Large analysis and review of

European housing and health

status (LARES)

Preliminary overview
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 CONTENTS

Page

The LARES survey of the WHO Regional Office for Europe.........................................................1

1. Population and health ..........................................................................................................4

1.1 The surveyed population ...........................................................................................4
1.2 Behaviours and individual habits as determinants of health......................................8
1.3 Selected aspects of health.........................................................................................9
1.4 Disease prevalence .................................................................................................10

2. The housing stock ..............................................................................................................14

2.1 The surveyed housing stock ....................................................................................14
2.2 The housing environment ........................................................................................15
2.3 General satisfaction with the dwelling and the neighbourhood area .......................16
2.4 Residential satisfaction and perceived quality of life in a multi-level approach .......17

3. Housing and health ............................................................................................................19

3.1 Psychosocial benefits of home ................................................................................19
3.2 Mental effects of inadequate housing ......................................................................19
3.3 Technical indoor aspects of the dwellings ...............................................................20
3.4 The housing environment ........................................................................................32

4. Summary............................................................................................................................36

5. Conclusion .........................................................................................................................39

6. Sources and information products .....................................................................................41

 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 1

The LARES survey of the WHO Regional Office for Europe

A Pan-European housing and health survey has been undertaken from 2002 to 2003 in eight
European cities at the initiative of the WHO housing and health programme following a proposal
of the WHO European Housing and Health task force. The LARES Survey (Large Analysis and
Review of European Housing and Health Status), coordinated by the European Centre for
Environment and Health, Bonn Office of the WHO Regional Office for Europe was designed to
achieve the following objectives:
• to improve knowledge of the impacts of existing housing conditions on health and mental
and physical well-being;
• to assess the quality of the housing stock in a holistic way and to identify housing priorities
in each of the surveyed cities, and possibly common trends;
• to develop an “easy to use” tool to assess the impact of housing on health in any city or
region in Europe; and
• to prepare the fourth Ministerial Conference on Environment and Health (June 2004,
Hungary).

The survey has been carried out in each city according to the same methodology and based on
three consistent survey documents:
1. housing questionnaire, used by trained surveyors during the face-to-face interview of a
representative of the surveyed households to collect data on the perceived quality and
condition of the dwelling and the immediate environment in which they lived;
2. inspection form, used by trained surveyors to collect technical and objective data on the
surveyed dwelling; and
3. individual health questionnaire, filled in by/for each inhabitant (including children) of the
surveyed dwelling.

Each municipality has been equally supported by WHO in order to use the same procedures:
• before the survey: communication and press release, training of surveyors, guidelines for
municipalities on how to provide the sample, recruitment of the surveyors and data entry
operators, and the logistic support;
• during the survey: coordination of the field work, contacting of selected households,
dwelling visits, quality control of the filled questionnaires/data entry; and
• after the survey: database cleaning, data analysis, preparation of city report.

Each local survey aimed to collect data on roughly 400 dwellings and 1000 inhabitants to
achieve statistically significant results. The local surveys were carried out in Angers (France),
Bonn (Germany), Bratislava (Slovakia), Budapest (Hungary), Ferreira do Alentejo (Portugal),
Forlì (Italy), Geneva (Switzerland) and Vilnius (Lithuania). WHO would like to thank all local
authorities for their support in this project. Special gratitude goes to the German Ministry of
Health and Social Security for a grant supporting this project.

After the local surveys had been undertaken, and city reports for each individual city had been
produced, an expert consortium was established to work on the merged international data set of
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 2

all eight cities to precise links between housing and health. The following results provide a first
overview of some major findings of the LARES project, taken from the analysis reports of the
expert teams and some analyses done by WHO. It is necessary to bear in mind that the findings
are not representative of the whole European population.

More detailed information, providing the methodology of the project and statistical analyses as
well as discussing and interpreting the results, are currently being compiled in a LARES book
edited by members of the expert consortium.

Further information on the LARES project, the participating cities, the applied methodology and
survey tools, and the experts and topics of the LARES analysis consortium can be found on the
Regional Office web site (http://www.euro.who.int/Housing/activities/20020711_1).

Table 1. Overview of expert teams and topics of the WHO LARES analysis

Chapter/Section
Team members Topic
contribution

Dr Niemann/Dr Maschke, Research Network Noise and Noise and sleep disturbance 3.3
Health, Technical University Berlin, Germany
Dr Croxford, Faculty of the Built Environment, Bartlett Hygrothermal comfort and 3.3
School, London, United Kingdom perception
Dr Ezratty, Service des Etudes Medicales d’EDF et de Gaz Residential energy systems, 3.3
de France, Paris, France SES and health
Dr Fredouille, Hospital Vinatier, France Housing and mental health 3.2
Dr van Kamp, Mrs Ruysbroek, Dr Stellato, Centre for Residential quality of life 2.4
Environmental Health Research, RIVM, Netherlands
Professor Mesbah, Laboratory of Theoretical and Applied Housing scores 3.2
Statistics, University Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
Dr Annesi-Maesano, Epidemiology of Allergic and Allergic and respiratory 3.3
Respiratory Diseases Department, UMR-S 707 INSERM diseases
and University Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
Professor Miles, Department of Urban and Regional Environmental Tobacco 3.3
Planning and Center for Demography and Population Smoke Exposure
Health, Florida State University, USA
Mr Terence Milstead/Professor Miles, Department of Urban Pests exposure and 3.3
and Regional Planning and Center for Demography and cockroaches
Population Health, Florida State University, USA
Dr Nygren, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Division Functional limitations, design 3.3
of Occupational Therapy, Lund University, Sweden and accessibility
Dr Davidson, Housing Centre, Building Research Fear of crime and perceived 3.4
Establishment (BRE), Watford, United Kingdom safety
Dr Nicol, Centre for Safety, Health and the Environment, Dampness, mould and 3.3
Building Research Establishment (BRE), Watford, United housing
Kingdom
Dr Rudnai, National Institute of Environmental Health, Mould growth and health 3.3
Hungary
Professor Ormandy, School of Law, Warwick University, Domestic accidents 3.3
United Kingdom; with Dr Moore, United Kingdom
Dr Kliemke/Mr Arndt/Mr Daubitz, Institute for Architecture Barrier-free housing and 3.3
and Institute for Traffic, TU Berlin, Germany mobility of residents
Dr Macintyre/Dr Ellaway, Medical Research Council, Residential conditions, 3.4
Glasgow University, United Kingdom physical activity and obesity
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 3

Chapter/Section
Team members Topic
contribution

Professor Leyden, Institute for Public Affairs, West Virginia SES, neighbourhood 4
University, USA deprivation and health
Dr Shenassa/Dr Brown, Brown Medical School, Mental health and housing 3.2
Providence/CDC, Atlanta; USA
Dr Shenassa/Dr Brown, Brown Medical School, Neighbourhood safety and 3.4
Providence/CDC, Atlanta; USA physical exercise
Professor Blackman, School of Applied Social Sciences, Ecology of smoking 3.3
University of Durham, United Kingdom behaviour
Mr Braubach, WHO European Centre for Environment and Residential environments 3.4
Health, Bonn, Germany and health
WHO European Centre for Environment and Health Overall coordination and
Mr Bonnefoy; Mr Braubach; Mrs Moissonnier; Mr implementation of the
Monolbaev; Mrs Rodriguez; Mrs Röbbel LARES project
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 4

1. Population and health

1.1 The surveyed population
In total, eight European cities took part in the survey. The data set, based on 290 questions with
1095 items, includes information on the condition of 3373 dwellings and the health status of
8519 inhabitants (Fig. 1). In average, the response rate over all cities was at 44.2% of the eligible
sample of households.

Fig. 1. Participation in LARES by city

Vilnius 1794
685
710
Geneva
333
1172
Forli 403
1055
Ferreira
357
1086
Budapest 447
892
Bratislava
338
950
Bonn 392
Inhabitants
880
Angers Dwellings
427

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

The age of the surveyed individuals ranges from 0 to 104 years, with an average age of 39.8
years (Fig. 2). Twenty-two per cent of the sample are younger than 20 years while 21% are 60
years and older.

Fig. 2. Age distribution of surveyed residents

160

140

120
Number of people

100

80

60

40

20

0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 73 76 79 82 85 88 91 94 97 100103

Age
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 5

Females were 53.3% of the surveyed residents, although large differences exist for the oldest age
group (88% of the people older than 85 years were female). In general terms, two thirds of the
surveyed adult population lives with a partner, while one third reports being single, widowed,
divorced, or separated. The variation between males and females living alone or with partner is
rather small (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Marital status of surveyed adults in total and by gender

100%
Living alone Living with partner
90%
80%

33.2% 70%
60%
Females
50%
Males
40%
30%
20%
66.7%
10%
0%
Living alone Living with partner

The number of residents per household ranges from 1 to 8; and the average household size is
quite small with 2.87 people; 45% of all households include one or two people; 68% include up
to three people (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Distribution of household size in surveyed dwellings

35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Residents per dwelling

Less than 4% of the sample of adults does not have any school education, while about 56% have
a school level above the first stage of secondary education (Fig. 5).

Of the adults, 43% were employed full-time, 26% were pensioned and 6.5% unemployed at the
time of the survey. Differences according to gender are quoted within employment also (Fig. 6)
and are mostly related to the amount of working females (less in general), the ratio of part-time
jobs (more common for female residents) and the activity of taking care of other household
members (almost exclusively observed for female residents).
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 6

Fig. 5. Education level of adult survey participants

0%
4%
No education
17%
Primary/elementary
27%
Secondary first stage

Secondary second
stage
Post-secondary
23%
(university, etc.)
29% Unknown

Fig. 6. Employment status of adult survey participants by gender

100%
Other
90%
80% Taking care of household
or a family member
70% Unemployed/laid off
60%
Pensioner
50%
40% Pupil/student
30%
Part-time work
20%
Full-time work
10%
0%
Males Females

To measure the socioeconomic status in a more comparable way than it was possible with
monetary household income, an integrated socioeconomic status (SES) score has been developed
for the LARES data set. The SES score is based on several criteria (employment and
unemployment, social benefits, dwelling size etc) that are strongly correlated with income. When
applied to the global sample of households, it allows the distribution of households by SES.
Fig. 7 describes the distribution of households according to five equally sized SES groups
(quintiles).
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 7

Fig. 7. SES-distribution of LARES-households

S E S s c o re

B o tto m
2 0 t h – 4 0 t h p e r c e n tile
M id d le
6 0 t h – 8 0 t h p e r c e n tile
Top

V iln iu s
G eneva
F o r li
F e r r e ir a
B udapest
B r a t is l a v a
Bonn
A n g e rs
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
H o u s e h o ld s p e r S E S b a n d

Fig. 8. Housing expenses as percentage of total household income

All cities
Vilnius
Geneva Up to 20%
Forli Up to 40%
Ferreira Up to 50%

Budapest Up to 60%
More than 60%
Bratislava
Bonn
Angers

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

In around one third of all households, the housing expenditures represent up to a maximum of
20% of the disposable household income, while the majority of households (42.4%) need to
spend up to 40% (Fig. 8). Nevertheless, 10.4% of all households in the LARES data set need to
pay more than half of their income for housing-related expenses.
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 8

1.2 Behaviours and individual habits as determinants of health

1.2.1 The main part of the lifetime is spent at home

People spend the main part of their lifetime at home. During working days, the average amount
spent out of the home is 8.1 hrs per day, while on weekend days it drops by one hour to 7.1 hrs
per day (Fig. 9). In general terms, younger adults spend most time outside of their home.

Fig. 9. Hours spent out of dwelling by age groups

12
Hours spent out of dwelling

10

2 Weekdays Weekend days

0
0–4
5–9
10–14
15–19
20–24
25–29
30–34
35–39
40–44
45–49
50–54
55–59
60–64
65–69
70–74
75–79
80–84
≥85
Age groups (years)

1.2.2 Self-reported healthy lifestyle

Only a good quarter of the surveyed population frequently engages in sport or physical activities,
while 42% are not doing any exercise (or not doing exercise anymore) (Fig. 10).

Almost one third of all surveyed people with an age of 16 and older are smoking. Most of them –
20.7% in total – report intense smoking (5 cigarettes per day and more) while 3.4% smoke on a
moderate level (up to 4 cigarettes per day) and 8% only smoke occasionally. Alcohol
consumption is much more spread, with 62% of the surveyed individuals at an age of 16 and
older reporting occasional consumption of alcoholic drinks. 10.7% report daily alcohol
consumption (Fig. 11).

Fig. 10. Sports and physical activity (all ages) Fig. 11. Tobacco and alcohol consumption
(people with an age of 16 years and older)

100% 100%

80% 80%

60% 60%

40% 40%

20% 20%

0% 0%
Sports Cig are tte s Alcohol
Never In the past
Occasionally Frequently - m oderate Never In the pas t Oc casionally
Frequently - intense Daily - m oderate Daily - intens e
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 9

1.3 Selected aspects of health

1.3.1 Self-reported health status
In general terms, the surveyed population considers itself to be rather healthy, as 17.6% of all
residents define their health as very good and 44.3% define it as good. 30.5% assess it as average,
and only 6% and 1.6% report a bad or very bad health status. Similar to other health surveys, the
ratio of people reporting bad health is affected by age: 20.5% of the residents between 60 and 79
years, and 26.7% of the residents of 80 years and older belong to this group (Fig. 12).

Fig. 12. Self-reported health status of the surveyed population, by age group

100%

80% Very bad health

Bad health
60% Average health
Good health
40%
Very good health
20%

0%
0–19 20–39 40–59 60–79 above 80
Age groups (years)

1.3.2 Problems with weight in adults

Every second person in the age of 20–80 years is affected by some problems with weight: 13.2%
are obese, 33.4% are overweight and 3.6% are underweight (Fig. 13). Obese people and
overweight are clearly less numerous in the higher economic and social groups (Fig. 14). Obese
people are almost four times more likely to never do sport than non-obese people (odds ratio
(OR) 1 = 3.9/CI 3.1–5.1). They are 60% time more likely to spend most time at home during the
working days and 15% time more likely to live far from a public or green open space.

Fig. 13. Weight distribution of adults (age 20–80) Fig. 14. Weight distribution by SES group

Underweight Underweight Normal Overweight Obese

Normal
Overweight
Obese 100%

Vilnius 80%

Geneva
60%
Forli

Ferreira 40%
Budapest

Bratislava 20%

Bonn
0%
Angers
Lowest Low Middle High Highest
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
SES group

1
An odds ratio (OR) expresses the chance of an exposed person to be or to become sick in relation to the chance of
a non-exposed person. An OR=1.5 means that the chance to be or to become sick is 50% higher.
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 10

1.3.3 Handicaps and physical constraints

Of the surveyed population, 10% declares having one or more handicaps. Nevertheless, a larger
number of people (22%) give details on specific physical constraints from which they suffer,
showing that those affected by physical constraints often do not consider themselves as
“handicapped”. The elderly are particularly affected by multiple handicaps: more than seven
seniors in ten have at least one physical constraint (Fig. 15). The most frequent constraints are
problems to bend down (14.3%) and problems to use stairs (10.7%).

Almost one third of all people with a handicap report being unable to use their dwelling in a
normal way.

Fig. 15. Handicaps or physical limitations by age group

1 h a n d ic a p
> 80
2 h a n d ic a p s
3 h a n d ic a p s
Age group (years)

4 h a n d ic a p s
60–79
5 h a n d ic a p s

40–59

20–39

0–19

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

1.4 Disease prevalence

Within the whole surveyed population, hypertension and arthritis are the two most frequent
diseases declared as having been diagnosed by a doctor, with a respective prevalence of 16% and
14%.

Comparing the prevalence of diseases between age groups provides largely varying results,
especially in the elderly where particularly high prevalence of hypertension (42%) and arthritis
(35.5%) is found and diseases such as cataract and osteoporosis are most frequent compared to
other age groups (Fig. 16).
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 11

Fig. 16. Chronic diseases diagnosed by a physician in residents aged 60 years and older

H ypertens ion
Arthros is , rheum atic
C ataract
Os teoporos is
D iabetes
C hronic bronchitis , em phys em a
Migraine and frequent headache
C hronic anxiety and depres s ion
Gas tric or duodenal ulcer
Allergy
H eart attack
Serious s kin dis eas e
As thm a
Stroke, cerebral hem orrhage
Malignant tum or

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45%

Prevalence

After hypertension, the second-most relevant disease affecting adults up to 59 years is (chronic)
allergy (Fig. 17). In general terms, the prevalence levels are much lower than for the elderly.
Fig. 17. Chronic diseases diagnosed by a physician in residents aged 19–59 years

Hypertens ion
A llergy
A rthrosis , (rheumatic )
Migraine and f requent headache
Chronic anx iety and depres s ion
Chronic bronc hitis, emphys ema
Gastric or duodenal ulc er
Serious s kin dis eas e
A s thma
Osteoporos is
Diabetes

0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14%

Prev alenc e

For children and teenagers, allergies (12%) are the major chronic diseases reported by the
surveyed population, followed by asthma (4.4%) (Fig. 18).
Fig. 18. Chronic diseases diagnosed by a physician in residents aged 18 years and younger

A llergy (ex c luding allergic as thm a)

A s thm a
M igraine and frequent headac he
Chronic bronc hitis , em phy s em a
S erious s k in dis eas e
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14%

Pre va le n ce
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 12

Depression had been diagnosed by a doctor in 7.2% of all surveyed adults. However, trends of
depression identified through a depression screening tool are more important, affecting 19% of
the adults in average with strong differences according to age (Fig. 19). The trends define an
increasing number of symptoms that – if occurring in parallel over a time period of few weeks –
have been defined as an efficient indicator for depression in adults.

Fig. 19. Trends of depression in adults by age and SES groups

Depression according to age Depression according to SES scores

> 80
Highest
Age group (years)

60–79 High

SES score Middle

40–59

Low
20–39
Lowest
0% 10% 20% 30%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Adults

1.4.1 Seasonal diseases, acute illnesses and health symptoms

The major seasonal diseases affecting all people – irrespective of age – are cold or throat
illnesses (Fig. 20) followed by allergic symptoms such as eye, skin and nose reactions and
headache/fatigue. In total, the prevalence of these allergic symptoms affects up to one fourth of
the surveyed population, with almost 9% reporting two symptoms at least.

Fig. 20. Seasonal diseases and acute symptoms diagnosed by a physician

Co ld o r a th r o a t illn e s s

W a te r y e y e s o r e y e in f la mma tio n s

He a d a c h e

Fa tig u e

W h e e z in g o r w h is tlin g in c h e s t

S n e e z in g , o r r u n n y o r a b lo c ke d n o s e

A c u te b r o n c h itis o r p n e u mo n ia

A n y n a s a l a lle r g ie s

Ec z e ma
1 8 y e ars a nd y ou n ge r
Dia rr h o e a l d is e a s e s
1 9 to 5 9 y e ars
A tta c k o f a s th ma 6 0 y e ars a nd o ve r

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

P re va le n c e
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 13

Elderly and children are more affected by allergic symptoms than adults, which is both true for
the number of people with allergies and for the number of allergies per affected person (Fig. 21).

Fig. 21. Multiple allergies according to age

1 allergy
2 allergies
Seniors 3 allergies
> 4 allergies

Adults

Children

0% 10% 20% 30%

Prevalence

Furthermore, 2.3% of the elderly, 1.5% of the adults and 2.4% of the children have been affected
by at least one acute asthma attack during the year before the survey.
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 14

2. The housing stock

2.1 The surveyed housing stock
In general terms, the housing stock that was surveyed by the LARES shows a high ownership
rate. This is caused by the fact that the housing stock in Eastern Europe has been largely
privatized in the 1990s, and the increased ownership rates of the two Southern European cities of
Forlì and Ferreira (Fig. 22).

Fig. 22. Housing tenure by city

100%

80%

60% Rented
Owned
40%

20%

0%
li

a
va

s
s

s
nn

ira
t

r
es

iu
ev
r

it ie
Fo
ge

la
Bo

re

ln
p

en

lc
tis
An

r
da

Vi
Fe

Al
a

Bu
Br

Due to history and architecture, there are varying housing stock patterns in the eight cities. One-
family houses dominate in Ferreira, the smallest of the LARES cities, while Geneva is mostly
made up from apartment blocks and multi-family housing. In the three Eastern European cities,
the housing stock contains the highest ratio of panel block buildings (Fig. 23). Of all surveyed
households, 41% lived on the ground floor, 31% on first and second floor, and 17% on the third
and fourth floor level. Only 11% of the dwellings were located in multi-family buildings on the
fifth floor or higher. 51% of the dwellings were located in buildings built after 1970, and 19% of
the dwellings were built before the end of the Second World War.

Fig. 23. Housing type of surveyed dwellings

H ouses A partm ent blocks Panel blocks

Forli

Ferreira

Vilnius

G eneva

Budapest

Bratislava

Bonn

Angers
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Type
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 15

2.2 The housing environment

In most – but not all – cities, the major part of the surveyed households has a garden or a shared
open or green space belonging to the building at their disposal. However, some problems of
maintenance and damage of the immediate housing environment are reported by the surveyors in
the cities (Fig. 24). The survey also showed that around 45% of the surveyed population is living
close to a street that was identified as busy and noisy by the independent survey teams.

Fig. 24. Conditions of the housing environment

Open or green space belonging to building

Dirty/littered housing area
No open space
Yes - commonly shared area
Yes - private garden
Vilnius
Vilnius
Geneva
Geneva
Forli
Forli
Ferreira
Ferreira
Budapest
Budapest

Bratislava Bratislava

Bonn Bonn

Angers Angers
0% 25% 50% 75% 0% 5% 10% 15%

The LARES survey collected data on residential amenities and conditions strongly linked with
social activities and the perception of security in the local area. Of the interviewed people, 30%
affirmed that there are not enough recreational areas or places to sit and relax in their immediate
housing environment. Fig. 25 shows that the lack of recreational spaces is valid for various target
groups, but most expressed for teenagers.

Fig. 25. Lack of recreational areas for specific age groups

All cities

Vilnius

Geneva

Forli

Ferreira

Budapest

Bratislava
Elderly
Bonn
Teenagers
Angers Children

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 16

2.3 General satisfaction with the dwelling and the neighbourhood area
Of all residents, 62.2% evaluate their dwelling as “good”, while 30.8% evaluate it as “average”.
Only 7% give a negative rating. The elderly, and to some extent also children and teenagers,
have a slightly more positive view on their dwelling but the variations are modest and range only
within a few percent.

Furthermore, the satisfaction of the residents with their dwelling seems only partially related to
tenure: Fig. 26 shows that the large majority of renters and owners is equally satisfied with the
dwelling, and differences can only be found within the less positive evaluations, uncovering that
10% of all households in rented dwellings are not satisfied with the dwelling conditions.

Fig. 26. Dwelling evaluation of residents by tenure

Good dwelling Average dwelling Bad dwelling

Rented 62.6 27.2 10.1

Owned 62.4 32.0 5.7

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Evaluation

Regarding the residential area, the evaluation by the households is slightly more positive than for
the dwelling. Only 7.3% are dissatisfied (bad and very bad area assessment), and 19.8% evaluate
their residential area as average, while for 72.8% the housing environment is satisfactory (good
and very good area assessment). Still, some modest variations exist in relation to the
neighbourhood type (Fig. 27).

Fig. 27. Evaluation of residential area types by households

Mixed
neighbourhood

Very good area

One family house
area Good area
Average area
Apartment block Bad area
area Very bad area

Panel block
housing estate

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 17

2.4 Residential satisfaction and perceived quality of life in a multi-level

approach
Which aspects of the housing condition determine whether people are satisfied with their
residential situation and how does this influence their overall well-being? This question underlies
a series of multi-level analyses into the association of household related aspects with individual
characteristics and judgments. The analyses considered environmental attributes on various
spatial scales and included both factual and perceived aspects. At macro level effects of city and
degree of urbanisation was accounted for, at micro level visual appearance and amount and
quality of green area were considered and at dwelling level type age of the building stock were
included as factual features. These were related to residents’ perception about environmental
quality such as noise exposure, air quality, dust exposure, the view from the dwelling, light
through windows and dampness problems. Special attention was paid to the impact of personal
characteristics such as age, SES, gender, length of residency.

Overall it shows that aspects of the environmental quality – both indoor and outdoor – determine
residential satisfaction and to a lesser degree well-being, whilst accounting for differences at city
level and differences due to demographic characteristics, age of building, and level of urbanisation.

Satisfaction with the dwelling is determined by most environmental quality characteristics

included in the analysis, such as the number of noise sources, availability and quality of green
areas and perceived air quality, dampness of the house, and satisfaction with the view and light.
Appearance of the neighbourhood (litter, graffiti etc.) is significantly associated with
dissatisfaction before, but not after adjustment, due to the strong association between type of
neighbourhood and appearance (see Fig. 28). Age, gender and SES are also significantly
associated with dwelling satisfaction. As found previously younger adults and men are less
satisfied with their homes than middle-aged and older adults and females, respectively.

Fig. 28. Unattractive visual appearance by neighbourhood type

60%

40%

20%

0%
Panel block Mainly Semi- Apartment Mixed Total
detached detached block

City, environmental quality aspects and perceived safety are important predictors of satisfaction
with the area. This pattern remains after adjustment for building age and level of urbanisation
and aspects as age, gender, SES and length of residency, meaning that including these variables
does not really add to the prediction of satisfaction with the area.
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 18

Only some environmental indicators are directly associated with lack of well-being, before and
after adjustment for confounders. The most important environmental aspects are number and
quality of green areas, dampness, dust and satisfaction with the light in the home. The influence
of building age and level of urbanisation (Fig. 29) is no longer significant after inclusion of
demographic aspects.
Fig. 29. Dissatisfaction with dwelling and area and lack of well-being by urbanisation level

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
Urban centre (Sub)urban Rural Total

Dissatisfied with dwelling Lack of well-being Dissatisfied with area

Women, elderly and households with low SES score significantly lower on the well-being index.
Dwelling satisfaction is a strong predictor of well-being. Some aspects (green areas, lack of a
view and air quality) indirectly influence well-being via dissatisfaction (Fig. 30), while other
indoor environmental qualities (lack of light, dampness, and dust) also have a direct link with
levels of well-being.
Fig. 30. Lack of green areas by urbanisation level

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
Urban centre (Sub)urban Rural Total

These results support previous findings that environmental quality is strongly associated with
residential satisfaction (house and area) and, be it to a lesser degree, well-being. The condition
and age of the housing stock and demographic features explain differences between cities to a
considerable degree. These results in broad lines confirm the already known residential
determinants of satisfaction and well-being. New is the notion that, in spite of some clear
differences between European cities, the pattern of correlations is stable across them. The
influence of indoor climate, light and the number and quality of green areas on well-being and
diagnosed health problems as fatigue and hypertension is noteworthy, as is the strong influence
of housing satisfaction on well-being.
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 19

3. Housing and health

3.1 Psychosocial benefits of home
Having an adequate home provides a variety of psychosocial benefits to the individual. The
knowledge to have a safe space into which one can always retreat provides the feeling of safety,
calm and stability. Fig. 31 shows that especially for the elderly, the home has a strong meaning
and provides them with a sense of control and safety.

Fig. 31. Psychosocial benefits of the home form all adults and by age groups

100%

90%

80%
All adults
70%
18–19
60% 20–39
50% 40–59

40% 60–79
above 80
30%

20%
10%

0%
Home means privacy Can do w hat I w ant Feeling of control My home feels safe

There were only small differences between residents living in rented and owned dwellings, as
well as between residents with physical handicaps and other residents. However, strong
differences were found in relation to housing quality (derived from the visual inspection), which
obviously has a huge potential to counteract the feeling of safety and control in one’s dwelling
(Table 2). The strongest contrast is found for the perception of the home as a safe place,
indicating that inadequate housing conditions are not capable to provide a safe harbour for the
individual. However, it is also likely that inadequate housing may be found more often in unsafe,
deteriorating neighbourhoods.

Table 2. Housing quality and psychosocial benefits

Psychosocial benefits High-quality Low-quality

housing (%) housing(%)
Home means privacy 90 76
Can do what I want 72 62
Feeling of control 77 59
My home feels safe 87 57

3.2 Mental effects of inadequate housing

The LARES survey has collected data on the mental health effects of deprived or inadequate
housing conditions. The first results seem to confirm existing knowledge that various aspects of
housing are associated with, and potentially may reinforce or enhance, social pathologies such as
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 20

depression, isolation, anxiety, etc. Due to the fact that the survey tool contained a specific tool on
depression, the analysis has focused on depression as one indicator of mental well-being. The
results have shown a variety of housing factors that are linked to an increased OR for trends of
depression, such as “missing daylight” (increasing the chance of depression by 60%); “bad view
out of window” (increase of 40%); “disturbance by noise” (increase of 40%); “sleep disturbance
by noise” (double chance for depression); “no place in the dwelling to be alone” (increase of
50%) and “extensive exposure to dampness and mould” with an increase of 60%.

The OR for trends of depression are close to the OR for depression diagnosed by a physician and
show that housing conditions may be involved in the development process of mental symptoms,
or can aggravate the consequences of such.

Furthermore, the LARES findings suggest that mental health may be positively influenced by:
• one-family houses, with some distance between neighbours: not too far (which gives a
feeling of isolation) and not too close (potential fear to be invaded);
• low floor levels (not higher than 4 floors);
• lack of deterioration inside the dwelling and in the immediate environment of the dwelling;
and
• availability of modern conveniences (hot water in kitchen and in bathroom, well-
ventilated, and sufficient number of toilets).

In addition it was found that the perception of control, enabling residents to be influential for the
housing or residential conditions, was a significant factor for the prevalence of anxiety or
depression.

3.3 Technical indoor aspects of the dwellings

3.3.1 Thermal comfort
Problems with the indoor temperatures are one of the most prominent housing issues identified
by the survey. Fig. 32 shows that a substantial amount of the surveyed population reports
frequent problems in all seasons, although cold temperatures provide most problems – 47% of all
households report too cold temperatures in winter and/or the transient season.

Fig. 32. Percentage of households reporting thermal problems by frequency and season

16%
14%
12%
Seldom
10%
Sometimes
8%
Often
6% Permanent
4%
2%
0%
Summer Transient season Winter
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 21

Of all households, 22.5% are dissatisfied with the thermal insulation of their dwelling, and the
major reasons for cold indoor temperature were reported to be not tight windows, the low
efficiency of heating systems, a lack of heating regulation, or the lack of heating equipment in
some rooms. Homes without central heating were more likely to report perceived temperature
problems, as well as those in which heating is not available in all rooms. Not tight windows and
single-glazed windows almost doubled the perception of temperature problems.

Due to characteristics of heating and insulation being related with building types, the results
showed that – compared to multi-family apartment blocks – panel block residents reported
significantly more, and one-family house residents reported significantly less problems with
indoor temperatures in the cold season.

Three quarters of all households have a central heating scheme providing warmth for the
dwelling. For the other dwellings, gas and electricity are the major materials used to heat the
dwellings. Still, each third household applies additional heating devices in some rooms, the
majority using electricity as energy source.

Of all households questioned, 40% reported to spend more than 10% of the annual disposable
household income for heating expenses – for 20% of all households the expenditure even
accounts for more than 20% of the annual income. Related to the economic conditions of the
households, the expenditure distribution shows large differences between the surveyed cities.
The survey data clearly shows that households living in the Eastern cities are facing the largest
challenge and are often exposed to a condition defined as “fuel poverty” (Fig. 33) 2. Almost half
of all households in the lowest SES group (47%) report indoor temperature problems in winter,
while the ratio is much lower (31%) in households of the highest SES group.

Fig. 33. Heating expenses in % of annual disposable income by city

10% –20% > 20%

Vilnius

G eneva

Forli

Ferreira

Budapest

Bratislava

Bonn

Angers

10% 20% 30% 40%

Households

2
For the identification of “fuel poor” households, the definition of fuel poverty applied in the United Kingdom has
been used. The United Kingdom definition considers households paying more than 10% of the household income on
all household fuel consumption as fuel poor (DEFRA, 2004: Fuel poverty action plan for England). Currently there
seems to exist no official definition of fuel poverty in any other EU country, so the British definition has been used
as an indicator of potential socioeconomic limitations regarding energy and heating supply.
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 22

In general terms, thermal comfort-related problems such as cold indoor temperatures, problems
with the heating system or inadequate insulation were mostly associated with respiratory
problems. Children (0–17 years of age) showed a double prevalence for respiratory problems in
homes with low quality of the heating system (OR = 2.1/CI 1–4.4), while elderly (65 years and
older) showed increased respiratory problems when living in dwellings with subjectively
perceived cold temperature in winter (OR = 2/CI 1–3.8) or inadequate insulation (OR = 2.4/CI
1.1–5.4). For the elderly, there was also a significantly higher reporting of arthritis in homes that
were perceived as cold in winter (OR = 1.9/CI 1.2–3.2).

Problems with indoor temperature in winter and transient seasons are significantly associated
with diagnosed acute bronchitis and pneumonia. Furthermore, thermal problems in winter are
associated with diagnosed cold/throat illness, multiple allergies, asthma attack and asthma
prevalence.

The general perception of thermal problems in the dwelling was strongly associated with bad
self-reported health (OR = 2.6/CI 2.1–3.1). Further associations of thermal problems were found
for hypertension, cold and throat diseases, diagnosed allergies and for asthma.

Residents in dwellings with not tight roofs and not tight or single-glazed windows had an OR of
2.4 (CI 2–3) for bad self-reported health and showed an increased association with hypertension
but no significant increase for asthma (all results adjusted for gender, SES, age and smoking).

3.3.2 Natural lighting and view

In every third dwelling it is necessary to turn on the light during the day and each fourth
household is dissatisfied with the amount of natural light. Mainly in neighbourhoods dominated
by panel/apartment blocks, residents complain about the window view.

Most often, the affected households live in the oldest buildings (before 1945) and the lowest
floors.

Significant associations have been found between the lack of natural daylight, the dissatisfaction
with the view and diseases such as depression. The following effects are related to the lack of
indoor natural daylight:
• trends of depression: OR = 1.6 (CI 1.4–1.8);
• diagnosed chronic anxiety or depression: OR = 1.6 (CI 1.3–1.9); and
• depression or chronic anxiety related to flat: OR = 2.6 (1.9–3.7), which is related to those
residents that do not only report being sick but also report the dwelling condition as a
potential causal factor.

3.3.3 Indoor air quality

Of the interviewed households, 10% are dissatisfied with the indoor air quality in their dwelling
(Fig. 34). The major reasons for dissatisfaction are dust (mentioned in 45% of all cases of
dissatisfaction), outside air pollution (42%), smells and odours (33%) and dryness (25%).
However, detailed analysis showed that air quality dissatisfaction was strongly related to
dwellings in which (a) the windows were not tight, (b) humidity and condensation was
identified, and (c) mould growth was reported.
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 23

Fig. 34. Perception of indoor air quality

3%
7%
22%

22%

Very dissatisfied
Dissatisfied
Average
Satisfied
46% Very satisfied

Of the dwellings, 40% have no ventilation system, and from the existing ventilation systems only
one out of three can be regulated by the residents. Of the households living in dwellings with
such a system, 25% report being dissatisfied with it. In general terms, 32% of all households
complained about moving air/draught in winter due to not tight or low-quality windows.

The problem with a lack of ventilation is mostly related to housing types (one-family houses lack
adequate ventilation systems most often while they are rather frequent in multi-family buildings)
and the age of the buildings (buildings built before the oil crisis in the early 1970s are more often
unequipped with adequate ventilation systems).

Inadequate ventilation characteristics of the dwelling are associated with an increase of asthma
(OR = 1.5/CI 1.1–2.2), accounting for age, gender, SES and smoking. In addition, the survey
found that gas water heaters that are not connected/ventilated to the outside are associated with
an increased OR of 2.2 (CI 1.1–4.4) for acute asthma attacks.

According to the answers of the households, only 30% of the dwellings are exposed to
environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), not including those smokers that leave the dwelling when
smoking. Nevertheless, indoor contamination with ETS takes place in 25% of the bedrooms for
adults and in 3.5% of children bedrooms (Fig. 35).

For ETS exposure, the most relevant result showed an OR of 2.6 (CI 1.2–5.3) for acute
bronchitis or pneumonia in children younger than 12 years living in homes of smokers.
Fig. 35. Exposure to ETS in the surveyed dwellings

Sm ok e d cigar e tte s in th e d w e lling (s e lf- Re s ide n ts s le e pin g in ETS-e xp os e d r o o m s

r e po r te d ) in % o f all h ou s e h old s (s e lf-r e p o r te d) s m o k in g h o us e ho lds
80% 100%

70% 90%

80%
60% A dults
70% Children
50%
Households

60%
40%
50%
30% 40%

20% 30%

10% 20%

10%
0%
No 1 to 5 6 to 15 16 and 0%
s moking more Nev er Sometimes A lw ay s
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 24

Despite the fact that smoking showed strong associations with individual characteristics (such as
age, education, employment etc.), the findings also reveal an impact of neighbourhood quality
and disorder (quantified through the amount of graffiti and litter and the lack of greenery on
housing grounds and facades). Taking the relevant individual factors into consideration, there
was still an independent effect of neighbourhood disorder on smoking prevalence that did
increase with the degree of neighbourhood problems: residential areas with “moderate disorder”
showed an OR of 1.3 (CI 1–1.7), while residential areas with “high disorder” showed an OR of
1.5 (CI 1.1–2.1).

3.3.4 Dampness and mould

According to the dwelling inspection of the surveyors, visible mould growth was detected in at
least one room of almost 25% of all visited dwellings, with highest mould occurrence rates in
kitchens (10.5% of all dwellings) and bathrooms (14% of all dwellings). Statistical associations
with the presence of visual mould growth can be found for building characteristics such as (a)
smells of dampness and condensation signs, (b) building age (old buildings have higher
likelihood of moulds), (c) floor level (mould is more prevalent on ground level and in the
basement), (d) permanent problems with temperature along the seasons, and (e) cold indoor
temperatures in winter and the use of additional heating devices. As well, there is an association
between the size of the dwelling and the size of the respective household (the smaller the
dwelling and the larger the household, the more likely the presence of mould). However, the
LARES data does not provide an indication that ventilation is associated with visual mould
growth.

Some associations have been found between exposure factors such as mould growth and
dampness, and the health status of the residents.

The main results for exposure to mould and damp (measured by a common index and adjusted
for age, gender, SES, city, smoking and ETS exposure) are displayed below.
• Asthma: OR = 1.6 (CI 1.2–2.3)
• Bronchitis: OR = 1.9 (CI 2–3)
• Arthritis: OR = 1.3 (CI 1–1.7)
• Anxiety and depression: OR = 1.6 (CI 1.3–2.2)
• Migraine: OR = 1.7 (CI 1.3–2.2)
• Cold: OR = 1.4 (CI 1.2–1.7)
• Diarrhea: OR = 1.5 (CI 1.2–2)

Furthermore, residents living in mould-exposed dwellings were significantly more likely to

report their health status as bad (OR = 1.7/CI 1.4–2) than residents living in dwelling with no
visual mould growth identified.

3.3.5 Noise exposure and sleep

Only 45% of all surveyed households reported not being disturbed by noise in their dwelling
(with closed windows). 15.7% report being disturbed seldom, while 18.3% define the
disturbance as “sometimes”. 13.4% of all households feel disturbed rather often, while 7.5%
report a permanent disturbing exposure to noise within the dwelling.

In general terms, the most relevant sources of noise perceived in the dwellings are traffic (38%
of all surveyed households report traffic noise as a problem), neighbours and neighbouring flats
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 25

(32%), parking (17%), aircraft noise (13%) and noise from the surrounding area and businesses
in the neighbourhood (11%).

Of all questioned residents, 24% reported that noise exposure at night is a reason for sleep
disturbance. Depending on the city, some differences can be observed: the percentage of
residents reporting a noise-disturbed sleep ranges from 16.5% in Ferreira to 30% in Budapest.
Fig. 36 shows that – except for Budapest – there is some relation between sleep disturbance
caused by noise, and the distribution of the noise exposure in general.

Fig. 36. Percentage of residents reporting sleep disturbance due to noise and percentage of households
reporting exposure to noise in the dwelling (sometimes, often and permanent)

Vilnius
Geneva
Bratislava
Angers
All cities
Bonn
Budapest
Forli Noise exposure
Ferreira Noise-disturbed sleep

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

In most of the cases, the disturbance of sleep is attributable to excessive noise coming from
traffic, neighbour flats, parking and surrounding areas (Fig. 37). Detailed analysis showed that
residents living close to busy streets are significantly more likely to be sleep disturbed.

Fig. 37. Sleep disturbance in adult residents: main sources of disturbing noise

70
Traffic Neighbor flat Parking
60 Surrounding areas Animals Staircase use
% of people with sleep disturbance

50

40

30

20

10

0
Angers Bonn Bratislava Budapest Ferreira Forli Geneva Vilnius All cities
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 26

Furthermore, the results show that noise exposure is also a question of social inequity.
Households with the lowest SES score were two times more often disturbed by noise in their
dwellings than households with the highest score. Consequently, noise-induced sleep
disturbances were significantly more often (OR = 1.6/CI 1.4–2.0) reported by poor households.
57% of the households assume that part of the noise disturbance is caused by an insufficient
sound insulation of their dwelling, and especially of the windows (indicated by 45% of the
households complaining about the dwelling insulation), followed by ceilings (40%) and walls to
other dwellings and staircases (32%).

In average, the surveyed LARES population sleeps 7.5 hours per night. However, there are large
variations that can be identified for different age groups (Fig. 38), and – in relation to health –
for residents with mental conditions as well as noise exposure at night (Fig. 39).

Fig. 38. Average sleeping hours per night by age group

10
Sleeping hours per night

7
0–4
5–9

15–19
20–24
25–29
30–34
35–39
40–44
45–49
50–54
55–59
60–64
65–69
10–14

70–74
75–79
80–84
≥ 85

Age groups (years)

The comparison below shows that adults with diagnosed and medicated depression sleep longer
than adults with trends of depression that are not medically treated. In parallel, the results show
(a) the relevance of night noise exposure, which shortens sleep in comparison to all adults (and
especially in comparison to healthy adults), and (b) the impact of sleep disturbance problems in
general terms (i.e., not related to noise), which seems to be more severe than slight trends of
depression.
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 27

Fig. 39. Sleeping hours for adults – comparing mental conditions and noise disturbance

No trends of depression 7.37

Depression diagnosed and medicated 7.16

All adults 7.12

Sleep disturbed by noise 6.94

Slight trends of depression 6.76

Sleep disturbance 6.45

Strong trends of depression 6.07

4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0

Hours per night

A variety of strong links have been found between sleep disturbance and sleep disturbed by
noise, and the health status. Below are some of the most relevant results for adult residents:
1. sleep disturbance:
– hypertension: OR = 2.4 (CI 2.1–2.7)
– depression diagnosed by a physician: OR = 5.2 (CI 4.3–6.3)
– frequent migraine: OR = 3.2 (CI 2.7–3.8)
– gastric or duodenal ulcer: OR = 2.7 (CI 2.2–3.3)
– asthma: OR = 1.6 (CI 1.2–2.1)
– attack of asthma: OR = 2.1 (CI 1.4–3.0)
– fatigue: OR = 4.1 (CI 3.4–4.9)
– trends of depression: OR = 28.0 (CI 23.9–32.9)
2. sleep disturbed by noise
– frequent migraine: OR = 1.5 (CI 1.3–1.8)
– chronic allergy: OR = 1.5 (CI 1.2–1.7)
– asthma: OR = 1.6 (CI 1.2–2.2)
– gastric or duodenal ulcer: OR = 1.7 (CI 1.4–2.2)
– attack of asthma: OR = 1.7 (CI 1.2–2.5)
– fatigue: OR = 1.6 (CI 1.3–1.9)
– trends of depression: OR = 2.1 (CI 1.8–2.4)
– accidents: OR = 1.6 (CI 1.4–1.9).
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 28

3.3.6 Sanitary installations

Some basic hygiene and sanitation equipments do not exist in all of the dwellings: bathrooms
and toilets are missing in 3% and kitchen in 1% of the surveyed dwellings, with an unequal
repartition between the cities (most often, it is due to old houses in which bathrooms are outside
in the yard or have to be shared with other residential units).

Access to water and hot water is available in 99% of all dwellings. Roughly 50% of all dwellings
do not have an exhaust system above the cooking place (for dwellings with gas stoves, this figure
is slightly lower – 47% – and only 56% of these exhaust systems are connected to the outside).
There is a gas water heater in 21% of the kitchens but one in five heaters is not connected to the
outside and can be assessed as dangerous. According to the inspection done by the surveyors,
each fourth dwelling does not have sufficient workspace in the kitchen.

There are no windows in 58% of the bathrooms, and Fig. 40 shows that 15% of the bathrooms
without window do not have any ventilation system.

Fig. 40. Ventilation systems in bathrooms without window

No ventilation
(15%)

Forced
ventilation Free
(25%) ventilation
(60%)

Detailed analysis shows the importance of adequate ventilation means in the bathroom, as the
general prevalence of moulds in bathrooms (14%) strongly increases for bathrooms with no
ventilation system (18.5%) and is highest for bathrooms without ventilation system and without
window (22.7%). Bathrooms without windows that are equipped with a forced ventilation
system only have a mould prevalence of 10%.

Roughly 10% of all bathrooms are equipped with a gas water heater, of which – similar to the
kitchens – each fifth is not connected to the outside.

3.3.7 Infestations
According to the information of the households, only 62% of all dwellings have been exposed to
pests or infestations in the 12 months prior to the survey. This figure might be related to the fact
that the sample contained many dwellings located in multi-family housing blocks (one
infestation in the building may affect several households). Fig. 41 shows that ants and flies are
among the most frequent pest types, followed by cockroaches and mice.
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 29

Fig. 41. Infestation rates for pest types during the last 12 months

30%

25%

20%
15%
10%

5%

0%

gs

er
ts

ts
s

s
s
ice

he

ea

ie
Ra

An

th
u

Fl
M

db
Fl
ac

O
Be
ro
ck
Co

Detailed analysis for cockroaches, one of the most health-relevant pests with strong impacts on
allergies, showed that a variety of housing faults are associated with cockroach presence. For
example, there is an increased risk for cockroach infestation in apartment blocks when there is a
waste chute in the staircase, or in case of kitchen windows that do not close tightly.

The size of the apartment block does also matter, as the risks for cockroach infestation were
higher in large multifamily buildings with more than 6 dwellings (OR = 2.3/CI: 0.98–5.4) and in
panel block buildings (OR = 2.9/CI: 1.3–6.8) than in small multifamily buildings with up to 6
dwellings. Vice versa, the survey found that for those dwellings in multifamily housing which
were maintained by private cleaning services (compared to public sector responsibility), the risk
for infestations was decreased by more than 50%.

8.2% of all households reported that in the recent year, non-chemical physical traps were used in
their dwelling to get rid of the infestations. In 8.6% of the dwellings, baits for ingestion by the
pests were laid out, and 28% of all households used insecticide spray or contact poison to control
infestations.

3.3.8 Accessibility
In 76% of all dwellings, there are doorsteps in the dwelling that can provide dangerous spots for
children, elderly and residents with physical or visual constraints. Furthermore, seven in ten
residential buildings have steps or height differences at their main entrance, and 72% of the
dwellings are not easily accessible for people with wheelchair, or with walking aids like canes
etc. 30% of all residents with functional constraints – and 10% of all residents without
constraints but possibly some mobility limitations – affirm that they cannot make a normal use of
their dwelling due to their age or general fitness.

Of the questioned residents, 6% state that they would need specific home modifications and
adaptations in order to make the best-possible use of the dwelling. Although 6% seems to be a
rather low number, this result is important as it is mostly related to the relatively small group of
residents with functional limitations. Within this specific group, the ratio of residents requiring
such home modifications is significantly increased and as high as 18%. The highest demand is
found for the elderly suffering from mobility constraints: one in four residents in this group
express a direct request for home modifications to be done.
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 30

The most required adaptations needed by handicapped residents are linked with changes in
bathrooms and toilets to make them more accessible and comfortable, with the accessibility of
the building or the dwelling, or with the enlargement of doors and the adaptation of windows etc.
(Fig. 42).

In addition to the dwelling, residents with physical constraints are also disadvantaged in outside
activities and mobility and report an increased dissatisfaction with the availability of public
transportation services and the accessibility of shopping or service centres. Still, handicapped
people preferred the use of public transportation to mobility by car.
Fig. 42. Required home modifications in dwellings of handicapped residents
Other
(11.5%)
Changes in
kitchen Changes in
(4.8%) bathroom
install handrails/ (33.7%)
balustrade/
banister
(5.3%)

Extend/ Enlarge
doors and adapt
w indow s
(11.1%)

Adapt staircase,
steps; build Build a lif t or
ramp change lif t
(13.9%) (19.7%)

3.3.9 Home accidents and security issues

Almost 25% of all surveyed residents have had a home accident during the year prior to the
survey, with a number of ca. 3200 accidents reported in total (some individuals reporting two or
more accidents). Although self-help was in most cases sufficient to deal with the resulting
injuries, these accidents lead to 390 visits to a doctor and 131 hospitalizations. The most frequent
accident types are cuts, followed by falls and burns (Fig. 43).
Fig. 43. Occurrence of most frequent home accidents by city

25%
Falls Burns Cuts
20%
Population

15%

10%

5%

0%
nn

st

va

s
va

rli
rs

ira

iu
pe

Fo
ge

la

e
Bo

rre

ln
en
is

da
An

Vi
Fe
at

G
Bu
Br
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 31

Analysis results showed that housing conditions are strongly related to the risk of accidents and
injuries. The more dangerous spots were reported by the housing inspection carried out by
trained survey teams, the higher was the number of accidents in the respective household.

Predictor variables and coefficients for all accidents are linked with age (the youngest and oldest
residents experience relatively more accidents), gender (females suffer from accidents more
often), functional limitations (people with constraints have more accidents), dwelling design and
layout (crowded households and lack of kitchen workspace lead to increased accident numbers),
lighting (bad light is associated with more accidents), and with noise at night and fatigue (more
noise and less sleep is related to more accidents) (Fig. 44).

Fig. 44. ORs for all accident types

2.0
1.74

1.46
1.5 1.33 1.39
1.26 1.3
1.17 1.19
Coefficient (Exp B)

1.0

0.5

0.0

s? g? e? p'
? d? e? ht
?
m in ac ca ire al ig
ro
o ht p d i t m n
w lig r ks an rly Fe at
fe oor wo l 'h ula i sy
g
To
o P le
sic
a
Re No
litt y
o
To Ph

Of the dwellings, 22% are equipped with electrical installations that are not at all or only
partially earthed. Furthermore, only 9% of the buildings and dwellings are equipped with a fire
detection device although one interviewed resident out of three thinks that the household
members cannot easily escape from the house in case of fire in the building. More than 25% of
the households reported the existence of places or items in the dwelling that are especially
dangerous for children (Fig. 45), while the surveyors found generally unsafe spots (unfixed
carpets, open electricity installations, etc.) in many rooms of the dwellings. Another key problem
identified is the safety of stairs and steps within dwellings, where – different from staircases in
apartment blocks for which a regulation exists – 30% of all stairs are insufficiently equipped
with railings and balustrades.
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 32

Fig. 45. Main sites and items assessed as dangerous for children by the household

Stairc as e, railing, doors tep, s lippery

f loors
Kitc hen utens ils or c ooker, ov en

Balc ony , terrac e

Elec tric al ins tallations , s oc kets , iron

W indow s , glas s

Radiator, heater, f ireplac e

Cleaning produc ts , medic ine

Furniture: tables , s of a, c hairs , bed, doors

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%

3.4 The housing environment

The immediate housing environment represents the “extended” living space of each household
and also shapes the residential quality of life. The LARES survey has looked into the housing
environment in detail and has found a number of effects on health, well-being and residential
satisfaction. Among the most relevant residential factors were noise from traffic, neighbours and
public areas, the perception of fear and crime indicating the social dimension of the
neighbourhood, the availability of residential amenities such as parks and playgrounds etc., and
the general level of maintenance of the residential area (graffiti, pollution, etc.).

3.4.1 Playgrounds, green spaces and perceived safety

Next to the key problems of noise and perceived safety (which are dealt with in other parts of
this document), the LARES survey identified a third residential area challenge: the lack of
recreational facilities for children, teenagers and the elderly, and the resulting impact on the
residential quality and the satisfaction with the living area. Taking the example of recreational
areas for children, the survey found that the households which live in a neighbourhood with
enough recreational areas for children report a low level of dissatisfaction with the residential
area (21%), while the ratio is more than double (47%) for households living in neighbourhoods
with an insufficient provision of such spaces. The biggest problem with a lack of playgrounds
exists in one-family house areas while – most likely related to the increased population density –
it is less a problem in multi-family house areas (Fig. 46). However, the chart also shows that the
provision of play areas is not exclusively a quantitative, but also a qualitative issue: not all
parents would allow their children to use the existing playgrounds, which is most likely due to
quality, safety and visual impression of the play areas.

In the specific case of elderly residents, the data showed that it is most of all a lack of places for
social exchange that is considered a problem.
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 33

Fig. 46. Existence and acceptance of playgrounds for children by neighbourhood type

30 27.4
25 23.4
19.2
20
Percentage

13.8 13.5
15
10.7
9.3
10 7.8

0
Panel block Mainly apartment Mixed Mainly one-family
neighbourhoods blocks neighbourhoods houses

no playgrounds children not allowed to use the existing playgrounds

Connected to the lack of recreational areas, there is a general issue with the physical activity
within neighbourhoods. The LARES data provides evidence that the residential environment and
its perceived quality are associated with physical activity and – to some extent – with the
prevalence of obesity in adults (the BMI percentiles for children could not be applied within the
LARES data set). Perception of incivilities and a lack of maintenance, indicating insecurity in
the residential area, and the existence of greenery in the neighbourhood are both associated with
the level of physical exercise of the respective area’s residents. The trend displayed remains
valid after adjustment for SES, age and gender, showing that the quality of the residential area
has a direct impact on lifestyle and behaviour.

In-depth analyses found that in women, the perception of safety increased the odds of occasional
or frequent exercise by 22% and 40% respectively, while in men an increase was only found for
occasional exercise (39%) but not for frequent exercise. This confirms that women are more
affected by the perception of safety than men, and suggests that especially occasional exercise –
which is more public-health relevant than frequent exercise of active sportsmen and women – is
promoted or constrained by the residential environment conditions.

The LARES data shows various impacts of incivilities on physical activity, which could operate
through the above mentioned mechanisms of perceived safety. Such incivilities can be of
physical nature (deterioration of houses/gardens, graffiti, broken windows, litter etc.) or of social
nature (signs of violence, anti-social behaviour, crime), and have a large impact on the quality of
life of the residents. In neighbourhoods affected by such problems, there was a significantly
decreased level of physical activity as well as a significantly increased level of obesity. In the
LARES data set, only 59% of all residents questioned reported feeling safe when returning at
home in the dark, while 22% only feel safe to a limited extent and 19% do not feel safe at all
(women are slightly more affected).

High variations for this perception of fear were found in relation to cities and neighbourhoods,
with a higher percentage of residents feeling insecure in the Eastern cities than elsewhere.
However, there was some kind of consensus regarding the reasons for feeling unsafe, which are
mostly related to crime rates and dangerous, dark areas in which residents feel like an easy
victim, and insufficient police presence (Fig. 47).
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 34

Fig. 47. Reasons for the perception of insecurity in the residential area at night

Increasing crime, robberies

Bad lighting, darkness, parks, forests
Insufficient police patrols, low public safety
Bad neighbourhood, incivilities
General fear, insecurity in general
Alcohol and drug abuse, prostitution
Aggression, violence have taken place
Hooligans, vandalism, brawls, homeless
Thefts, burglaries, thieves
Foreigners, immigrants, gypsies

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%

People feeling insecure

3.4.2 Residential quality and health

Based on all housing environment information gathered from the residents and the survey teams,
a housing environment index was developed as a composite indicator of the residential quality.
The index reflected a variety of problems such as noise; graffiti, trash and litter; lack of green
and public spaces or playgrounds; perceived security; and the general evaluation of the
residential area. This composite indicator was strongly associated with the self-rated health status
of the residents, and the worst housing environment category provides a significant OR decrease
(OR = 0.8/CI 0.7–0.97) for good self-rated health even after adjustment for SES, age, gender and
city (Fig. 48).

Fig. 48. OR for good self-rated health status in relation to housing environment categories

1.20

1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00
Best Good Average Bad
Housing environment

The residential characteristics (graffiti, litter, no place to sit and relax, not enough greenery) are
not only associated with measurable health outcomes, but are most relevant for satisfaction,
annoyance, well-being and quality of life outcomes. The major direct health effects that can be
associated to individual residential characteristics are displayed below and show the magnitude
of health-relevant conditions within the housing environment:
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 35

• low self-rated health status:

– traffic noise: OR = 1.3 (CI 1.1–1.7)
– Litter and trash: OR = 1.3 (CI 1.0–1.6)
– feeling of insecurity in the area at night: OR = 1.6 (CI 1.3–1.9)
• sleep disturbance:
– not enough play areas for kids: OR = 1.3 (CI 1.1–1.5)
– traffic noise: OR = 6.4 (CI 5.4–7.7)
– surrounding area noise: OR = 6.0 (CI 4.2–8.7)
• depression:
– traffic noise: OR = 1.4 (CI 1.1–1.7)
– surrounding area noise: OR = 2.1 (CI 1.5–3.0)
– feeling of insecurity in the area at night: OR = 1.3 (CI 1.1–1.6)
• cardiovascular symptoms:
– feeling of insecurity in the area at night: OR = 1.2 (CI 1.0–1.5).

Traffic noise, considered as a causal factor for cardiovascular effects, provided an even higher
OR for cardiovascular symptoms (OR=1.24) but the lower CI level was at 0.98 only.
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 36

4. Summary
The descriptive results of the survey provided in this document have shown that housing and
health interact with each other in various ways. Associations can be found in many technical
areas, sometimes supporting and sometimes extending current knowledge. The survey therefore
provided evidence that – irrespective of individual and sectoral issues – housing conditions are
related to health and well-being.

Fig. 49 describes the general association between the quality of the dwelling (as assessed by the
residents) and the self-reported health status of all surveyed residents. The data clearly shows
that a decreased quality of the dwelling is associated with decreased health.

Fig. 49. Housing conditions and self-reported health status – full LARES sample

Good health Fair health Bad health

Dwelling assessment

Bad 43.9 39.4 16.8

Average 48.1 41.0 11.0

Good 70.7 24.6 4.7

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Fig. 50 shows the same chart for the highest SES-group, in which socioeconomic conditions
should have no impact on housing quality anymore and for which poverty and purchase power
should not have a direct bearing on housing conditions. Nevertheless, we find – as within other
SES-groups – a gradient between housing and health. The gradient is less expressed, but still
existing.

Fig. 50. Housing conditions and self-reported health status – highest SES group

Good health Fair health Bad health

Good 79.7 17.7 1.5

Dwelling assessment

Average 60.4 33.8 5.1

Bad 32.1 60.4 7.5

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 37

In similar terms, the health status is associated with a general “physical housing quality score”
that has been developed based on the results of the visual dwelling inspection by the survey
teams. The housing quality score is therefore not affected by potentially biased perceptions and
attitudes of residents. In addition, it is based on “hard” data such as the physical condition of the
dwelling, e.g. windows, doors, walls, floors and ceilings. Perceptive data such as noise or air
quality has not been integrated in this score.

Fig. 51 shows that almost one fourth of all residents living in dwellings of lowest quality report
their health status as bad or very bad, while this is only true for 6.2% of the residents living in
dwellings with no symptom of decay. Vice versa, the ratio of “very healthy” residents increases
by a factor of more than three in high-quality dwellings when compared with low-quality
dwellings.

Fig. 51. Housing quality score and self-reported health status – all households

Most 4.5 25.3 47.2 16.6

Housing deprivation

6.5 Very good

Some 7.9 37.1 41.6 11.0 Good
2.4 Fair
Little 10.8 46.1 35.3 5.6 Bad
2.1 Very bad
None 14.8 47.2 31.9 5.2
1.0

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

The tenure status (dwelling owned or rented) had little impact on the housing quality score, as
for all four deprivation categories the percentages for owned and rented dwellings differ only by
2% or 3% However, a considerable impact was identified for the economic position of the
household: while the percentage of households living in high-quality dwellings is double for
households without problems to pay housing expenses, it is decreased by almost a factor of four
for the category with most deprivation symptoms (Fig. 52). The LARES data therefore clearly
indicates that poverty is strongly related to bad housing conditions, and may – to an extent that
cannot be quantified – be at the source of various health problems.

Fig. 52. Housing quality score and economic housing problems – all households

No deprivation Little deprivation Some deprivation Most deprivation

No problem to pay
44.3% 35.1% 15.2%
housing expenses
5.4%

Problem to pay
22.2% 30.3% 27.2% 20.4%
housing expenses

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 38

Rather similar results are found for socioeconomic status of the households, which is strongly
associated with the deprivation category of the dwellings (Fig. 53).

Fig. 53. Housing quality score and SES score, all households

100%
90%
80%
70%
Most deprivation
60%
Some deprivation
50%
Little deprivation
40%
30% No deprivation
20%
10%
0%
Lowest Low Average High Highest
SES score

All in all, the results suggest that bad housing does affect health and that the socioeconomic
status is only one out of several mechanisms to explain this link. While it is therefore necessary
to acknowledge that SES plays a major role in the housing-health relationship, it remains to be
discussed through which mechanisms exactly the impact of inadequate housing is realized in
pragmatic terms. The mechanisms of this housing and health relationship are – most likely –
diverse and interactive, and relate to one or more of the existing housing threats described in
earlier sections of this document.

The findings of the WHO LARES therefore clearly indicate two major points:
• inadequate housing can be considered as one of the possible mechanisms through which
poverty can affect health and well-being of the population, especially for vulnerable and
marginalized population groups; and
• irrespective of poverty and socioeconomic issues, and therefore valid for all population
groups, housing problems having direct or indirect health relevance can be found in
dwellings. They are mainly linked to insufficient construction and maintenance, but also
residential lifestyle.

Action on housing and health can therefore be taken to achieve two objectives:
1. improvement of inadequate housing in general as a means to mitigate social and health
inequities within a population; and
2. improvement of specific key housing problems as a preventive strategy against housing-
related health effects and injuries.
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 39

5. Conclusion
The WHO pan-European LARES survey in eight cities points out a number of emerging or
existing housing problems. It provides evidence that housing and health is a complex interaction,
and covers a variety of health-relevant housing factors that have so far been neglected or
underestimated. In each city as well as for the whole sample, there are important and health-
relevant trends (accessibility and ageing, noise and sleep, mental health, accidents, heating and
fuel poverty, allergies, perceived safety, indoor air and moulds, physical activity etc.) that need
to be considered in both public health and housing policies.

Human beings spend a large part of their life at home. Thus, the exposure facilitated through
housing conditions is the longest in the human life cycle, exacerbating the threats of bad
conditions of housing on health. In addition, the vulnerable parts of any population (the sick, the
elderly, the children, the unemployed and the poor) are the ones most exposed – both on a
quantitative level (more time spent at home) and a qualitative level (worse housing conditions).

Looking back in time, the housing stock development does not match the social changes and the
gain in life expectancy of the last decades. Today, people spend years and years in dwellings that
have not been designed to meet the needs and lifestyles of the moment as well as the needs and
lifestyles of the future.

Societal changes and the ageing of the population lead to new challenges in the housing stock,
such as home care, home function adaptation, and healthy and hygienic homes. However, it is
difficult to adapt the housing stock, for which the average “annual renewal rate” by new housing
construction is at 1–1.5%, to meet the fast-changing needs of modern societies characterized by
social and demographic changes, increased mobility, and changing household sizes and social
paradigms. A house built in 2005 may last for 100 years to come, and will see three to four
generations living in it. Roughly 50% of the housing stock that some European countries will
have in 2050 is already built today. These data illustrate that the challenge of healthy housing
will not cease, but will remain for the future and will require constant adaptation of the housing
stock.

Urgent action on housing issues is therefore necessary – both on short-term and long-term
perspectives – to provide adequate housing and social stability to countries, regions and cities.
The report at hand has identified a number of problems faced by the housing stock in European
countries, and calls for immediate action by local and national housing authorities and health
agencies.

Even if more precise results have to be explored, the WHO LARES affirms that the main
features of housing impacting health are often, but not exclusively, linked with thermal comfort,
indoor air quality (dampness, moulds, indoor emissions, infestations etc.), noise, environmental
barriers, home safety, and the social and physical quality of the housing as well as the immediate
environment.

The results of the survey provided additional evidence to ground the development of strong
policy measures aiming at the following objectives:
• objective 1: reducing exposure:
– reduction of the prevalence of fuel poverty
– reduction of noise exposure in the home
Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 40

– reduction of exposure to harmful indoor compounds (e.g. mould or indoor pollutants);

• objective 2: tackling key housing-related health effects:
– prevention of home accidents
– reduction of respiratory diseases, allergies and asthma
– minimization of depression and social pathologies
– mitigation of the obesity epidemic and physical inactivity;
• objective 3: Improving the accessibility and usability of housing:
– adaptation of housing to the needs of elderly and functionally limited residents.

These objectives can be reached through:

• adequate and evidence-based interventions in the housing stock and the construction
sector;
• information and awareness campaigns on healthy housing and healthy living; and
• addressing inequities in housing policies and housing conditions.

To achieve these objectives, it will become increasingly relevant to consider housing as an

substantial element of public health and social welfare, and to integrate health aspects into
strategies of sustainable housing construction and neighbourhood or urban planning.

Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being

and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

Housing is the conjunction of dwelling, home, immediate environment and community.

The role of public health is to provide circumstances under which people can be healthy.
 Large analysis and review of European housing and health status
page 41

6. Sources and information products

LARES-related publications, reports and products developed by the WHO Housing and
Health programme and the experts of the LARES consortium (as of October 2011).

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2. Arndt, W.-H. Barrierefreie Mobilität. Schriften des Fachgebietes Integrierte Verkehrsplanung.

Technische Universität Berlin, 2005.

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5. Bonnefoy, X., Braubach, M., Moissonnier, B., Monolbaev, K., Röbbel, N. Housing and health in
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93:1559–1563.

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7. Bonnefoy X et al. Review of evidence on housing and health. Background document for the Fourth
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9. Bonnefoy X, Braubach M, Röbbel N. Wohnbedingungen und ihre Auswirkungen auf die Gesundheit.
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10. Bonnefoy X, Braubach M. The case of panel block buildings. European Bulletin on Environment and
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19. Braubach M., Power A., Housing Conditions and Risk: Reporting on a European Study of Housing
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20. Brown, MJ., Jacobs, DE., Residential Light and Risk for Depression and Falls: Results from the
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30. Housing and health: Identifying priorities. Meeting report. Copenhagen, WHO Regional Office for
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46. Niemann H, Maschke C, Hecht K., Fluglärmbelästigung und Erkrankungsrisiko – Teil-Ergebnisse aus
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For further information on LARES, please visit:

• www.euro.who.int/housing
• www.euro.who.int/en/what-we-do/health-topics/environment-and-health/Housing-and-
health/activities/the-large-analysis-and-review-of-european-housing-and-health-status-
lares-project