s tiv a d in s , w h o
w e r e d o m in a n t in th is re g io n e sp ecially M a th u r a , h a d to u n d e rta k e m issio n ary
a c tiv ity , to s e e k c o m p e n s a tin g s u p p o r t f r o m th e la ity a n d to face th e ch allen g e.
T h a t p e rh a p s e x p la in s w h y th e c u lt o f b o d h is a ttv a w a s c u ltiv a te d b y th e Sar*
v a s tiv a d in s as d is tin c t fro m th e S th a v ira v a d m s,
A g a in th e sla c k n e ss, c o rr u p tio n a n d th e lif e o f e a se a n d lu x u ry , le d b y th e
so -called ixladbaras o r v in a y is ts o f K a u s a m b i, w h o a d h e re d to th e T h e ra v a d a
s e c t, w a s sc an d a lo u s a n d w a s p e rh a p s re s p o n s ib le fo r th e g ra d u a l d e c lin c o f
th e fa ith . T h e b a h u fu ir a s o r th e S a rv a s tiv a d in m o n k s, w h o s o u g h t re fu g e a t
K a u sa m b i fro m fo re ig n p e rs e c u tio n , m u s t h a v e b e e n a p p a lle d b y th e h ip o c ra c y
o f th e fd a d h a ra s a n d re a lis e d th e im p o r ta n c e o f c u ltiv a tin g v in a y a o r Sila para-
m ita a n d m u s t h a v e re a lis e d th e d is a s tr o u s c o n se q u e n c e s o f d isre g a rd in g th e
vin a ya fo r th e su rv iv a l o f th e 'c h u r c h '. T h is a c c o u n ts f o r th e e m p h a sis in th e
b o d h is a ttv a p i ta k a , o n th e p ra c tic e o f stla, d isc ip lin e , a p a r t f r o m su tr a s o r th e
d o c trin e .
T h u s s e c ta ria n riv a lrie s , fo re ig n p e rs e c u tio n a n d th e d a n g e rs o f a b a n d o n in g
m o n a stic d isc ip lin e h e lp e d to m o u ld th e p h ilo so p h y a n d p ra c tic e s o f th e b o d h i
sa ttv a .
T h e S a d d b a rm a p u n d a rtk a (**) 11.36 e c h o e s clearly th e id e a l e n u n c ia te d in
t h e S a rv a stiv a d a : ‘A n d th e T a tb a g a ta s a n d B o d b is a ttv a s w h o s h a ll e x is t in
f u tu r e ... fo r th e w e a l o f m a n y , th e h a p p in e s s o f m a n y , o u t o f p ity fo r th e w o rld ,
f o r th e b e n e fit, w e a l, a n d h a p p in e s s o f th e g re a t b o d y o f c r e a tu r e s ...’.
T h u s w a s b o r n th e idea! o f th e b o d h is a ttv a w h o re n o u n c e d h is p e rso n a l

(w) Prryluski: op. cit., pp. 27, 28. 187-88 & 168. Pr?yljski adds {p. 209) 'The shock
of the invasions at last obliged the monks to wake up from iheir day dream’.
(•*) 5.B £., Vol. X X I, pp. 40 and 41, Obviously rhe philosophy of Bodhisattva wasr
'Can there be bliss when all thai lives must suffer?
ShaJI thou be saved and hear the whole world cry?’.
Conze: T he Buddhist W isdom hooks, London, 1958, p. 79,

217
 n irv a n a fo r re lie v in g th e s u ffe rin g o f all s e n tie n t b e in g s . T h e b o d h is a ttv a
b e c am e a m issio n a ry <TO).
T h e n e w p h ilo so p h y o f d b a rm a s u n y a ta , a s d is tin c t fro m p u d g a la iu n y a ta ,
h a d f u r th e r e m p h a s ise d th e in s u b s ta n tia l a n d s u p e rfic ia l c h a ra c te r o f th e p h e n o m
e n a l d is tin c tio n s a n d th e re b y e n c o u ra g e d th e id ea o f th e e s se n tia l u n d e rly in g u n ity
o f life . A g e n u in e , p a s sio n a te b e lie f in th e o n e n e ss o f all e x is te n c e c o u ld fin d
p ra c tic a l e x p re s s io n in a p o s itiv e e th ic ( ) — o f d o in g g o o d to a ll c re a tu re s ,
fo r in d o in g g o o d to 'o t h e r s ’, o n e is s e rv in g o n e se lf. A s San tid e va p u t i t: '1
m u s t d e s tro y o th e r s ’ su ffe rin g s, fo r i t h u r ts lik e o n e ’s o w n p a in . I m u s t do
g o o d to o th e rs as th e y a re b e in g s lik e m y se lf’ ( ' ), N o w it w as n o lo n g er
p o ssib le fo r a t r u e fo llo w e r o f th e B u d d h a to p re o c c u p y h im s e lf w ith se ek in g
h is p e rs o n a l nirv a n a ; a p e rs o n a l, p a ssiv e a n d n e g a tiv e e th ic n o w g a v e p la c c to
a n a c tiv e a n d u n iv e rsa lly a ltru is tic c o d e o f c o n d u c t.
T h e S a rv a s tiv a d in id e a l o f a b o d h is a ttv a «— a b o d h i b e in g w h o reso lv es
to fo rg o p e rso n a l nirvd n a fo r th e b e n e fit o f h u m a n ity — h a d m a d e th e m abdpari-
n irv a n a o f th e h is to ric a l B u d d h a , G a u ta m a , a n o m a lo u s. I t w a s n a tu r a l to th in k
th a t th e m a s te r s h o u ld h a v e s p u rn e d c o m p le te e x tin c tio n to ta k in g r e b ir th re*
p e a te d ly f o r th e serv ice o f a ll s e n tie n t c re a tio n . I t w a s p e rh a p s th e re a lisa tio n
o f th is a n o m o ly th a t in c e rta in M a h a y a n a re lig io u s su tr a s — S a d d h a rm a p u n d a -
rika , L a lita v ista ra a n d S u v a rn a p ra b b a sa — th e B u d d h a is m a d e e te rn a l a n d t r a n
sc e n d e n ta l, I n C h a p te r X V o f th e S a d d h a r m a p u n d a r ik a (” ) th e B u d d h a says
th a t 't h e T a th a g a ta w h o s o lo n g ago w as p e rfe c tly e n lig h te n e d is u n lim ite d
in th e d u r a tio n o f h is life , h e is e v e rla s tin g '. H e re p e a ts : 'A n in co n c e iv a b le
n u m b e r o f th o u s a n d s o f k o ti s o f a e o n s, n e v e r to b e m e a s u re d , is i t since I
re a c h e d s u p e rio r (o r firs t) e n lig h te n m e n t a n d n e v e r c e a se d to te a c h th e Ja w ' (14).
T h e L a lita vh to .ra (7*) m ak e s th e B u d d h a g o d a b o v e a ll g o d s a n d g lo rifie s h im .
H e assu re s h is b e lie v e rs ' I d o g o o d to all w h o w ill b e lie v e in m e. T h o s e w h o
se ek re fu g e in m e a re as m y friends* (’*). T h e S u v a rn a p ra b b a sa su tra O ( 4 th
c e n tu ry A .D .) m a in ta in s th a t th e B u d d h a h a s le f t n o re lic s b e c a u s e ‘th e r e is
n e ith e r b o n e n o r b lo o d o f B u d d h a ’s b o d y '; h e h a s o n ly d h a rm a ka ya . 'A Buddha

(w) Wassiljew: B u d d h i s m u s p. 124 recognised that the b o d b i s a t t v a s were b b /ksu s

specifically chargcd with ihc office of preaching.
(n ) See Y, Ktishan: ‘Development of ihe Bodhisattva Doctrine’. The Middle W ay, Lon
don, Feb. 1954.
(n ) Bodhicaryavatdra. Quoted in W interni 12 , op. c i t , Vol. II, p 372. See also Marion
L. Maiics: Entering the Path of E nli^'lenm ent. The Bodhicarydvatara of Sanudeva, Lon
don, George Allen & Unwin, lQ70.
(n ) S .B E ., Vol. X X I, p. 502.
{’♦) I b i d , p . 3 0 7 .
(?s) W internitz op. cit., pp. 252 and 826.
(*) Quoted by Wincecnitzi op. cit., p. 248.
{” ) Quoted by W internitz: op. c i t , p. 340

218
w a s n e v e r c re a te d a n d n e v e r p a sse s a w a y ; o n ly in o r d e r to b r in g th e b e in g s to
m a tu rity , h e cau ses th e v isio n o f c o m p le te n irv a n a to a p p e a r'.
T h e s e M a h a y a n a re lig io u s s u tr a s d id m a k e fo r a b u id b o lo g y w h ic h w as con*
s is te n t w i t h th e c o n c e p t o f b o d h is a ttv a b u t i t w a s u n s o u n d h isto ry . T o reso lv e
th is c o n tra d ic tio n , i t a p p e a rs th a t th e n e w B u d d h a s — A k so b b a y a , A m ita b h a ,
A m ita y u s , V a ic o ca n a e tc . w e r e in v e n te d .
T h e s e fa c to rs c a n h e lp to e x p la in th e g ro w th o f a m issio n a ry b o d h isa ttv a .
T h e r e w a s , h o w e v e r, a d e e p e r cau se w h ic h w a s re s p o n s ib le in th e t h ir d p h a se ,
f o r th e g r o w th o f th e c u lt o f b o d h is a ttv a m a h a sa ttv a . I t w a s th e B u d d h is t d o c
tr i n e o f k a r m a th a t l e d to th e g ro w th o f th e c u lt o f b o d h is a ttv a m a h d sa tiv a .
T h e la w o f k a r m a a s p r o p o u n d e d b y th e B u d d h a a n d d e v e lo p e d b y th e
p re-M a h ay a n a B u d d h is ts w a s in e x o ra b le in its o p e ra tio n . I t w as in d iv id u a listic .
T h e re w a s n o e sc a p e fro m i t . T h e e a rly te x ts u n a m b ig u o u s ly e m p h a s ise th e in
d iv id u a l's re sp o n sib ility .

I n th e S a m y u tta n ik a y a (’ “) I I I . 1, 4 it is said:

‘H i s g o o d d e e d s a n d h is w ic k e d n e ss
W h a te v e r a m o r ta l d o e s w h ile h e re ;
T is th is t h a t h e c a n c a ll h is o w n ,
T h is w ith h im ta k e s a s h e g o e s h e n c e,
T h is is w h a t fo llo w s a f t e r h im ,
a n d lik e a s h a d o w n e v e r d e p a r t s ’.

A g a in , th e A n g u tta r a n ik d y a (,9) V . 2 8 8 -2 9 1 s ta te s ‘b e in g s a re r e s p o n s ib le fo r
th e i r d e e d s, h e irs to th e i r d e e d s , th e y a re th e w o m b o f th e ir d e e d s , k in sm e n
o f th e i r d e e d s , to th e m th e ir d e e d s c o m e h o m e a g a in , w h a ts o e v e r d e e d s th ey
d o ... o f th a t b e in g th e y a re h e ir s ’.
T h e D h a m m a p a d a (* ) (S 1 6 5 ) m a k e s a c a te g o ric a l s ta te m e n t o n th is p o in t:
‘B y o n e s e lf e v il is d o n e , b y o n e s e lf o n e s u ffe rs , b y o n e s e lf e v il is le f t u n d o n e ,
b y o n e s e lf o n e is p u r if ie d '. A g a in , ib id . S 1 2 7 , ‘N o t in th e sk y , n o t in th e m id s t
o f th e se a, n o t if w e e n te r i n to th e d e f t s o f th e m o u n ta in s , is th e r e k n o w n a
s p o t id th e w h o le w o r ld w h e re a m a n m ig h t b e f r e e d f r o m a n e v il d e e d ’.
M ilin d a p a fib a ( • ') I I . 2 , 6 lik e w is e e x p la in s th a t a lth o u g h th e n a m e a n d fo rm

(” ) W arren: Buddhism in Translations, New York, 1963, p. 214. Again, ibid.. I I I . 2, 10,
jt ii said:
‘But every deed a man performs,

ii is this that he can call his own

W arren: op. cit., p. 22$.
(” ) W oodward & Hare; op. cit., pp. 187-189.
O S.B E., Vol. X. New Delhi, 1965 repr.
(“ ) J.B .f., Vol. XXXV, New Delhi, 1965 repr.

219
w h ic h is b o r n in th e n e x t e x is te n c e is d iff e re n t fro m th e n a m e a n d fo rm w h ic h
is ‘to e n d a » d e a th ’, n e v e rth e le s s i t s p rin g s f r o m i t a n d is th e r e fo r e n o t fre e d
fro m i ts e v il d e e d s . T h is B u d d h is t d o c tr in e o f k a r m a is also illu s tr a te d in th e
avadanas ( 1 s t - 2 n d c e n tu ry A .D .) A v a d a n a s a ta k a r e ite r a te s in 5 5 v e rse s a n d th e
D iv y a v a d a n a in 9 v e rse s th a t th e k a rm a s d o n o t p e ris h e v e n a fte r th e e la p s e o f
a m illio n o f years < "). T h e y fru c tify w i t h o u t fa il w h e n th e tim e a n d environ*
m e n ts a re su ita b le .
T h e s to r ie s {avadanas) ( " ) In th e A v a d a n a sa ta k a I I . 13 e tc . a n d th e D iv y i-
vadana ( 1 .2 4 ; 2 .5 5 ; 1 0 .1 3 5 ; 2 1 .3 1 4 ) e m p h a sise th a t b la c k a c tio n s b e a r b la c k
f r u its , w h ite a c tio n s w h ite f r u its ; th e s to rie s a ls o s h o w h o w k a r m a m o u ld s th e
f u tu r e e x is te n c e s o f e v e ry c re a tu r e . T h e y 'illu s tr a te th e p a ra m o u n t a n d c o erciv e
pow er* (M) o f th e la w o f k a rm a .
A £vaghosa in th e B u d d h a c a rita XX. 3 2 se ts o u t th e d o c tr in e o f k a r m a in a
s im p le b u t te llin g m a n n e r: Y a k a rta s o h i b h o k ta s y a tk a r m a n a s tu p h a la m d b ru -
v a m ( th e d o e r in d e e d b e a rs th e f r u i t o f h is a c tio n , a n d th e r e s u lt o f a c tio n is
u n a lte ra b le ).
T h e m ass o f p e o p le , h o w e v e r, h u n g e re d fo r a n e sc a p e f r o m th e m echanical
o p e r a tio n o f th e la w . I n th e r iv a l B ra h m a n ic a l f a ith , th is e s c a p e w a s p ro v id e d
b y th e c o n c e p t o f a n o m n is c ie n t a n d o m n ip o te n t G o d h e a d w h o s e m erc y co u ld
in te rfe re w ith th e o p e ra tio n o f th e la w a n d m itig a te its rig o u rs . P ra y e rs a n d
s u p lic a tio n w e re r e s o r te d to in v o k e H i s in fin ite c o m p a s s io n a n d o b ta in rem issio n
fro m th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f s in s o r e r r a n t c o n d u c t. O t h e r m ea n s o f re m is s io n w e re
p e n a n ce s in c lu d in g fa s ts a n d p ilig rim a g e s . J a in s a ls o h e ld th a t ta p a s, a u s te ritie s ,
n e u tr a lis e a n d n u llify th e u n d e s ira b le e ffe c ts o f karm a.
I t w a s , h o w e v e r, n o t p o s s ib le f o r th e B u d d h is ts to o p e n ly a v o w b e lie f in
G o d as th is w o u ld r u n c o u n te r to th e te a c h in g s o f th e M a ste r. S im ila rly th e
B u d d h a h a d d isc o u n te d th e v a lu e o f ta p a s o r a u s te ritie s as a m e a n s o f lib e ra tio n
— S a m y u tta n ik a y a I . 2 8 a n d V . 4 2 8 . S o ta p a s w a s o f n o a v a il in n e u tra lis in g
th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f e v il k a rm a . T h u s th e B u d d h is ts w e r e faced w ith a c o n flic t
b e tw e e n th e ra tio n a lis m o f th e k a rm a d o c tr in e — in esc a p ab iK ty fro m th e c o n s e
q u e n c e s o f k a r m a , a n d th e e m o tiv e d e m a n d s o f th e p e o p le — fin d in g a n escap e
f r o m th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f k a rm a . S o th e B u d d h is ts h a d to f in d a v ia m e d ia be*
tw e e n B ra h m a n ic a l b e lie f in a b e n e fic ie n t, m e rc ifu l a n d a ll p o w e r fu l d iv in e
p o w e r o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d th e ir o w n a th e is m o r a g n o tic ism o n th e o th e r .

(“ ) na praniyanti karmans kalpakoti iatairapi,

sdmagrim prdpya kMam ca pbalanti kbalu dehinam.
(M) J.S. Speyer (ed.): Avadanasataka ( U t century A D .). The Hague, 1958 (reprint),
pp. i and ii, and P.L. Vaidya (ed.): Divyavadana, Darbhanga, Bihar, 1959,
<") Speyer (ed.): Avaddnafataka.

220
w h ic h is b o r n in th e n e x t e x is te n c e is d iff e re n t fro m th e n a m e a n d fo rm w h ic h
is ‘to e n d a » d e a th ’, n e v e rth e le s s i t s p rin g s f r o m i t a n d is th e r e fo r e n o t fre e d
fro m i ts e v il d e e d s . T h is B u d d h is t d o c tr in e o f k a r m a is also illu s tr a te d in th e
avadanas ( 1 s t - 2 n d c e n tu ry A .D .) A v a d a n a s a ta k a r e ite r a te s in 5 5 v e rse s a n d th e
D iv y a v a d a n a in 9 v e rse s th a t th e k a rm a s d o n o t p e ris h e v e n a fte r th e e la p s e o f
a m illio n o f years < "). T h e y fru c tify w i t h o u t fa il w h e n th e tim e a n d environ*
m e n ts a re su ita b le .
T h e s to r ie s (a va d a n a s) ( " ) in th e A v a d a n a sa ta k a I I . 13 e tc . a n d th e D iv y i-
vadana ( 1 .2 4 ; 2 .5 5 ; 1 0 .1 3 5 ; 2 1 .3 1 4 ) e m p h a sise th a t b la c k a c tio n s b e a r b la c k
f r u its , w h ite a c tio n s w h ite f r u its ; th e s to rie s a ls o s h o w h o w k a r m a m o u ld s th e
f u tu r e e x is te n c e s o f e v e ry c re a tu r e . T h e y 'illu s tr a te th e p a ra m o u n t a n d c o erciv e
pow er* (M) o f th e la w o f k a rm a .
A ^v ag h o sa in th e B u d d h a c a rita XX. 3 2 se ts o u t th e d o c tr in e o f k a r m a in a
s im p le b u t te llin g m a n n e r: Y a k a rta s o h i b h o k ta s y a tk a r m a n a s tu p h a la m d h r u •
v a m ( th e d o e r in d e e d b e a rs th e f r u i t o f h is a c tio n , a n d th e r e s u lt o f a c tio n is
u n a lte ra b le ).
T h e m ass o f p e o p le , h o w e v e r, h u n g e re d fo r a n e sc a p e f r o m th e m echanical
o p e r a tio n o f th e la w . I n th e r iv a l B ra h m a n ic a l f a ith , th is e s c a p e w a s p ro v id e d
b y th e c o n c e p t o f a n o m n is c ie n t a n d o m n ip o te n t G o d h e a d w h o s e m erc y co u ld
in te rfe re w ith th e o p e ra tio n o f th e la w a n d m itig a te its rig o u rs . P ra y e rs a n d
s u p lic a tio n w e re r e s o r te d to in v o k e H i s in fin ite c o m p a s s io n a n d o b ta in rem issio n
fro m th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f s in s o r e r r a n t c o n d u c t. O t h e r m ea n s o f re m is s io n w e re
p e n a n ce s in c lu d in g fa s ts a n d p ilig rim a g e s . J a in s a ls o h e ld th a t ta p a s, a u s te ritie s ,
n e u tr a lis e a n d n u llify th e u n d e s ira b le e ffe c ts o f karm a.
I t w a s , h o w e v e r, n o t p o s s ib le f o r th e B u d d h is ts to o p e n ly a v o w b e lie f in
G o d as th is w o u ld r u n c o u n te r to th e te a c h in g s o f th e M a ste r. S im ila rly th e
B u d d h a h a d d isc o u n te d th e v a lu e o f ta p a s o r a u s te ritie s as a m e a n s o f lib e ra tio n
— S a m y u tta n ik a y a I . 2 8 a n d V . 4 2 8 . S o ta p a s w a s o f n o a v a il in n e u tra lis in g
th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f e v il k a rm a . T h u s th e B u d d h is ts w e r e faced w ith a c o n flic t
b e tw e e n th e ra tio n a lis m o f th e k a rm a d o c tr in e — in esc a p ab iK ty fro m th e c o n s e
q u e n c e s o f k a r m a , a n d th e e m o tiv e d e m a n d s o f th e p e o p le — fin d in g a n escap e
f r o m th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f k a rm a . S o th e B u d d h is ts h a d to f in d a v ia m e d ia be*
tw e e n B ra h m a n ic a l b e lie f in a b e n e fic ie n t, m e rc ifu l a n d a ll p o w e r fu l d iv in e
p o w e r o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d th e ir o w n a th e is m o r a g n o tic ism o n th e o th e r .

(“ ) na praniyanti karmans kalpakoti iatatrapi,

sdmagrim prdpya kMam ca pbalanti kbalu dthinam.
(M) J.S. Speyer (ed.): Avadanasataka ( U t century A D .). The Hague, 1958 (reprint),
pp. i and ii, and P.L. Vaidya (ed.): Divyavadana, Darbhanga, Bihar, 1959,
<") Speyer (ed.): Avaddnafataka.

220
A n d th is v ia m e d ia w a s th e c o n c e p t o f b o d h is a ttv a m a h a s a ttv a ( " ) w h o u n d e r
ta k e s a m is s io n o f m erc y f o r th e r e d e m p tio n o f m a n k in d , f o r a lle v ia tin g h u m a n
su ffe rin g b y fo rg o in g h is p e rs o n a l n ir v a n a w h ic h e n d s tra n s m ig r a tio n . The
b o d h isa ttv a m a h a s a ttv a w a s specifIccaly e n d o w e d w i t h th e p o w e r s to f re e h is
d e v o te e s fro m th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f th e i r e v il a c tio n s.
T h e re is s c rip tu ra l e v id e n c e to s u b s ta n tia te th e th e s is t h a t th e b o d h is a ttv a
m a h a sa ttv a w as c o n c e iv e d s o m e th in g l ik e th e d e u s e x m achina.
I n C h a p te r X X II o f th e S a d d h a r m a p u n d a n k a th e B u d d h a says: ‘I b e q u e a th
th is D h arm aparyaya [ o f B o d h is a ttv a B h a is a jy a ra ja ]; it is to b e lik e a m e d ic a m e n t
f o r sick a n d s u ffe rin g c re a tu re s in ja m b u d v tp a . N o sic k n e ss sh a ll o v e rp o w e r
h im w h o h a s h e a rd th is D b a rm a p a rya ya , n o d e c re p itu d e , n o u n tim e ly d e a th '.
I n C h a p te r X X IV o f th e S a d d h a r m a p u n d a n k a , th e B o d h is a ttv a A v a lo k ite sv a ra
is th e g iv e r o f sa fe ty a n d is c a lled A b h a y a n d a d a , re le a s e s m a n k in d fro m i ts su f
fe rin g s if th e y h e a r o r re c ite h is n a m e . H e c o n fe rs b o o n s o n p e o p le a n d fu lfils
th e ir d e s ire s. I t s a id in th e S a d d h a r m a p u n d a n k a ("*) T h e a c c u m u la tio n o f
p io u s m e r it p ro d u c e d b y th a t y o u n g g e n tle m a n p a y in g h o m a g e to so m a n y L o rd s
B u d d h a s, a n d th e a c c u m u la tio n o f p io u s m e r it p ro d u c e d b y h im w h o p e rfo rm s
w e r e it b u t a sin g le a c t o f a d o ra tio n to th e B o d h is a ttv a M a h a s a ttv a A v a lo k ite
s v a ra a n d c h e ris h e s h is n a m e , a te e q u a l. H e w h o a d o re s a n u m b e r o f L o rd s
B u d d h a s e q u a l to sixty«tw o tim e s th e sa n d s o f th e r iv e r G a n g e s a n d c h e rish es
th e i r n a m e s , a n d h e w h o a d o re s th e B o d h is a ttv a M a h a s a ttv a A v a lo k ite s v a ra a n d
c h e ris h e s h is n a m e , h a v e a n e q u a l a c c u m u la tio n o f p io u s m erit..*.’. T h e Bodhi*
s a ttv a .., A v a lo k ite s v a ra ... a ffo rd s sa fe ty to th o s e w h o a re in anxiety* (M). A gain
‘H e a r in g , se ein g , re g u la rly a n d c o n s ta n tly th in k in g [ p e r h a p s A v a lo k ite s v a ra ] w ill
in fa llib ly d e s tr o y a ll s u ffe rin g , (m u n d a n e ) e x iste n c e , a n d g rie f o f liv in g b ein g s
h e re o n e a r t h ’ (M). C h a p te r X X V I d e a ls w i t h S a m a n ta b h a d ra {” ), th e p ro te c to r
o f m o n k s, w h o a ssu re s th e m : ' I w ill la k e c a re o f th e i r sa fe ty , a v e r t b lo w s
[ o r p u n is h m e n t] .,.’.
I n th e A m ita y u r d b y a n a s u tr a (0fl) $ 19 i t is s a id th a t th o s e w h o m e d ita te
o n A v a lo k ite s v a ra ‘w ill n o t s u ffe r a n y c a la m ity ; th e y w ill u tte r ly re m o v e th e
o b s ta c le th a t is ra is e d b y k a r m a , a n d w ill e x p ia te th e sin s w h ic h w ill in v o lv e
th e m in b ir th s a n d d e a th s f o r n u m b e r le s s K a lp a s. E ven th e h e a rin g o f th e

D,T. Suzuki: Outlines o f Mahayana Buddhism, New York, 1973 ed., p. 231, re
cognised this when he observed: ‘The Mahayanist conception of Bodhisattvahood may be
considered an effort somewhat to mitigate this ruthless mechanical rigidity of the law of
karma'.
(*) S.B E ., Vol. X X I, p. 410,
(w) Ibid., p . 412.
{*) ibid., p, 413,
n Ibid., p. 433.
(*) S B E , Vol. X L tX , pp. 183 ar>d 185.

221
n a m e o f th is B o d h is a ttv a w ill e n a b le o n e to o b ta in im m e a su ra b le hap p in ess...* .
I n th is p a ssa g e th e s a m e b e n e fits w e re s a id t o flo w fro m th e m e d ita tio n on
B o d h is a ttv a M a b is tb im a p r a p ta . T h o s e w h o p ra c tis e th is m e d ita tio n a /e fre e d
fro m th e s in s [w h ic h w o u ld o th e rw is e in v o lv e t h e m ] in b irth s a n d d e a th s fo r
in n u m e ra b le asartkbya k a lp a s'. I n S 3 2 ib id . <**) i t is s a id th a t th is su tra can
also b e c a lled ‘ [ t h e su tra o n ] th e e n tire re m o v a l o f k a r m a ' a n d th a t ‘th e m e re
h e a rin g o f th e n a m e s o f th e B u d d h a a n d th e tw o B o d b is a ttv a s w ill e x p ia te
th e s in s w h ic h w o u ld in v o lv e th e m in b ir th s a n d d e a th s d u r in g in n u m e ra b le
k a lp a s ’.
T h e S u v a rn a p ra b b a sa su tra ( I V .45*46) says ‘M a y all th e c o m p a ssio n a te B u d
d h a s , th e v ic to rs w h o re le a se b e in g s fro m d a n g e r, ta k e aw ay m y tra n sg re ssio n s
a n d re le a se m e fro m d a n g e rs . T h e f r u it o f m y d e p ra v e d d e e d s m ay th e T atha*
g a ta b e a r a w a y ...’
I n V a jra d h v a ja s u tr a o f S ik sa sa m u c c a y a 2 8 0 - 2 8 1 , th e b o d h is a ttv a re so lv e s,
in te r alia , ‘to re d e e m th e w h o le w o rld from th e te r r o r s o f h e lls , o f a n im a l b ir th ,
o f th e w o rld o f Y a m a ...\
A g a in th e Siksa sa m u cca ya (” ) s ta te s th a t th e b o d h is a ttv a reso lv e s: 'A ll c re a
tu re s a re in p a in , a ll s u ffe r fro m b a d a n d h in d e rin g k a r m a ... A ll th e m ass
o f p a in a n d all e v il k a rm a I ta k e in m y o w n b o d y ... I ta k e u p o n m y se lf th e
b u r d e n o f s o rr o w ,..’.
I n th e B od h ica rya va ta ra (M) S a n tid e v a o b s e rv e s : ‘ I w o rs h ip th e B u d d h a s
a n d th e B o d b is a ttv a s ... O f all d a n g e rs th e g r e a te s t is th a t w h ic h c o m e s from
m y sin s,., p a rd o n th e m ! ’ I n th e P U pa-deiana o f th e B o d b ic a ry a S a n tid e v a c o n
fesse s h is d a rk d e e d s o r sin s a n d f e r v e n tly p ra y s to th e B u d d h a s a n d b o d b isa ttv a s
to ‘rescue m e in h a s te ’ {ib id ., 1 1 ,3 3 ) a n d se e k s th e p r o te c tio n a n d re fu g e o f
b o d b isa ttv a s m a b is a ttv a s (ib id ., 11.5 0 -5 2 ).
A gain B h a isajy a ra ja a n d B h a isajy a sam u d g a ta w e re tw o h e a le r B o d b is a ttv a s (°').

(*) Ib id , p 200.
(M) See also E .J Thomas: The Perfection o f W isdom, London, 1952, p. 62.
(w) de Bary (ed ): op. cit., p. J64.
<M> ile La Vallee Poussin: B.K £., Vol. H , p 749 (*) In the Aryatardhhatrankunama
slottarasdidkastolrd the advantages of the recitation of the names of Tara ate enumerated:
'W hen onlv my names [108 in number] are recollected, I always protect all beings ... (1?)
'M ake for wealth and riches increase one's health and prosperity.,. 121)
'People who correctly repeat the (names) become men of princely wealth ... (24)
'Free from all kinds of disease, endowed with all virtues of sovereignty.
‘They avoid an untimely death and when deceased, go to the Happy land (25).
Conzc: Buddhist Texts Through ihe A^cs, pp. 196-202,
(” } The text devoted to them is the 'Sutra spoken by the Buddha on Visualizing the
Two Bodbisattvas, Bhaisajyardia and Rbnsa/yasamudgata' translated by KalayaSas between
424 and 442 A.D. See Soper; Uterary Evidence for Early Buddhist A n in China, Ascona,
Artibus Aslae, 1959, pp. 203 fl.

222
T h e y a re fu lfle d g e d s a v io u r B o d b is a ttv a s . T o h e a r th e n a m e s o f th e s e tw o
B o d b isa ttv a s w ill b rin g in e s tim a b le b e n e f its . T h e h e a rin g , c h a n tin g a n d k e e p in g
o f th e ir sp e ll w ill p u rify th e h e a re r fro m a ll th e h in d e ra n e e s o f p a s t k a rm a a n d
n o e v il fo rc e s c a n h a rm h im . V is u a lis in g H im w ill rid a p e rs o n o f a ll th e
4 0 4 k in d s o f b o d ily a ilm e n ts ’. 'A n y b e in g s w h o m ay b e d e s iro u s o f w in n in g
a b s o lu tio n fro m th e f o u r m o rta l sin s, o f d o in g p e n a n c e f o r th e fiv e o ffe n c e s o r
th e te n e v il a c ts ... m u s t zealo u sly re c ite th e in c a n ta tio n s o f th e tw o B o d b isa ttv a s,
B h a isajy a ra ja a n d B h a is a jy a s a m u d a g a ta ...’. (* ).
'T h e S u tr a o f M e d ita tio n o n M a itr e y a B o d b is a tiv a ’s R e b ir th o n H ig h in th e
T u s tta H e a v e n ' (M) s e c u re d in T u rfa n a n d tra n s la te d i n to C h in e s e in 4 5 5 A .D .
says ‘T h e g o d lin g s w h o h e a r H im p re a c h re a c h in s ta n tly th e u ltim a te s ta g e o f
E n lig h te n m e n t; th e s in s o f c o u n tle s s a g e s a re o b lite r a te d b y th e m e re sig h t o f
th e ray s th a t s tre a m fro m H i s U r n a \
T h e S u tr a (M) says th a t h e w h o th in k s o f th e T u s ita h e a v e n , k e e p s th e
B u d d h a 's c o m m a n d m e n ts fro m o n e to se v en d a y s , d ire c ts h is p ra y e rs f o r r e b ir th
in th e p re se n c e o f M a itre y a , c a ll o n M a itre y a ’s n a m e , th is w ill c a n ce l o u t th e
sin s a c c u m u la te d d u r in g 1 2 0 0 k a lp a s o f re in c a rn a tio n . ‘M e re ly b y h e a rin g
M ai tre y a ’s n a m e a n d p a y in g re v e re n c e to it w ith e la p s e d h a n d s , h e w ill cancel
o u t th e sin s o f fifty k a lp a s ’.
A c c o rd in g t o th e s u tr a o n K s itig a r b h a 's F u n d a m e n ta l V o w s (**), th e B u d d h a
S ak y am im i a n n o u n c e s th a t th o s e w h o w o u ld re c ite t h e n a m e o f K s itig a rb h a
B o d h is a ttv a a n d p a y h o m ag e to h im , t h e y ‘w ill b e e x o n e ra te d f r o m th e sin s
th e y h a v e c o m m itte d e v e n th ir ty k a lp a s ag o ... w ill b e r e b o r n in th e th ir ty th re e
h e a v e n s a n d w ill n e v e r p a s s i n to e v il re a lm s f o r e v e r...’ (l0°). I t f u r t h e r m a in
ta in s t h a t w h e n e rrin g p e rs o n s a re d y in g , if th e i r r e la tio n s re c ite th e sutra,
th e n a m e s o f B u d d h a s , B o d b is a ttv a s ‘t h e i r s in s w h ic h m ay cau se th e m to b e cast
i n to th e evil re a lm s fo r s u ffe rin g , w ill b e e x p ia te d so le ly b c c au se th e i r fam ilies
a re d o in g th e s e a fo re s a id p io u s a c tio n s o n th e ir b e h a lf ’ (lM).

(*} Quoted from Soper op c it , pp. 205-206.

("> I b id , p. 215.
("> Ibid., p . 216.
(w) Men P itt Chin Hui (tr, from Chinese into English): Ksitigarbha sutra Bilingual
sutra on the Original Vows and the Attainm ent of Merits of Ksitigarbha bodhisattva, Re
gional Centre of W orld Fellowship of Buddhists, Singapore.
(l« ) Ibid., pp. 17, 18, 19.
I10') I b id , p 20
In Tantric Buddhism, rhe same objective was sought to be realised through recitation
of dhdrani (magic formula) viz the poor may become rich, ihe sick mav becomc well
and all obst ret ions are removed, Tn the Vasudbavo-dhetrarii, the Buddha tells Ananda
' ..Ananda, you too learn this dhiira'tl. grasp it, recite it and preach it to others. That
will be for the good of many, for the happiness of many, for the well-being of gods
and men. I do not see, O Ananda, any one in this whole world of gods and demons,

223
 By e v o lv in g th e c o n c e p t o f k a rm a re d e e m in g b o d b is a ttv a s , th e M a h a y a n a
o ffe re d s a lv a tio n to th e e rrin g m u ltitu d e , to all, n o t fro m t h e cycle o f r e b ir th
a n d d e a th , b u t f r o m th e o p e r a tio n o f th e la w o f k a rm a . I t o f fe r e d th e m n o t
o n ly n irv a n a , b u t a m e a n s o f e sc a p e f r o m th e o p e ra tio n o f th e la w o f k a r m a
b e fo r e a tta in in g n irv a n a . W h e re a s th e c a re e r o f a b o d h is a ttv a o f th e H in a y a n a
fu lfille d th e la w o f k a r m a , th e b o d h is a ttv a o f th e M a h a y a n a m a n ip u la te d th a t
la w to th e b e n e f it o f h is d e v o te e s in p a rtic u la r a n d th e h u m a n ity in g e n e ra l.
T h u s w h ile th e H in a y a n a a n d e a rly M a h a y a n a w e r e a re lig io n o f escap e fro m
tra n s m ig ra tio n , fro m p u n a rja n m a , f r o m e a rth ly e x iste n c e , th e b o d h is a ttv a m a h a •
sa ttv a y a n a w a s a re lig io n o f escap e fro m th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f k a rm a I t w as
n a tu r a l, th e re fo re , th a t F a -h sie n a n d I ’s in g f o u n d w o rs h ip o f s u c h b o d b isa ttv a s
as th e d istin g u is h in g c h a ra c te ris tic o f t h e M a h a y a n a .
I t m u s t b e n o te d th a t th e M a h a y a n a p h ilo s o p h ic su tr a s — th e P rajnapara-
m itd a n d th e L a n k d v a td ra in c lu d in g th e G a n d a v y u h a , d id n o t b rin g a b o u t any
c h a n g e in th e c o re o f B u d d h is t th o u g h t in a n y fu n d a m e n ta l se n se . A s C on 2 e ( ,<u)
h a s p r o v e d th e H r d a y a (a n d in fa c t th e P ra jn d p d ra m itd su tra s) w a s o rig in ally
in te n d e d as a re s ta te m e n t o f th e f o u r h o ly tr u th s :
(i) T r u t h a b o u t s u ffe rin g o r p a in ( d u k k k a drya satya);
(ii) T h e t r u t h re g a rd in g th e o r ig in o f s u ffe rin g (d u k k h a sa m u d d y a drya
satya);
(iii) T h e t r u t h a b o u t th e re m o v a l o r s u p p re s s io n o f s u ffe rin g (d u k k h a
n iro d h a y a satya); a n d
(iv) th e w ay to s u p p re s s s u ff e rin g (d u k k h a n iro d h a g d m in i p ra tip a d a
drya sa ty a ).
T h e r e f o r e h e says T t is th e dbarm a-cakra-pravartana siitra o f th e n e w d is
p e n s a tio n ’ a n d c ite s in s u p p o rt A sta sd h a srik a IX p . 2 0 3 ‘d v itiy a m h a U d a m dhar-
m a ca kra -va rta n a m ja m b u d v ip e pa'sydm a i t i .
I n t r u t h , th e P ra jn d p d ra m itd d o c tr in e re p re s e n ts th e seco n d tu rn in g o f
t h e w h e e l o f th e d b a rm a . I t b rin g s o u t th e d e e p e r m e a n in g o f th e o rig in a l
d o c tr in e w h ic h is in te r p r e te d in th e lig h t o f th e d o m in a n t id e a o f E m p tin e s s (IW).
T h e su tra s a re m o r e o f te n t h a n n o t a n e c h o o f o ld e r say in g s ( m ). T h e L a n k a •

o f the M ira and Btahma, of the Sratnanas and Btihm am s, who will overcome this power*
ful charm (Mahdvidya) . . . \ V&sudbara*dkaram: A Buddhist work in use among the Jainas
of Gujarat,
Mabdvira Jama Vidyalaya Suvarnamahotsava Granthe, Bombay, 1968, English Section,
pp. >1*32.
In the Karundpundortka ibid. p. 74, the Bhagavat Sakyamuni Buddha while giving
instructions in five dbarams says that he 'devised these dbdranis in order to save helpless
beings’.
(*"} E, Conze: 'Text, Sources, and Bibliography of the Prajnaparamita-hrdaya’, JRAS.
1948, p, 47 and footoote 4.
(wa) Conze: Buddhist W isdom Books, London, 1958, p. 100.
(m ) Ibid., p, 101.

224
va ta ra su tra c e n trin g r o u n d V a iro c a n a is a ls o o n ly a n e x p o s itio n o f th e A rya jn a n a .
T h u s d o c trin a lly th e M a h a y a n a m a d e n o n e w c o n tr ib u tio n to B u d d h is t
th o u g h t. O n ly th e d o c tr in a l ex eg esis p ro v id e d a s tro n g e r a n d w id e r p h ilo
so p h ic a l b a s e to th e fu n d a m e n ta l t r u t h th e B u d d h a ta u g h t. I t w as th e c u lt of
th e w o rs h ip o f b o d h is a ttv a m a h a sa ttv a w h ic h w a s re s p o n s ib le f o r tra n s fo rm a tio n
o f H in a y a n a i n to M a h a y a n a a n d n o t th e d iale ctics o f N a g a rju n a a n d A sa h g a .

G r b i B o d b isa ttv a s
T h e r e w a s a f o u r th , th o u g h c o m p a ra tiv e ly s o m e w h a t le s s im p o r ta n t p h a se ,
in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e b o d h is a ttv a c u lt. T h is is th e e v o lu tio n o f th e c o n c e p t
o f g r h i b o d h is a ttv a o r h o u s e h o ld e r b o d h isa ttv a . T h e te r m g r b i b o d h is a ttv a ap
p e a rs to b e a c o n tra d ic tio n in te rm s lik e m a rrie d m o n k . T h e A n g u tta r a n ik d y a (,08)
I V . 1 4 4 reco g n ises th a t by o v e rc o m in g s e v e n c o n d itio n s , se n se o f s e lfh o o d , p e r
p le x ity , lu s t, h a tr e d , in fa tu a tio n , c o n c e it a n d b e lie f in v ir tu e a n d r itu a l, o n e
b e c o m e s a re c lu se , a b r a h m in , a p u rifie d m a n a n d a n a r a h a n t. I t is p e rh a p s in
th is se n se th a t A n g u tta r a n ik a y a I I I . 4 5 1 rec o g n ises a la y m a n lik e T a p u s s a b ein g
a n arbat. T h e M a h a ya n a p ra jn d p d ra m itd sastra (l(*)' rec o g n ises t h a t a re n u n c ia n t
b o d h is a ttv a is s u p e rio r to th e h o u s e -h o ld e r b o d h is a ttv a .
A s s ta te d e a rlie r, th e m o n a s tic d is c ip lin e w a s e s se n tia l fo r b o d h ic a ry d o r
c a re e r o f a b o d h is a ttv a . T h is m e a n t t h a t s e x u a l in te rc o u rs e w a s to ta lly a
ta b o o a n d re n u n c ia tio n o f h o u s e h o ld lif e w a s a n e s se n tia l p re -re q u is ite to th e
a tta in m e n t o f b o d b isa ttv a h o o d . T h e D h a m m a p a d a 4 0 4 is q u i te e x p lic it. He
w h o d o e s n o t a sso c ia te e ith e r w ith h o u s e h o ld e rs o r h o m ele ss o n e s, w h o is h o m o
le s s a n d d e sire s n o th in g , H im I call a B ra h m a n a . A c c o rd in g t o th e M a h d v a -
s tu ( ,0*) I I . 117 ‘th is life a t h o m e is to o f u ll o f h in d ra n c e s . T h e w ay o f relig io u s
lif e is in th e o p e n a ir, I t is n o t p o ssib le fo r o n e liv in g a t h o m e to liv e th e h o ly
lif e t h a t is u tte r ly b r ig h t, b la m e le s s , p u r e a n d c le a n . L e t m e th e n , n o w g o aw ay
fro m h o m e i n to th e h o m e le ss s ta te ’. A g a in a c c o rd in g to P r a jw p a r a m itd sata-
sdhasrikd {,08) a n d A sta sd h a srik d 3 3 3 .1 .. ‘celib acy is n e c e ssa ry f o r e n lig h te n m e n t.
A m a r r ie d b o d h is a ttv a is a “ p io u s f r a u d ” f o r c o n v e rs io n o f o th e r s ; h e rea lly
re m a in s a c e lib a te ’.
T h e g r h t b o d h is a ttv a , i t a p p e a rs, e m b o d ie d th e c o n c e p t o f a n id e a l h o u s e
h o ld e r. I t m u t h a v e b e e n re a lis e d q u ite e a rly th a t th e m o n a stic d isc ip lin e co u ld
n o t b e th e w a y o f lif e f o r th e o v e rw h e l m in g m a jo rity o f p e o p le . C e lib a c y h a d
i ts o w n ris k s to th e p u r ity o f m o n a stic life . I t m u s t also h a v e b e e n rea lise d
t h a t it w o u ld b e a g r e a te r a n d m o re m e a n in g fu l a c h ie v e m e n t if a h o u s e h o ld e r
c o u ld c u ltiv a te d e ta c h m e n t a n d o b ta in n irv a n a as a h o u s e h o ld e r. I n s te a d o f

f1®*) F.L. W oodward & E.M, H are (u,>; P.T.S,, London, 1932*36,
(10*) A, Hitakawa: op. cit., p. 74.
(lM) W oodwaid (tr,); T h t Mah&vastu, London, 1952, Vol. I I , p. 124; see also I I . 140.
(,e<) Quoted by H ar Dayal: op. cit., pp. 222 and 368 f.n. 408.

225
o b s e rv in g th e v in a y a sila a p p ro p r ia te to th e m o n k , h e o b s e rv e d th e d a ia ku sa la
sila (1(*) w h ic h p r o h ib ite d u n e th ic a l s e x u a l re la tio n s h ip in p la c e o f brahm acarya.
I n th e U g ra d a tta p a n p rc c h a q u o te d in th t S iksa sa m u cca ya 7 9 o f S a n tid e v a ( ll")
it is s ta te d th a t a m an m u s t b e c o n te n te d w ith b is o w n w ife a n d e v e n in
re a la tio n to h e r , h e m u s t e ra d ic a te fe e lin g s o f p a s sio n : ‘th e p a s s io n m u s t b e
re g a rd e d as u n d e r th e d o m in io n o f sin ... re g a rd h e r as fu ll o f im p u rity ... a w ife
m u s t b e re g a rd e d a s a n o b s ta c le to v ir tu e , to m e d ita tio n , to w is d o m — sh e Is
lik e a th ie f , a m u rd e r e r o r a g u a rd ia n o f h e ll'.
T h e B o d b iia ttv u P r a tim o k s a su tra ( '” ) c o n ta in s , a m o n g o th e r s , r u le s re g a rd
in g th e d u tie s o f a d isc ip le to w a rd s h is dcdrya, u p d d h y d y a a n d th e d u tie s o f a
lay b o d b isa ilv a .
I n th e V im a la k lrtin ird e S a {u?}, h o w e v e r , th e id e a l o f a h o u s e h o ld e r b o dhi-
s a ltv a fin d s a m o re e le g a n t a n d p ra c tic a l e x p re s s io n :

'T h o u g h ... o b s e rv in g th e p u r e m o n a s tic d isc ip lin e ; ...

T h o u g h p o ssessin g a w ife a n d c h ild re n , a lw a y s e x e rc isin g p u r e v irtu e s ;
T h o u g h s u rro u n d e d by h is fam ily , h o ld in g a lo o f fro m w o rld ly p le a s u re s ;...
T h o u g h e a tin g a n d d rin k in g , y e t e n jo y in g th e fla v o r o f th e ra p tu r e
o f m e d ita tio n ;
T h o u g h f re q u e n tin g th e g a m b lin g h o u s e y e t le a d in g th e g a m b le rs to th e
r ig h t p a th ; . . . \

B e lie f in th e s u p e rio rity o f th e m o n a s tic d isc ip lin e , in brahm acarya (c o n ti

n e n c e ) a n d rc a p c c t f o r th e b b ik s u o r sd d h u w e re , h o w e v e r, to o d e e p ly in g ra in e d
in I n d ia n c o n scio u sn e ss. C o n s e q u e n tly th e c o n c e p t o f g r h i b o d h is a ttv a n e v e r
b e c o m e to o p o p u la r . I n C h in a , o n th e o t h e r h a n d , th e in s titu tio n o f fa m ily w as
f a r m o re s tro n g d u e t o th e te a c h in g s o f C o n fu c iu s . T h e B u d d h is t m o n k s w e re
c o n s id e re d as u n filia l w h o a b a n d o n e d th e i r o b lig a tio n s to th e ir a n c e s to rs . T h is
c o u p le d w i t h th e d o m in a n c e o f th e M a d h y a m ik a p h ilo s o p h y a n d th e re fo re of
t h e p h ilo s o p h y o f ‘in s ta n t re a lis a tio n ’ m a d e celib acy a n d m o n a s tic ism a s u n
n ecessary . S o in C h in a th e B u d d h is t e m p h a s is o n m o n a stic ism a n d m o n a s tic w ay
o f life w a s w e a k e n e d a n d th e id e a l o f V im a la k irti re c e iv e d m u c h g r e a te r su p
p o r t, I n J a p a n , th e d e v a lu a tio n o f m o n a s tic is m a n d e m p h a sis o n th e s u p e rio rity
o f fa m ily lif e re c e iv e d tre m e n d o u s s u p p o r t f r o m S h in ra n ■( 12 th -1 3 t h c e n tu ry )
a n d D o g e n ^ 13 th c e n tu r y ). S h in ra n (m ) c o m p le te ly r e p u d ia te d th e life o f a

(*w) A. Hirakawa: op. cit., pp. 75.77,

(,KI) Rouse & Bcndali (tr.): SantUleva’s S i k s d i a w u e c a v a , London. 1922.
( '" ) J. Kashyap (ed.): T h e M a k d v a ^ g e , Pali Publication Board, Govemmenc of Bihar,
1956, Introduction p. x x .
(ll3) E.A. Burtt: op. cit.. pp. 238-39, See aho E . Lamoitc: The Teachings o f Vima-
l a k t r t i , English tr, by Sara Boin. London. 1976. p. 29,
(U3) Nakamura: W ay of Thinking o f Eastern Peoples, Hooolulu, 1964, p. 500.

226
m o n k a n d a d v o c a te d b e c o m in g a B u d d h is t as a la y m a n . H e w a s re in fo rc c d by
D o g e n ( ,M) w h o b e lie v e d ch at B u d d h is m c o u ld b e re a lis e d w ith in th e v o c a tio n a l
liv e s o f th e se c u la r society*. I n T ib e t in th e 8 th a n d 9 t h c e n tu rie s th e d o m i
n a n c e o f th e Y o g a c a ra sc h o o l a n d o f th e p h ilo s o p h y o f re a lis a tio n o f re a lity
th ro u g h th e ‘g ra d u a l c o u rs e ’ in v o lv in g o b s e rv a n c e o f m o n a s tic d isc ip lin e , how *
e v e r, h e lp e d th e s u rv iv a l o f th e in s titu tio n o f m o n k s in th e G elug*pa se c t. T h e
success o f T a n tra y ana as re p re s e n te d b y G u r u P a d m a s a m b h a v a , ac th e s a m e tim e,
m a d e fo r a w id e s p re a d p ra c tic e o f th e id e a l o f &rhi b o d h isa ttv a . I n N e p a l (1IS),
lik e w ise , th e triu m p h o f V a jra ya n a iD th e 1 1 th c e n tu r y A .D . w ip e d o u t th e
m o n a stic c o m m u n ity a n d th e m o n a s trie s d ie d o u t in N e p a l b y th e 1 3 th c e n tu ry .
T h e p ra c tic e o u ts id e I n d ia o f m onks* v o w s n o t b e in g f o r life a n d th e re fo re
th e ir b e in g a b le to r e v e r t t o lay lif e a n d c o m p u ls o ry d e fro c k in g o f m o n k s in
C h in a b y th e S ta te fo r p o litic a l re a s o n s a ls o fa c ilita te d th e a c ce p tan c e o f th e
id e a l o f g r h i b o d b is a ttv a s .

(’“ ) Ibid., p. 506.

(,1S) D R . Rcgmi; Medieval Nepal, Calcutta, 1966, Part I. pp. 543, 547 and 565.

227
 NOTE

I I o w fa r th e d o c trin e o f b o d h is a ttv a is in d ig e n o u s a n d to w h a t e x te n t it
h a s b e e n a ffe c te d b y fo re ig n in flu e n c e s ?
C e rta in d is tin g u is h in g fe a tu re s o f th e c o n c e p t o f b o d h is a ttv a a re a n a ly se d
b e lo w to se e h o w fa r th e y a re in d ig e n o u s in th e ir g r o w th a n d w h e th e r any
fo re ig n in flu e n c e s a re n e e d e d t o e x p la in th e m .
1. C la s sific a tio n o f P e r fe c t B ein g s.
T h e c la s s ific a tio n o f th o s e w h o h a v e re a c h e d p e rfe c tio n v iz. th e B u d d h a , th e
p r a ty e k a b u d d h a a n d arh a t is n o t a c la s s ific a tio n m a d e b y th e M a h a y a n a . The
T h e ra v a d a te x ts fu lly re c o g n is e th is c la ssific a tio n . T h e M a fjh im a m k a y a ( ') I I I .
2 5 4 ( D a k k h in d V ib h a n g a S u tta ) g ra d e s th e d o n a tio n s o r o ffe rin g s a c c o rd in g to
th e r a n k o f th e re c ip ie n ts , s a m m is a m b u d d h a p a e e e k a b u d d k a , ta th a g a ta s a v a k a ,
a rh a t e tc.
A g a in th e P u g g a la p a h n a tti (3) (H u m a n ty p es) o f th e A b h id b a r m a p ita k a classi*
fies h u m a n ty p e s, in te r alia , a s s a m m a sa m b u d d h a ( th e P e rfe c tly E n lig h te n e d one
1 .2 8 , V I . 1 a n d IX ), p a c c ek a -sa m a b u d d h a (1 .2 9 , V I .2 a n d IX a p e rs o n w h o is
e n lig h te n e d f o r h im s e lf) a n d a p e rs o n e m a n c ip a te d in b o t h w a y s , th a t is ru p a •
h a y a a n d n irm d n a k a ya ( 1 .3 0 , V I .3 ), a n d a rh a t (p e rfe c t d isc ip le IX ).
T h e M ilin d a p a fih a I V . 1 2 4 -1 2 6 sp e a k s o f s e v e n fo ld c la s s ific a tio n in clu d in g
a rh a t, p a c c e k a b u d d h a a n d sa m m a sa m b u d d h a .
2. T h e d o c e tic c o n c e p tio n a n d s u p e rn a tu ra l c h a ra c te r o f S a k y a m u n i B u d d h a .
I t is th e L o k o tta ra v a d in s o r th e M a h a sa m g h ik a s w h o e m p h a s ise d th e
docetxc c o n c e p tio n o f th e B u d d h a a n d h is tra n s c e n d e n ta l c h a ra c te r. B u t it
c a n n o t b e s a id th a t th is c o n c e p t w a s a li e n t o th e T h e r a v a d a o r th e S a rv astiv a d a .
T h e c o sm o lo g ic a l (3) c o n c e p ts o f th e B u d d h is t sch o o ls a re c o m m o n . The
c o sm o s is d iv id e d i n to K a m a d h a tu , R u p a d h a tu a n d A r u p a d b a tu .
T h e K a m a d b a tu o r W o r ld o f D e s i r e h a s six ty p e s o f h e a v e n s , C a tu ra m a h i-
r a jik s , T ra y a s trim s a , Y a m a , T u s ita , N ir m a n a r a ti and P a ra n irm rta v a s a v a rtin .
A b o v e it is th e R u p a d h a tu o r B ra h m a w o rld c o n s is tin g o f kam avacara

i 1) Lord Chalmers; Further Dialogues of the Buddha, Vol. I I , Oxford, 1927.

(’) B.C. Law: Designation o f Human Types {Pu^alapanfiatti), London. 1969 repc.
(3) The Kevaddha Sutta of the Dtghantkaya XI 67, the Maj/himanikaya I I I , 100-103
(,Sankhar-uppatti sutta).
H.C. W arren: Buddhism in Translations, New York, 1963, p. 308-313.
Chalmers; Further Dialogues o f the Buddha Vol. I I , p. 211-213. See also the A b b s
dhammatha Sangaha V. 2-6 and 10.
Warren: op. cit., $ 59, p. 289 (T,

228
(se n su o u s p la n e ) a n d m a n o m a y a (m o d e o f m in d ). A b o v e th e s e a re f o u r ariipa*
d h a tu , th e fo rm le ss w o rld s.
T h e in h a b ita n ts o f th e r u p a d h a tu h a v e n o d e s ire f o r s e x . S o th e r e is no
s e x u al in te rc o u rs e a n d n e c e ssa rily b i t t h in t h is h e a v e n is w ith o u t p a re n ts ; i t is
a u p a p a tik a (a p p a ritio n a i).
I n f a c t th e m e th o d o f s e x u a l in te r c o u r s e is th e s a m e a s o n th e e a r t h u p to
th e T ra y a s trim s a h e a v e n s . C o n c e p tio n ta k e s p la c e in th e Y a m a lo k a b y m e re
e m b ra c e a n d in th e T u s ita h e a v e n b y h o ld in g o f h a n d s a n d in th e N irm a n a ra ti
h e a v e n b y m u tu a l sm ile . T h u s a n in h a b ita n t o f T u s ita h e a v e n , S a k y a m u n i B u d
d h a , w a s n o t b o r n o f c o p u la tio n . I t is th e r e fo r e n a tu r a l t h a t th e A c c h a riy -
a b b h u ta -d h a m m a -su tta (W o n d e r o f th e N a tiv ity , M a jjh im a I I I . 1 2 3 ) s ta te s e x
p lic itly : ‘T h e n th e b o d h is a ttv a issu e s f r o m th e m o th e r 's w o m b , h e issu e s
w ith o u t s ta in , a n d w ith o u t d e file m e n t fro m w a te r o r h u m o u rs o r b lo o d o r any
u n c le a n n e ss b u t p u r e a n d s ta in le s s ’.
3. T h e d isc ip lin e o f th e b o d h is a ttv a .
T h e M a h a y a n a te x ts o n b o d h isa ttv a c a r y a d o n o t e n v isa g e a n y la x ity in th e
vin a ya o r d isc ip lin e to b e o b s e rv e d ; in fa c t th e v in a y a o f th e b o d h is a ttv a is
id e n tic a l w ith a n d as rig o ro u s a s th e v in a y a o f th e T h e r a v id a .
Sila is o n e o f th e s ix e s se n tia l p a ra m ita s (p e rfe c tio n s) a b o d h is a ttv a has
t o c u ltiv a te . I n th e S u ra n g a m a s u tr a th e B u d d h a te lls A n a n d a t h a t th e vin a ya
c o n s is tin g o f th e p ra c tic e o f sila (c o n tro l o f m in d ), d h y a n a (c o n c e n tra tio n ) a n d
p ra jn a (w isd o m ) w a s a n e s se n tia l p a r t o f h is te a c h in g . S ila , in th is s u tr a co m
p ris e s a b s tin e n c e fro m s e x , n o n * killing, n o t s te a lin g a n d n o t ly in g . T h e su tra
e m p h a sise s th a t th e o b s e rv a n c e o f a ll th e M a s is a n e s s e n tia l c o n d itio n fo r
a tta in in g d h y a n a a n d prajna. I t o b s e rv e s : ‘T h o s e w h o p ra c tic e sa m a d h i h a v e
to c u t o ff th e ir lu s tfu l m in d s a t th e v e ry s t a r t ’. ‘T h e re fo re , A n a n d a , i f c a r
n a lity is n o t w ip e d o u t, th e p ra c tic e o f d h y a n a is lik e c o o k in g g ra v e l t o m ak e
ric e ; e v e n if it is b o ile d f o r h u n d re d s a n d th o u s a n d s o f a e o n s, i t w ill b e o n ly
g rav e l \
T h is su tra (5) f u r th e r m a in ta in s t h a t th e b o d h is a ttv a s h o u ld b e g in b y s tric tly
o b s e rv in g th e H in a y a n a ^ f o u r p r o h ib itio n s f o r m o n k s a n d e ig h t fo r n u n s to
re g u la te th e b o d y a n d t h e n a d h e re to th e b o d h i s a t t v d isc ip lin e to e n s u re
t h e n o n * $ tirrin g o f m in d . I f th e y o b s e rv e th e s e p re c e p ts , th e y w ill w ip e o u t
f o r e v e r th e k a r m a t h a t le a d s to b i r t h a n d k illin g (d e a th ).
N a g a rju n a in th e M a h a p ra jn a p a ra m itd sastra (*) o b se rv e s th a t in th e p a th
o f th e t e n sta g e s o f a b o d h is a ttv a , th e k le sa m a ra , th e m d ra o r evil o f lu s t, i»

(4) Lu K u a n Yu (tr ): The Surangama sutra (Len* Yen Chin), te n d o n . Rider & Co..
1966, p p . 151-152.
(5) Surangama sutra, a t., p. 164,
(*) Quoicd in Boyd: Satan & ASara Lei Jen, Brill, 1975, p. 123.

229
d e s tro y e d in th e f ir s t s ta g e a n d th e s e a c ts o f d e file m e n t a re k a r m a p ro d u c in g ,
M a itre y a n a th a ’s A b h isa m a y d la n k d ra prajn& param itopadesa s i s ir a f ) w h ile
d e a lin g w ith th e te n sta g e s o f a b o d h is a ttv a >{1. 9 , 1 6 , vv. 4 8 -7 0 ) s ta te s th a t th e
b o d h is a ttv a in th e f ir s t s ta g e p ra c tic e s re n u n c ia tio n , a tta in s c o m p le te re n u n c i
a tio n in th e f o u r t h s ta g e a n d fu lfils p e rf e c tio n o f m o ra lity in th e s ix th stage.
A g a in th e f ir s t B hdvan& kram a (8) says t h a t w h ile fo llo w in g th e darsana•
m drga ( p a th o f v isio n ), th e b o d h is a ttv a in th e f ir s t s ta g e fo rs a k e s 1 1 2 im p u ritie s
(M esas) a n d in th e s e c o n d s ta g e , w h e n h e e n te rs th e b h a v a m m d rg a ( th e p a th of
c o n te m p la tio n ), th e e th ic a l d isc ip lin e is m o re in te n s e a n d s ta in s o f im p u r e m o ra l
c o n d u c t a re e lim in a te d ,
T h e T ib e ta n B u d d h is ts , w h o a re M a h a y a n is ts , fu lly a c ce p t t h is V in a ya .
N a g a rju n a 's A r y a m u la S a r v a stiv a d in S ram anerakdrikA (S tan zas f o r a n o v ice
m o n k ) (*) e n jo in th a t sila is th e b a sis o f all ex c elle n c e s. I n fa c t T so n g -k h a-p a ,
w h o w a s th e fo u n d e r o f th e dG e*lugs*pa se c t, o b s e rv e d th e m o s t rig o ro u s vin a ya
fo r y e a rs to g e th e r.
4. T h e c o n c e p t o f b h u m is a n d th e d o c trin e o f th e b o d h isa ttv a .
T h e d o c tr in e o f b h u m is is n o t e x c lu s iv e ly M a h a y a n is t C9) in c h a ra c te r. E v i
d e n c e o f t e n b h u m is is f o u n d in th e M a h a v a s tu o f th e M a h a s a m g h ik a s . The
M a h d v a stu ( !1) 1 .7 6 s ta te s th a t th e d a s a b h u m is s e t o u t th e c a re e rs o f th e
B u d d h a s . B u d d h a g h o s a in h is V is u d d h im a g g a s p e a k s o f f o u r sta g e s in th e c a re e r
o f an a rh a t. A g a in th e Satasdhasrikd pra jn d p d ra m itd g iv e s th e lis t o f H in a y a n a
b h u m is a n d th e p a n c a v im sa ti p ra jn d p d ra m itd u s e s e x p re s s io n s f o r a tta in m e n t o f
v a rio u s b h u m is w h ic h a re c u r r e n t a m o n g th e H ln a y a n is ts . I t w o u ld a p p e a r th a t
th e d a sa h h u m i d o c tr in e o f th e p ra jn d p d ra m itd te x ts w as fo rm u la te d o n th e basis
o f th e b h u m i c o n c e p ts in n tkd y a s o r d g a m a s a n d th e S a rv a stiv a d a lite r a tu r e — th e
M a h d vtb h d sd , V in a y a m d tr k d a n d D a ia b h a n a v a ra V ib h d sa . A g a in , th e d a sa b h u m is in
A v a ta m s a k a o r th e G a n d a v y u h a v iz. d a sa v ya v a sth d n a c o rre s p o n d clo sely to th e
d a sa h h u m i o f th e M a h a va stu .
I t a p p e a rs th a t g r e a t im p o rta n c e w a s n o t a tta c h e d b y a ll th e M a h a y a n ists
to th e c o n c e p t o f b h u m is . T h e M a h a yd n a -su tra la n k a ra d o e s n o t d isc u ss b h u m is
in d e ta il. S a n tid e v a in h is B o d h ica ryd va ta ra d o e s n o t m e n tio n th e m a t all.

(’) Conze: Abhisamaydlankdra, Rome, IsM EO. 1954, pp. 22*25.

{") Tucci (ir.): M inor Buddhist Texts, Pr, I I , Rome, IsM EO, pp, 177-78.
(9) C .II. M ullin and Lobsang Rabgay (tr.): N agirjuna’s Stanzas for a Novice Monk
with Lama Mipam’s commentary, Dharamsala, 1976, pp, 18*19 and 45.
(1D) See Hirakawa. The Rise o f Mabdyena Buddhism, Memoirs of ibe Research De
partment of the Toyo Bunko. No. 22, 1963, pp, 65-68.
See also N , D uit: Aspects of Mahayana Buddham , pp. 239-240.
(" ) ). Jones (ir,): T he Mahdvastu, London, 1949, Katvayana says 10 Kaiyapa: 'Hear,
O son of the conqucror, rhe careers set oui in due order, of all-seeing Buddhas whose con
duce is unsullied’.

230
Siksasam uccuya s p e a k s o n ly o f th e f ir s t b h u m i a n d m ak e s n o m e n tio n o f o th e r
b h u m is (12).
I t is sig n ific a n t to n o te th a t th e r e w a s a p a ra lle l sc h cm e o f f o u rte e n stages
o f s p iritu a l p ro g re s s in J a in is m (l3) c a lled g u n a stk d n a s. T h e so u l is f r e e d f r o m th e
b o n d a g e o f k a rm a . T h e f ir s t s ta g e is th a t o f m ith y a d r s ti o r false k n o w le d g e o r
ig n o ran ce. I n th e tw e lf th sta g e , h sin a ka sd ya , all th e p a s sio n s a rc a n n ih ila te d
a n d th e k a rm a s c e a se to o p e ra te . I n th e th ir te e n th sta g e , s a y o g a k e v a lin , a p e rso n
a tta in s th e s ta t e o f lib e r a tio n s im ila r to so p a d h iie s a n irv a n a . H e is called
jiv a n m u k ta a n d h a s k e v d a jn a n a . I n th e la s t o r th e f o u r te e n th s ta g e , a yoga*
k e v a lin , h e a tta in s c o m p le te e m a n c ip a tio n , rtirupadhisesa nirva n a . J a in is m d o e s
n o t h a v e a n y th in g lik e th e c u lr o f b o d h is a ttv a to e x p la in th e d o c trin e o f guna-
sthanas. I n f a c t th e d o c trin e o f b h u m is m e re ly d e s c rib e s th e sta g e s o f s p iritu a l
p ro g re s s o f a b o d h is a ttv a a n d is n o t c o n c e rn e d in a n y m a n n e r w i t h its o rig in .
5. F o re ig n in flu e n c e s as a fo rm a tiv e fa c to r in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e b o
d h is a ttv a d o c trin e .
M a n y sc h o la rs f in d close s im ila rity o r a n a lo g y b e tw e e n th e b e lie f in th e
f u tu r e B u d d h a M a itre y a a n d th e Z o ro a s tria n b e lie f in m ille n n ia , in th e co m in g of
a s a v io u r S a o sh y a n t w h e n th e e a r t h w ill b e c o m e s m o o th a n d lev e l, lo n g e v ity w ill
in c re a se a n d p ro d u c tiv ity o f la n d w ill g o u p sig n ific a n tly a n d th e s a v io u rs w o u ld
d e fe a t th e s in n e rs a n d re v iv e th e d e a d a n d th u s re n e w a ll e x iste n c e . I n s h o r t
i t is c o n s id e re d th a t th e Z o ro a s tria n b e lie f h a d in flu e n c e d B u d d h is t esch ato lo g y .
T o q u o te C o n z e (1,) ) i t is b e lie v e d th a t th e le g e n d o f M a itre y a w a s , to som e
e x te n t, s tim u la te d b y P e r s ia n e s c h a to lo g y : M a itre y a is c o n sid e re d to h a v e s tro n g
a ffin itie s w i t h M ith r a s ( ,s).
T h e H in a y a n a b e lie f in M a itre y a B u d d h a m ay h a v e b e e n b o r r o w e d fro m
th e re lig io n o f A v e s ta . A f te r th e d e a th o f G a u ta m a B u d d h a , it c o u ld n o t b e
th a t th e r e w o u ld b e n o B u d d h a a g a in , e v e n w h e n th e d h a r m a d e c lin e s . I n fa c t
th e p e rs e c u tio n w h ic h th e B u d d h is ts in I n d ia fa c e d , e sp ecially f r o m fo re ig n
in v a d e rs , is lik e ly to h a v e fa c ilita te d th e g ro w th o f th e c u lt o f M a itre y a ,
B u t th e a n a lo g y o f S a o sh y a n t is s u p e rfic ia l in a s m u c h as th e r o le o f th e tw o
sa v io u rs , S a o sh y a n t in Z o ro a stria n is m a n d M a itre y a B u d d h a in B u d d h is m w a s
v a s tly d iff e re n t. I t Is e v id e n t f r o m th e M a itre y a V y a k a ra n a <ltf) th a t th e life
s to ry o f M a itre y a is e s se n tia lly a re -e n a c tm e n t o f th e life o f S a k y a m u n i B u d d h a
a n d a s a r e s u lt o f h is te a c h in g o f th e d h a r m a , all h is w o rs h ip p e rs , g o d s , m e n ,

(u ) H ar Dayal: The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature, London, 1932,

p, 212.
(,3) l l is relevant that Guru Nanak in Grantba Sahib propounds the conccpt of 38
pauris (steps) divided into 10 groups.
(M) E. Conze: Buddhism, Its Essence and Development, Oxford, 1951, p, 116.
C6) Conze: Buddhist Scriptures, Harmondswonh, 1959, p. 2>7
(w) Ibid., p. 241.

231
g a n d k a rva s, y a k sa s a n d raksasas, w ill lo s e th e i r d o u b ts a n d c u t o f f th e i r crav in g s
a n d c ro ss th e o c e a n o f b e c o m in g a n d le a d a h o ly life . ‘N o lo n g e r w ill th ey
re g a r d a n y th in g as th e i r o w n , th e y w ill h a v e n o p o sse ssio n s, n o g o ld o r s ilv e r,
n o h o m e , n o re la tiv e s. B u t th e y w ill le a d a h o ly lif e o f c h a s tity u n d e r
M a itre y a ’s g u id a n c e ../.
S a o sh y a n t, o n th e o t h e r h a n d , raises th e b o d ie s o f th e d e a d a n d u n ite s
th e m w i t h th e i r so u ls, th e w ic k e d w ill h a v e to w a lk th ro u g h a s tr e a m o f m o lte n
m e ta l, w h e re b y th e i r s in s w ill b e p u r g e d b y th is o rd e a l <n ). T h e r e h a b ilita tio n
o f th e g o o d re lig io n o f Z o ro a s te r in th e fin a l m ille n n iu m can b e d o n e o n ly by
ro y a lty a n d re lig io n b e in g u n ite d (1J) in o n e p e rs o n . Z o ro a s tria n is m ‘re g a rd e d
p ro d u c tiv ity a s b e in g sy n o n y m o u s w i t h v ir tu e s o fa r a t le a s t as th e m a te ria l
w o r ld w a s co ncerned*, a n d w h e n r e lig io n a n d ro y a lty c o o p e ra te , a c c o rd in g to
D e n k a r t <18), ‘th e E m p ir e w ill p ro s p e r; th e c o m m o n p e o p le w ill b e fre e d fro m
f e a r a n d e n jo y a g o o d life .-.3.
T h e c o n te n t o f th e c o n c e p t o f S a o sh y a n t h a s n o th in g in c o m m o n w ith th e
c o n c e p t o f th e b o d h is a ttv a , w h a te v e r s u p e rfic ia l sim ila ritie s th e r e m a y b e b e tw e e n
th e S a o sh y a n t a n d B u d d h a M a itre y a as d is tin c t f r o m th e b o d h isa ttv a .

O’ ) R.C. Zaehner: T he Dewrt and Twrhgbt of Zoroastrianism! London, 1961, p. 58.

('*) ibid., pp. 296-297.
(■*) Quoted in Zaehncr: op. cit, p. 297.

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