URBAN  MORPHOLOGY  
 
• Urban  morphology  is  the  study  of  the  form  of  human  settlements  and  the  
process  of  their  formation  and  transformation.  
 
• The  study  seeks  to  understand  the  spatial  structure  and  character  of  a  
metropolitan  area,  city,  town  or  village  by  examining  the  patterns  of  its  
component  parts  and  the  process  of  its  development.  
 
• This  can  involve  the  analysis  of  physical  structures  at  different  scales  as  well  
as  patterns  of  movement,  land  use,  ownership  or  control  and  occupation.  
 
• Typically,  analysis  of  physical  form  focuses  on  street  pattern,  plot  pattern  
and  building  pattern,  collectively  referred  as  urban  grain.  
 
• Analysis  of  specific  settlements  is  usually  undertaken  using  cartographic  
sources  and  the  process  of  development  is  deduced  from  comparison  of  
historic  maps.  
 
• Special  attention  is  given  to  how  the  physical  form  of  a  city  changes  over  
time  and  to  how  different  cities  compare  to  each  other.  
 
• Another  significant  part  of  this  subfield  deals  with  the  study  of  the  social  
forms  which  are  expressed  in  the  physical  layout  of  a  city,  and,  conversely,  
how  physical  form  produces  or  reproduces  various  social  forms.  
 
• Urban  morphology  is  also  considered  as  the  study  of  urban  tissue,  or  fabric,  
as  a  means  of  discerning  the  underlying  structure  of  the  built  landscape.  
 
• This  approach  challenges  the  common  perception  of  unplanned  
environments  as  chaotic  or  vaguely  organic  through  understanding  the  
structures  and  processes  embedded  in  urbanization.  
 
• Urban  morphology  approaches  human  settlements  as  generally  
unconscious  products  that  emerge  over  long  periods,  through  the  accrual  
of  successive  generations  of  building  activity.  

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 • This  leaves  traces  that  serve  to  structure  subsequent  building  activity  and  
provide  opportunities  and  constraints  for  city  building  processes,  such  as  
land  subdivision,  infrastructure  development,  or  building  construction.  
 
• Articulating  and  analyzing  the  logic  of  these  traces  is  the  central  question  of  
urban  morphology.  
 
• Urban  morphology  is  not  generally  object-­‐centered,  in  that  it  emphasizes  
the  relationships  between  components  of  the  city.  To  make  a  parallel  with  
linguistics,  the  focus  is  placed  on  an  active  vocabulary  and  its  syntax.  
 
• There  is  thus  a  tendency  to  use  morphological  techniques  to  examine  the  
ordinary,  non-­‐monumental  areas  of  the  city  and  to  stress  the  process  and  
its  structures  over  any  given  state  or  object,  therefore  going  beyond  
architecture  and  looking  at  the  entire  built  landscape  and  its  internal  logic.  
 

URBAN  SPATIAL  DESIGN  THEORIES  

 
The  tool  for  analysis  Urban  Morphology  have  some  theories  like  the  following,  ie.  
the  Three  Theories  of  Urban  Spatial  Design:  
 
1. Figure  and  Ground  
2. Linkage  theory  
3. Place  Theory  
 
1.  Figure  and  Ground  theory  is  founded  on  the  study  of  the  relationship  of  land  
coverage  of  buildings  as  solid  mass  (figure)  to  open  voids  (ground).  
 
• Each  urban  environment  has  an  existing  pattern  of  solid  and  voids,  and  
figure  and  ground  approach  to  spatial  design  is  an  attempt  to  manipulate  
these  relationships  by  adding  to,  subtracting  from,  or  changing  the  physical  
geometry  of  the  pattern.  
 
• The  objective  of  these  manipulations  is  to  clarify  the  structure  of  urban  
space  in  a  city  or  district  by  establishing  a  hierarchy  of  spaces  of  different  

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 sizes  that  are  individually  enclosed  but  ordered  directionally  in  relation  to  
each  other  
 
2.  The  linkage  theory  is  derived  from  "lines"  connecting  one  element  to  another  
 
• These  lines  are  formed  by  street,  pedestrian  ways,  linear  open  spaces  or  
other  linking  elements  that  physically  connect  the  parts  of  the  city.  
 
• The  designer  applying  the  linkage  theory  tries  to  organize  a  system  of  
connections,  or  a  network,  that  establishes  a  structure  for  ordering  spaces.  
 
• Emphasis  is  placed  on  circulation  diagram  rather  than  the  spatial  diagram  
of  the  figure-­‐ground  theory.  
 
• Movement  systems  and  the  efficiency  of  infrastructure  take  precedence  
over  patterns  of  defined  outdoor  space.  
 

3.  The  Place  Theory  adds  the  components  of  human  needs  and  cultural,  
historical,  and  natural  contexts.  
 
• Advocates  of  the  place  theory  give  physical  space  additional  richness  by  
incorporating  unique  forms  and  details  indigenous  to  its  setting.  
 
• In  place  theory  social  and  cultural  values,  visual  perceptions,  of  users  and  
an  individual’s  control  over  public  environment  are  as  important  as  
principles  of  enclosure  and  linkage  
 
(Refer  Roger  Trancik,  Finding  the  Lost  Space)  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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 URBAN  SPRAWL  
 
• Urban  sprawl  or  suburban  sprawl  is  a  multifaceted  concept  centered  on  the  
expansion  of  auto-­‐oriented,  low-­‐density  development.  
 
• Topics  range  from  the  outward  spreading  of  a  city  and  its  suburbs,  to  low-­‐
density  and  auto-­‐dependent  development  on  rural  land,  examination  of  
impact  of  high  segregation  between  residential  and  commercial  uses,  and  
analysis  of  various  design  features  to  determine  which  may  encourage  car  
dependency.  
 
• The  term  "sprawl"  is  most  often  associated  with  US  land  use;  outside  the  
US  and  outside  the  term  "peri-­‐urbanisation"  is  often  used  to  denote  similar  
dynamics  and  phenomena.  
 
• Discussions  and  debates  about  sprawl  are  often  made  unclear  by  the  
uncertainty  of  the  meaning  associated  with  the  phrase.  
 
• For  example,  some  commentators  measure  sprawl  only  with  the  average  
number  of  residential  units  per  acre  in  a  given  area.  
 
• But  others  associate  it  with  decentralization  (spread  of  population  without  
a  well-­‐defined  centre),  discontinuity  (leapfrog  development,  segregation  of  
uses,  and  so  forth.  
 

• The  term  urban  sprawl  generally  has  negative  connotations  due  to  the  
health,  environmental  and  cultural  issues  associated  with  the  phrase.  
 
• Residents  of  sprawling  neighborhoods  tend  to  emit  more  pollution  per  
person  and  suffer  more  traffic  fatalities.  
 
• Sprawl  is  controversial,  with  supporters  claiming  that  consumers  prefer  
lower  density  neighborhoods  and  that  sprawl  does  not  necessarily  increase  
traffic.  
 

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 • Others  have  argued  that  sprawl  is  less  a  reflection  of  consumer  preferences  
and  more  a  result  of  legal  structures  and  court  decisions  that  have  
encouraged  sprawl  development.  
 
 
SUSTAINABLE  URBANISM  
 
• Sustainable  Urbanism,  as  a  defined  term,  is  application  of  sustainability  and  
resilient  principles  to  the  design,  planning,  and  administration/operation  of  
cities.  
 
• There  are  a  range  of  organizations  promoting  and  researching  sustainable  
urbanism  practices  including  governmental  agencies,  non-­‐governmental  
organizations,  professional  associations,  and  professional  enterprises  
around  the  world.  
 
• Related  to  sustainable  urbanism  is  the  Ecocity  movement  (also  known  as  
Ecological  Urbanism)  which  specifically  is  looking  to  make  cities  based  on  
ecological  principles,  and  the  Resilient  Cities  movement  addresses  
depleting  resources  by  creating  distributed  local  resources  to  replace  global  
supply  chain  in  case  of  major  disruption.  
 
• Green  urbanism  is  another  common  term  for  sustainable  urbanism.  
Sustainable  development  is  a  general  term  for  both  making  both  urban  and  
economic  growth  more  sustainable,  but  isn't  specifically  a  mode  of  
urbanism.  
 
• Sustainable  urbanism  aims  to  close  the  loop  by  eliminating  environmental  
impact  of  urban  development  by  providing  all  resources  locally.  
 
• It  looks  at  the  full  life  cycle  of  the  products  to  make  sure  that  everything  is  
made  sustainably,  and  sustainable  urbanism  also  brings  things  like  
electricity  and  food  production  into  the  city.  
 
• This  means  that  literally  everything  that  the  town  or  city  needs  is  right  
there  making  it  truly  self-­‐sufficient  and  sustainable.  

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 • The  architect  and  urban  planner  Doug  Farr  discusses  making  cities  walk  
able,  along  with  combining  elements  of  ecological  urbanism,  sustainable  
urban  infrastructure,  and  new  urbanism,  and  goes  beyond  them  to  close  
the  loop  on  resource  use  and  bring  everything  into  the  city  or  town.  
 
• It  is  about  increasing  the  quality  of  life  by  bringing  more  resources  within  a  
short  distance  and  also  increasing  the  quality  of  products  that  are  offered.  
 

DEFINING  ELEMENTS  OF  SUSTAINABILITY  

 
Urbanism  Compactness  
 
• Compactness,  or  density,  plays  an  important  role  in  sustainable  urban  
development  because  it  supports  reductions  in  per-­‐capita  resource  use  and  
benefits  public  transit  developments.  
 
• The  density  of  new  development  across  the  U.S.  averages  roughly  two  
dwelling  unit  per  acre,  which  is  too  low  to  support  efficient  transit  and  
walk-­‐to  destinations.  
 
• Such  low-­‐density  development  is  a  characteristic  of  urban  sprawl,  which  is  
the  major  cause  of  high  dependence  on  private  automobiles,  inefficient  
infrastructure,  increased  obesity,  loss  of  farmlands  and  natural  habitats,  
pollution,  and  so  on.  
 
• For  these  reasons,  sustainable  urbanism  requires  minimum  development  
densities  roughly  four  times  higher  than  two  dwelling  units  per  acre.  
 

• Overall,  compact  development  generates  fewer  pollutants  to  the  natural  

world.  Research  has  shown  that  low-­‐density  development  can  exacerbate  
non-­‐point  source  pollutant  loadings  by  consuming  absorbent  open  space  
and  increasing  impervious  surface  area  relative  to  compact  development.  
 
• While  increasing  densities  regionally  can  better  protect  water  resources  at  
a  regional  level,  higher-­‐density  development  can  create  more  impervious  

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 cover,  which  increases  water  quality  problems  in  nearby  or  adjacent  water  
bodies.  
 
• Increasing  neighborhood  population  density  also  supports  improved  public  
transit  service.  
 
• Concentrating  development  density  in  and  around  transit  stops  and  
corridors  maximizes  people's  willingness  to  walk  and  thus  reduces  car  
ownership  and  use.  
 
• Sustainable  urbanism  seeks  to  integrate  infrastructure  design  increase  with  
density,  because  a  concentrated  mixed-­‐use  development  required  less  per  
capita  infrastructure  usage  compared  to  detached  single-­‐family  housing.  
 

BIOPHILIA  
 
• The  concept  of  Biophilia  hypothesis  was  introduced  by  E.  O.  Wilson.  
 
• It  refers  to  the  connection  between  humans  and  other  living  systems.  
 
• Within  this  concept,  humans  are  biologically  predisposed  to  caring  for  
nature.  
 
• In  Douglass  Farr’s  book,  Sustainable  Urbanism:  Urban  Design  with  Nature,  
he  links  open  spaces  such  as  parks  and  recreational  areas,  sustainable  food  
production  and  agricultural  land  use  practices  with  humans’  concern  and  
relationship  with  natural  systems.  
 
• Therefore,  biophilia  is  a  crucial  underlying  component  of  sustainable  
urbanism.  
 
 
 
 
 

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 SUSTAINABLE  CORRIDORS  
 
• Sustainable  corridors  are  similar  to  a  wildlife  corridor  in  that  they  connect  
one  area  to  another  efficiently,  cheaply,  and  safely.  
 
• They  allow  people  to  pass  from  their  immediate  proximity  to  another  
without  relying  on  cars  or  other  wasteful  and  inefficient  products.  
 
• It  also  relies  on  accessibility  to  all  people  in  the  community  so  that  the  
mode  of  transportation  is  the  most  convenient  and  easiest  to  use  for  
everyone.  
 
• Sustainable  Corridors  also  include  biodiversity  corridors  to  allow  animals  to  
move  around  communities  so  that  they  may  still  live  in  and  around  cities.  
 

HIGH  PERFORMANCE  BUILDINGS  

 
• High  performance  buildings  are  designed  and  constructed  to  maximize  
operational  energy  savings  and  minimize  environmental  impacts  of  the  
construction  and  operation  of  the  buildings.  
 
• Building  construction  and  operation  generates  a  great  deal  of  ‘externalized  
costs’  such  as  material  waste,  energy  inefficiencies  and  pollution.  
 
• High  performance  buildings  aim  to  minimize  these  and  make  the  process  
much  more  efficient  and  less  harmful.  
 
• New  York  City  Department  of  Design  &  Construction  put  out  a  set  of  
guidelines  in  April  1999  on  High  performance  buildings  that  have  broad  
application  to  sustainable  urbanism  as  a  whole  worldwide.  
 
• The  amount  of  energy  use  of  a  building  is  determined  by  two  types  of  
heating/cooling  loads  or  in  other  words  the  amount  of  heating  or  cooling  
needed  to  keep  the  interior  at  a  reasonable  temperature.    
 

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 • Internal  loads:  the  lighting,  people,  equipment,  and  ventilation  system  used  
inside  the  building,  and  external  loads:  the  construction  of  the  walls,  roofs,  
and  windows  and  how  that  influences  energy  flow.  
 

• By  incorporating  environmentally  sound  materials  and  systems,  improving  

indoor  air  quality  and  using  natural  or  high  efficiency  lighting,  it  minimizes  a  
building  impact  on  its  natural  surroundings;  additionally,  those  who  work  or  
live  in  these  buildings  directly  benefit  from  these  differences.  
 
• Some  building  owners  have  even  reported  increased  worker  productivity  as  
a  result  of  the  improved  conditions.  
 
• However,  because  these  other  benefits  are  more  difficult  to  quantify  than  
direct  energy  savings,  the  real  value  of  high  performance  buildings  can  
easily  be  underestimated  by  traditional  accounting  methods  that  do  not  
recognize  ‘external’  municipal  and  regional  costs  and  benefits.  
 
• The  cost  evaluations  of  high  performance  building  should  account  for  the  
economic,  social,  and  environmental  benefits  that  accompany  green  
buildings.  
 

ANTI  URBANISM  
 
• Anti-­‐Urbanism  A  discourse  of  fear  of  the  city,  produced  and  reproduced  
through  a  variety  of  negative  literary,  artistic,  media,  cinematic,  and  
photographic  representations  of  urban  places.  
 
• Anti-­‐urbanism  is  best  defined  as  a  discourse  of  fear  of  the  city,  and  
something  fuelled  by  the  impact  of  images  of  urban  dystopia  we  see  in  a  
variety  of  media,  cinematic,  literary,  artistic,  photographic  –  and  in  the  case  
of  the  representations  of  urban  places.  
 
• It  is  a  discourse  that  has  been  around  for  a  long  time,  in  conjunction  with  
the  emergence  of  the  industrial  city,  and  often  constructed  in  relation  to  
the  ‘good  city’  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  especially  the  perceived  virtues  of  
rural  life.  
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• Anti-­‐urbanism  is  particularly  advanced  in  the  United  States  in  a  variety  of  
guises,  from  the  celebration  of  rural  small-­‐town  kinship  and  community  to  
the  fact  that  Los  Angeles  has  been  completely  destroyed.  
 

URBANISM  
 
• Urbanism  is  the  characteristic  way  of  interaction  of  inhabitants  of  towns  
and  cities  (urban  areas)  with  the  built  environment  or  –  in  other  words  -­‐  the  
character  of  urban  life,  organization,  problems,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  study  of  
that  character  (way),  or  of  the  physical  needs  of  urban  societies,  or  city  
planning.  
 
• Urbanism  is  also  movement  of  the  population  to  the  urban  areas  
(urbanization)  or  its  concentration  in  them  (degree  of  urbanization).  
 

TOD  -­‐  A  transit-­‐oriented  development  

 
• TOD  -­‐  is  a  mixed-­‐use  residential  and  commercial  area  designed  to  maximize  
access  to  public  transport,  and  often  incorporates  features  to  encourage  
transit  ridership.  
 
• A  TOD  neighborhood  typically  has  a  center  with  a  transit  station  or  stop  
(train  station,  metro  station,  tram  stop,  or  bus  stop),  surrounded  by  
relatively  high-­‐density  development  with  progressively  lower-­‐density  
development  spreading  outward  from  the  center.  
 
• TODs  generally  are  located  within  a  radius  of  one-­‐quarter  to  one-­‐half  mile  
(400  to  800  m)  from  a  transit  stop,  as  this  is  considered  to  be  an  
appropriate  scale  for  pedestrians,  thus  solving  the  last  mile  problem.  
 
• Many  cities  throughout  the  world  are  developing  TOD  policy.  Portland,  
Montreal,  San  Francisco,  and  Vancouver  among  many  other  cities  have  
developed,  and  continue  to  write  policies  and  strategic  plans  which  aim  to  
reduce  automobile  dependency  and  increase  the  use  of  public  transit  
 

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 • Transit-­‐oriented  development  is  sometimes  distinguished  by  some  planning  
officials  from  "transit-­‐proximate  development”  because  it  contains  specific  
features  that  are  designed  to  encourage  public  transport  use  and  
differentiate  the  development  from  urban  sprawl.  
 
• Examples  of  these  features  include  mixed-­‐use  development  that  will  use  
transit  at  all  times  of  day,  excellent  pedestrian  facilities  such  as  high  quality  
pedestrian  crossings,  narrow  streets,  and  tapering  of  buildings  as  they  
become  more  distant  from  the  public  transport  node.  
 
• Another  key  feature  of  transit-­‐oriented  development  that  differentiates  it  
from  "transit-­‐proximate  development"  is  reduced  amounts  of  parking  for  
personal  vehicles.  
 

   

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