Q4.
Using Whiteness as a theoretical framework - discuss how white cultural norms
are systematically enforced in schools. In your response make reference to how the
deconstruction of whiteness in Australia better positions teachers to understand why
prevailing pedagogical and curricular patterns may not work for Indigenous students.
When faced with the topic of racism many non-Indigenous Australian’s feel
passionately that it is unacceptable and hold the view that majority of society no
longer engage in race hatred behaviour. Whilst this may be true, racism in the form
of racial oppression and race inequality is an important current issue experienced by
Indigenous Australian’s (Tannoch-Bland 1998, p. 33). Aileen Moreton-Robinson
writes in Blacklines (2003) “Whiteness… remains invisible for most white women and
men, and they do not associate it with conferring dominance and privilege. However,
many Indigenous women and men do not suffer from such blindness; whiteness is
highly visible and imbued with power…” (cited in Deane 2014). For Indigenous
Australian’s the outcome of white dominance has meant many things including a
shorter life expectancy, poorer health and lower educational attainment just to
name a few. The completion of schooling has been shown to enhance an individuals
overall life experience however data shows year 12 attainment is much lower for
Indigenous Australian’s in comparison to their non-Indigenous counterparts (Halse &
Robinson 2011, p. 259). Critical whiteness theory aims to reveal white dominance
enabling the endless invisible privilege to become visible as a way of addressing the
inequalities between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian’s.
Whiteness is just one of many terms used to describe the complicated issues
surrounding white privilege. Whiteness not just a term used to describe skin colour
but encompasses the invisible and unearned power dominance that is afforded to
white people within society (Tannoch-Bland 1998, p. 33). This unearned privilege
that white people are unconsciously born possessing gives permission to avoid
certain life experiences whilst dominating others, resulting in power (McIntosh 1990,
p. 35). This domination and subordination dynamic can also be seen within gender
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studies regarding men’s unwillingness to accept that they are over privileged
although happy to admit women are disadvantaged (McIntosh 1990, p. 31). Like
McIntosh many academics are now highlighting that where there is a noted racial
disadvantage there must be a white advantage to match.
Critical whiteness theory is a means used to flip the focus from the disadvantage to
the advantage. Rather than focusing on commonly noted disadvantages Indigenous
Australians experience, critical whiteness theory seeks to refocus on white privilege
as the problem. Michel Foucault’s 1979 explanation of critical whiteness theory
(cited in Nicoll 2007, p. 21) highlights that when Indigenous peoples are repressed
through the power of white, a simultaneous act of white privilege occurs. This white
privilege can then be seen perpetuated through all institutions of power including
but not limited to the government, legal systems, churches and educational
institutions (Deane 2014).
The aim of critical whiteness theory is to disrupt social norms by flipping the focus
causing whiteness to become visible. As racism in the form of race hatred is no
longer socially acceptable within Australia, many Australian’s are blinded to the
power whiteness holds. When the topic of racism is raised, Indigenous Australian’s
are automatically viewed as the targets whilst white Australian’s are not. The
outcome of this is that many non-Indigenous Australian’s do not view racism as a
problem (Tannoch-Bland 1998, p. 33). It is for this reason that critical whiteness
theory is an important aspect of working towards racial equality.
White cultural norms that allow white power to exist are created and perpetuated
throughout society invisibly by “seeming to be not anything in particular” (Dyer
1997, p. 44), “whiteness is not anything, really, not an identity, not a particularizing
quality, because it is everything - white is no colour because it is all colours” (Dyer
1887, p. 142 cited in Deane 2014). Dyer’s explanation of whiteness attempts to
unveil its invisibility whilst suggesting that it is perpetuated throughout society by
being hidden within our social systems. This can be explained with reference to early
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stories of the bourgeoisie. In an era when times were changing from the idea that
noble birth set your rank within society came the notion that personal achievement
was to position your place regardless of bloodlines. The bourgeoisie became the
power that replaced the aristocracy, much like the government in current times.
With the realisation that anyone could now create their own power and rank
through personal achievement, the bourgeoisie devised a plan to retain their power
and keep the lower classes below them. Through specifically chosen social systems
such as education the bourgeoisie were able to reinforce the view that lower classes
were not as intelligent or as worthy as them. This created an invisible dominant
power used to keep majority of society where the bourgeoisie felt suitable (Shor &
Freire 1987, p. 181).
A modern day version of a bourgeoisie influencing social systems to remain in power
can be seen reflected through government policies. Political, legal and educational
policies underpin the values and actions that are imparted throughout our society
(Starr 1991, p. 1). The impact this has on Indigenous youths today stem from a long
history of uneducated or partially educated Indigenous Australian’s due to poor
policies in the past (Beresford 2012, p. 85). One Indigenous elder recalls his
childhood remembering that he often felt that teachers simply did not expect him to
do well (O’Brien & Gale 2007, p. 122). However the past three decades have seen
change, with government policies reinforcing the importance of incorporating
Indigenous cultures and encouraging a positive cultural identity of Indigenous
students within schools (Halse & Robinson 2001, p. 258). Nevertheless, many
Indigenous Australian adults still hold suspicion and feel resistance towards current
schooling due to the poor educational policies and experiences they were formerly
subjected to (Beresford 2012, p. 85).
Whilst policy reform surrounding Indigenous education has improved, outcomes of
education retention and attainment rates continue to fall behind rates of non
Indigenous Australians. A major concern of Australian Indigenous Affairs is the
continuous disparities noted between policies and outcomes. Despite decades of
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policy reform and numerous government initiatives and programs aimed at
addressing Indigenous educational disadvantage, Indigenous Affairs found some
outcomes have worsened rather than improved. (Gunstone 2012, p. 75). In 2013
DECD reported year 8 to 12 retention rate for Indigenous students was 79.2% in
comparison to 91.9% for non-Indigenous students exposing a difference of almost
13%. Furthermore, data shows Indigenous Australian attendance rates for 2013 at
78.5% compared to non-Indigenous at 90.6% indicating a high number of Indigenous
students missing school (cited in Wilson 2014).
The Australian Labor government in 2008 launched the ‘Close the Gap’ campaign
aimed at addressing health and education disparities between Indigenous and non-
Indigenous Australian’s. However rather than address the disparity many Indigenous
Australians feel an even greater sense of wariness of Australia’s mainstream
education system. This can be attributed to a number of factors including the lack of
support and professional development afforded to educators. This has resulted in
mainstream education remaining unable to provide an environment in which
Indigenous children can easily succeed (Buckskin 2012, p. 164). Furthermore certain
Indigenous Australian’s hold the view that the ‘Closing the Gap’ campaign reinforces
the emphasis of Indigenous disadvantage. With the campaign aimed at closing the
gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous life expectancy, health, education and
socio-economic status the spotlight is thrown onto Indigenous ‘problems’. The
fallout from this is that whilst the focus remains on Indigenous disadvantage, other
important Indigenous issues are remaining unresolved (Rigney & Hemming 2014, p.
540). Further to the ‘Closing the Gap’ campaign Rigney & Hemming (2014, p. 541)
express that Ngarrindjeri people believe supporting the campaign along with
practical reconciliation weakens the prospect of a truly transformative reconciliation.
It has been suggested that government policies including education policies need to
be analysed with a more critical lens. It is uncommon for the Australian public to
have any understanding of the policies put in place by our government therefore it is
rare that policies are ever critically scrutinised (Starr 1991, p. 1). Encouraging
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Australian’s to start critically analysing education policies would lead to a better
understanding of the role schools play in the production and regulation of the
knowledge conveyed to Australian youths (Blanch & Worby 2010, p. 7). An example
of a poor education policy can be seen within the Australian Government’s review
into the Northern Territory Emergency Response. It has been reported that prior to
release of the review, recommendations stating the importance of Indigenous
languages within schools were removed (Buckskin 2012, p. 171). It is circumstances
such as this that unfortunately reinforce that the poor history of Indigenous
educational policies still continues today. Beresford (2012, p. 119) highlights that
lack of communication with Indigenous Australians is just one of many reasons why
Indigenous education within mainstream schooling is failing. This point was regularly
highlighted during the 1990’s yet statistics still remain much the same today.
Looking to Indigenous Australian’s for recommendations on the way forward a
number of suggestions have been made. It is not only commonly suggested, but
encouraged that non-Indigenous Australians reach out and invite Indigenous elders
to guide and assist within the education system (Worby, Rigney & Ulalka 2006, p.
44). Buckskin (2012, p. 167) agrees strongly with this recommendation stating “The
cultural arrogance that has damaged Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in
Australia for more than 200 years is unacceptable. Ideas that ‘white is right’, that
non-Indigenous people know what’s best for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
people, or that an intervention can be imposed without consultation, are outdated
and will not close the gap.” An additional highly recommended approach is for
schools to incorporate curriculums and practices in which Indigenous students can
identify themselves, their culture and their country within (Blanch & Worby 2010, p.
7).
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I believe that Australia has long past the time in which non-Indigenous Australian’s
can continue to create and implement Indigenous policies from a white perspective.
Countless literature and decades of statistics continue to prove that past and current
policies are failing Indigenous Australian’s. Continuation of Indigenous topics
teaching pre-service educators critical whiteness theory is a positive step forward
however it is just the beginning of a long road ahead. Moving Indigenous disparities
away from the spotlight and shifting the attention to focus on white privilege is of
utmost importance for there to be any attitude changes within society. Continued
focus of incorporating Indigenous voices within the Australian curriculum is also a
necessary step in the way forward to really closing the gap and improving
educational outcomes for Indigenous Australian youths.
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References
Beresford, Quentin 2012, 'Separate and unequal: an outline of Aboriginal education
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Blanch, Faye Rosas & Worby, Gus 2010, 'The silences waiting: young Nunga males,
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Reference
Rigney, Daryle & Hemming, Steve 2014, 'Is 'closing the gap' enough? Ngarrindjeri
ontologies, reconciliation and caring for country', Educational Philosophy and
Theory, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 536-545.
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Shor, Ira & Freire, Paulo 1987, 'A practical agenda for day one [extract from chapter
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Tannoch-Bland, Jenny 1998, 'Identifying white race privilege [extract from chapter 1:
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Wilson, Vicki 2014, ‘Aboriginal Education Policy Direction’, Week 6 Lecture PPT,
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