An & Gower (2009)

Then, Responsibility frame, which suggest that in times of crisis, the media seemed to attribute

blames to certain individuals or groups (An & Gower, 2009).

Bateson (1972), Goffman (1974)

Frame (or framework), a concept borrowed from Bateson (1972), was defined by Goffman (1974)

as a set of organized principles and rules or schemas which individuals use to define the world

around them.

Boaz (2005)

Boaz (2005) aimed to answer the question of who were considered to be the most relevant

sources in the discourse of war.

Boaz (2005) referred to this as the Ameri-centric view, where American media (in this case, the

Time magazine) tended to incorporate American political actors and military sources which in

turn, excluded international voices in the discourse.

Boaz (2005), Freyenberger (2013), Wang (2015), Yu (2015), Duan & Takashi (2016)

Boaz (2005), Freyenberger (2013), Wang (2015), Yu (2015), Duan and Takashi (2016) cross-

cultural analyzed the different news frames on varying events or topics.

Boesman, Berbers, d’Haenens & Gorp (2017)

The presence of human interest frames were also found in Boesman, Berbers, d’Haenens and

Gorp’s (2017) study.

Boyle & Mower (2018)

Boyle and Mower (2018) have studied the utilization of media package in the news articles.

Boyle & Mower (2018), Entman (2007)

identified through the inclusion and exclusion of certain keywords in media text.

Bryant & Miron (2004)

From the start of the 21st century, framing was considered to be the most applied theory in the

articles issued in most notable communication studies (Bryant & Miron, 2004).

Duan & Takashi (2016)

In the related study of cross-cultural research, Duan and Takashi (2016) compared China Daily’s

and NYT’s coverage of Beijing’s air pollution.

Dumdum (2012)

Dumdum (2012) argued that framing is considered a journalistic norm, particularly if frame

diversity is practiced in the field of journalism.

By acknowledging frame-building as a norm in journalism, relating the diversity in frame

presentation offer an alternative to the unattainable quality of journalism (Dumdum, 2012).

Entman (1993)

From the time since Entman (1993) published an essay depicting framing as a scattered and

fractured paradigm in the field of communication, scholars have undertaken studies to

expound and investigate the concept.

He recalled Entman’s (1993) proposition that principles of frames could be identified in the

author, the media text, the media discourse, the audience, and the social and cultural system.

Freyenberger (2013)

Freyenberger (2013) examined how different newspapers around the world framed Amanda

Knox.
With a rationale of determining the tone, Freyenberger (2013) content analyzed 500 major world

newspapers.

Gamson & Modigliani (1987)

The model suggests that frames at the media level serve “a central organizing idea or story line”

that suggest the meaning of events (Gamson & Modigliani, 1987, p. 143).

Gamson & Modigliani (1989), Tankard (2001)

These sets of keywords that help identify a certain frame is called a ‘media package’ (Gamson &

Modigliani, 1989; Tankard, 2001).

Gans (1979), Shoemaker & Reese (2016)

Scholars Gans (1979), Shoemaker & Reese (2016) laid out these levels of influences that

consciously or unconsciously play active roles in the framing process.

Gecer & Mahinay (2018)

Geçer and Mahinay (2018) also studied the framing of drugs, but in a local context.

Since the three dominant types were closely related, Geçer and Mahinay (2018) concluded that

the three newspapers’ political stance did not have an effect in their framing process.

Gitlin (1980)

Gitlin (1980) added that frames are “persistent patterns of cognition, interpretation, and

presentation, of selection, emphasis, and exclusion, by which symbol-handlers routinely

organize discourse” (p. 7).

Gitlin (1980), Reese (2008)

presenting information which was the basis of Reese’s (2008) characterization on frames as

persistent.

Gitlin (1980) and Reese (2008) summarized framing as a persistent and habitual way of

presenting information to the public.

Goffman (1974)

Frames assist in the simplification of media information, but also help in the interpretation and

reconstruction of reality (Goffman, 1974).

Hackett (1984)

Hackett (1984) argued that scholars should turn their focus from objectivity and bias to how

frames help in piercing through media text and revealing hidden agenda.

Herman & Chomsky (2008)

Herman and Chomsky (2008) affirmed that raw news stories must pass through these levels

before being published and distributed to the intended audience.

Kim, Carvalho & Davis (2008); Shoemaker & Reese (2016)

The organizational level concerns the media institution’s ownership, aspirations, constraints

and routines as well as the overall political views of the publisher (Kim, Carvalho & Davis,

2008; Shoemaker & Reese, 2016).

McQuail (1992)

McQuail (1992) claimed that diversity in frames must exist in media to equally represent social

differences, access to sources and channels from which the audience favors.

Papacharissi & Oliveira (2008)

London Financial Times’, and the Guardian’s framing of terrorism based on the words’

coefficient of betweenness centrality to identify the difference and comparisons between the

media texts.

Papacharissi and Oliveira (2008) concluded that usage of these elements produced a more

emotional and dramatic approach in covering the events.

Papacharissi & Oliveira (2008); Wahl-Jorgensen (2013); Boesman, Berbers, d’Haenens & Gorp

(2017)

Papacharissi and Oliveira’s (2008), Wahl-Jorgensen’s (2013), and Boesman, Berbers, d’Haenens

and Gorp’s (2017) studies analyzed the usage of dramatic language in the presentation of issues

which were present in most human interest-framed news stories.

Porto (2007)

In relation, Porto (2007) proposed frame diversity to be used as a standard in the evaluation of

news quality.

Porto (2017)

The study of framing in the news is deemed as interesting because of how the concept

debunked the ‘myth’ of the so-called ‘balanced and objective’ journalism (Porto, 2017).

Reese (2008)

To which Reese (2008) summarized the concept as “organizing principles that are socially

shared and persistent over time, that work symbolically to meaningfully structure the social

world” (p. 11).

Reese (2008) added that one of the factors to qualify a frame’s usefulness is its shareability.
Although, he reminded that the symbols manifested in the content is “only the tip of a very big

iceberg” (Reese, 2008, p. 16).

Riffe (2004)

Riffe (2004) considered the concept of framing as “one of the most fertile areas of current

research in journalism and mass communication” (p. 2).

Scheufele (1999)

Scheufele (1999), for example, exemplified framing as a theory of media effects by determining

the interaction between the media’s frames to the audience.

Scheufele (1999) identified framing as a theory of media effects by analyzing the interplay

between media frames and audience frames through his Process Model of Framing.

Scheufele (1999) referred to frames as media effects by identifying its inputs, processes and

outcomes.

Scheufele (1999), Gans (1979), Shoemaker & Reese (2016)

Here, Scheufele (1999) summarizes Gans’ (1979), Shoemaker and Reese’s (2016) study on factors

which influence media content: (1) individual; (2) organizational; and (3) external influences.

Scheufele & Nisbet (2008)

Many political communication scholars would probably agree on one notion: there is no

universal definition for framing (Scheufele & Nisbet, 2008).

Scheufele & Nisbet (2008), Mullen & Klaehn (2010)

Recognizing the power of news media, these elites and political actors involve themselves in the

process of frame-building to serve their personal interests (Scheufele & Nisbet, 2008) by shaping

the public’s ideology (Mullen & Klaehn, 2010).

The conflict frame is usually used by the media because it is seen as interesting and

newsworthy (Shoemaker & Reese, 1996).

Tankard (2001)

However, some scholars maintained that framing differs from bias in various ways (Tankard,

2001).

The concept of media framing is considered significant because it suggests a substitute

understanding to the old-fashioned notion of objectivity and bias in journalism (Tankard, 2001).

Tankard (2001) differed bias from framing by describing the latter as a concept which

transcends the “notions of pro or con, favorable or unfavorable, negative or positive” (p. 96).

Volkmer (2009), Baalen (2013)

Unsurprisingly, as framing continues to test social ideologies, a variety of research and scholars,

particularly in communication, explored what was considered as a vague concept (Volkmer,

2009; Baalen, 2013).

Vreese (2005)

According to de Vreese (2005), frame-setting concerns the audience’s interpretation of the media

frames by correlating it with their schema or what other researchers call as audience frames.

Wahl-Jorgensen (2013)

Wahl-Jorgensen (2013) examined emotionality in journalism through an analysis of Pulitzer

Prize-winning articles from 1995 to 2011.

Wang (2015)
The news source was also discussed by Wang (2015) in her comparative study on the cross-

cultural representation of Hong Kong Protests on BBC World News (BBCW) and CCTV News.

Weatherred (2017)

Weatherred (2017) studied the media framing of Child Sexual Abuse across the US.

Therefore, Weatherred (2017) concluded that US national news organizations have framed the

social issue by highlighting the cause of Child Sexual Abuses, the perpetrators to be blamed,

and the solutions.

Wood (2011)

Wood (2011) examined and compared the framing of news articles regarding the illegal drug

overdose deaths of River Phoenix, Chris Farley, and Brad Renfro to the prescription drug

overdose deaths of Anna Nicole Smith, Heath Ledger, and Brittany Murphy.

Wood (2011) pointed out that the lack of socially responsible frames proved that the selected

media agencies packaged their reporting to what the public wants to see.

Wood (2011), Gecer & Mahinay (2018)

Wood (2011) and Gecer and Mahinay (2018) studied local news agencies’ coverage of the issue

on illegal drugs.

Wu (2007)

Wu (2007) tackled another social issue through the lens of framing.

The series of related literatures aforementioned support that framing, indeed, exists everywhere

in the way that it takes place as the public continues to interpret the reality that is socially

structured (Wu, 2007).

Yu (2015)

Yu (2015) also tackled the Hong Kong protests but by content analyzing South China Morning

Post, NYT and the Guardian.