Chapter 2

Faunal extinction in Australia

2.1 This chapter provides an overview of the faunal extinction crisis in Australia
and outlines the key threats to the survival of Australia's unique fauna.

The status of Australia's biodiversity

2.2 Many submitters noted that Australia has a large, diverse range of unique
wildlife. The Wilderness Society commented:
Australia is one of the world's megadiverse countries: we have around
10% of all the world's species. We have a very high level of endemism
compared with other countries. For example, 46% of our birds, 87% of
mammals, and 93% of reptiles are only found here. 1

2.3 However, extensive evidence was received about Australia's very poor record
of protecting its unique wildlife, which set out the ongoing decline in biodiversity
since white settlement. An article by Professor John Woinarski et al commented:
Australia's isolation has resulted in its remarkable biodiversity
distinctiveness but also the extraordinary vulnerability of its biota to novel
threats. With the dwindling abundance, range, and diversity of so many
species, we see now only a faint shadow of the richness and abundance of
the Australian mammal fauna that existed at the time of European
settlement. 2

2.4 The extent of the decline means that Australia has one of the world's worst
records for the extinction and lack of protection for threatened fauna and is ranked
second (after Indonesia) in the world for ongoing biodiversity loss. 3 Submitters cited
reports indicating that more than 10 per cent of endemic terrestrial land mammal
species have become extinct over the last 200 years, which represents 50 per cent of
the global mammal extinctions during that period. 4 In comparison, only one native

1 The Wilderness Society, Submission 133, p. 4.

2 J Woinarski, A Burbidge and P Harrison, 'Ongoing unravelling of a continental fauna: Decline
and extinction of Australian mammals since European settlement', Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (April 2015). This is available at:
www.pnas.org/content/112/15/4531 (accessed 19 March 2019).
3 See for example: Wide Bay Burnett Environment Council, Submission 30, p. 1; The Wilderness
Society, Submission 133, p. 5; Save the Bilby Fund, Submission 175, p. 6.
4 See for example: Centre for Ecosystem Science, UNSW, Submission 56, p. 5.
20
land mammal from continental North America has become extinct since European
settlement. 5

2.5 Mr Paul Sullivan, the Chief Executive of BirdLife Australia, commented on

Australia's birds and stated that at least four bird taxa have recently become extinct,
and the national threatened bird index shows that relative abundance of threatened
birds has decreased by 52 per cent between 1985 and 2015. This includes birds such
as the rainbow bee-eater, kookaburra and magpie. This compares very unfavourably
with the 624 per cent increase in the population of threatened birds in the United
States. 6

2.6 Dr Graham Edgar, who appeared in a private capacity, provided evidence

about the significant loss of biodiversity in the marine environment. Commenting on
research on sediment cores from around south-eastern Tasmania, Dr Edgar stated:
Every single core that we took showed that over the last 100 years there had
been a catastrophic decline in the marine community in the system. So from
an average of 23 species per slice of the core around 1900, we were down
to around seven species today, of which four were introduced species. So
basically the whole system has collapsed but with no recognition and
nothing other than this study to show for it. This study has not been
extended anywhere else but it is clearly important to understand what the
scale of these losses are and to try and categorise them properly. 7

2.7 BirdLife Australia also commented that, while biodiversity is declining

globally, in many respects, Australia is a global anomaly. BirdLife Australia went on
to explain:
Australia is renowned worldwide for its unique and diverse flora and fauna.
We are a wealthy nation with comparatively good governance and a high
degree of political stability. Yet Australia is one of the worst performers for
preventing extinction…Most of the continent is remote from urban
communities and intensive areas of human development, yet we have high
rates of extinction, with many of these having occurred in remote areas. 8

Overview of the decline in biodiversity

2.8 The ongoing decline in biodiversity has been identified in a range of reports
on Australia's environment. Australia's Fifth National Report to the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) stated that:

5 J Woinarski, A Burbidge and P Harrison, 'Ongoing unravelling of a continental fauna: Decline

and extinction of Australian mammals since European settlement'.
6 Mr Paul Sullivan, Chief Executive, BirdLife Australia, Proof Committee Hansard,
5 February 2019, p. 2.
7 Dr Graham Edgar, Private capacity, Proof Committee Hansard, 5 February 2019, p. 2.
8 BirdLife Australia, Submission 118, p. 8.
 21
In general, declines in population size, geographic range and genetic
diversity are being seen among a wide range of species across all groups of
plants, animals and other forms of life in Australia. 9

2.9 The CBD report also noted a major decline in mammals in northern Australia,
changes in species composition and loss of ecological integrity across a range of
threatened ecological communities, and degradation in native vegetation. 10

2.10 The latest State of the Environment (SoE) Report 2016 commented that 'the
status of biodiversity in Australia is generally considered to be poor and deteriorating'.
It was noted that mammal declines in northern Australia have continued; and there has
been a significant decline in some bird species. The SoE report commented that 'very
limited information is available to assess the state and trends of reptiles, amphibians
and invertebrates, except for a few high-profile species'. 11 In relation to mammal
extinctions, the SoE report commented that the number of mammal extinctions 'is
vastly greater than that recorded for any other country'. 12

2.11 In January 2019, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

Development (OECD) released its report on Australia's environmental performance.
The OECD report commented that 'Australia is one of 17 megadiverse countries.
Although gaps in knowledge hamper proper assessment, the overall status of
biodiversity is poor and worsening'. 13 The OECD report went on to acknowledge that
steps had been taken to improve conservation outcomes, however, it found that:
…the pace and scale of progress have not been enough to improve the
status and trends of ecosystems and species…Small initiatives and limited
investment are insufficient to fully address a legacy of land clearing
combined with growing pressure from population growth, expanding
development, invasive species and climate change. 14

9 Department of the Environment and Energy, Fifth National Report to the Convention on
Biological Diversity (May 2014), p. 10. This report is available at: www.environment.gov.au/
system/files/resources/fd293bd1-c8b8-4ef3-9178-315d06a1663d/files/5th-national-report-
final_0.pdf (accessed 28 February 2019)
10 Department of the Environment, Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological
Diversity, May 2014, p. 2.
11 Department of the Environment and Energy, Australia State of the Environment 2016,
Overview, p. 27, https://soe.environment.gov.au/theme/overview (accessed 28 February 2019).
12 Department of the Environment and Energy, Australia State of the Environment 2016,
Terrestrial plan and animal species (2016), https://soe.environment.gov.au/theme/
biodiversity/topic/2016/terrestrial-plant-and-animal-species-mammals#biodiversity-figure-
BIO19 (accessed 28 February 2019).
13 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Environmental
Performance Reviews: Australia 2019 (2019), p. 3. This report is available at:
https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264310452-en (accessed 28 February 2019)
14 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Environmental
Performance Reviews: Australia 2019 (2019), p. 170.
22
2.12 When considered together, these reports provide clear evidence of the
deterioration of Australia's biodiversity. Significantly, it was suggested to the
committee that the rate of decline in biodiversity is expected to continue. 15 BirdLife
Australia, for example, commented that 'we anticipate the rate of EPBC [Environment
Protection and Biodiversity Conservation] listings (new listings and uplistings) will
only increase (in volume and pace) over the next 10–50 years'. 16 The Threatened
Species Recovery Hub stated:
Where recent population trajectory information is available, the
overwhelming trend for EPBC Act-listed animal species is for ongoing
population decline (174 species); in contrast, only three listed species are
considered to be increasing. Extinction is a likely end result of ongoing
population decline for threatened species. 17

2.13 WWF-Australia also saw a poor outlook for Australia's fauna and suggested
that, given increases from 2011 to 2015 in the number of listed critically endangered
animals and plants, 'a further wave of extinctions is imminent'. 18 Mr James Trezise, a
Policy Analyst for the Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF), commented:
This is a crisis that is clearly unfolding in front of our eyes, and it's not like
the pressures that are driving these events are abating or diminishing—in
fact, they are ramping up. Australia is now a global deforestation hotspot.
Let that sink in: we stand next to places like the Amazon and Indonesia for
deforestation. 19

2.14 The reasons for this outcome were clearly articulated by the Centre of
Ecosystem Research, which stated:
Extinction rates are accelerating because the underlying causes are not
being addressed effectively by Australian governments, communities and
industries, and laws and policies meant to protect against loss of species are
not adequately implemented (regulation and compliance) or often
subsidiary in decision-making to development legislation (e.g. mining,
water resource management). 20

2.15 The following discussion provides a more detailed analysis of the increase in
the number of fauna listed as threatened and the trend rate of extinction in Australia.

15 See, for example: Environmental Farmers Network, Submission 27, p. 2.

16 BirdLife Australia, Submission 118, p. 6. See also Centre for Ecosystem Science,
Submission 56, p. 6.
17 Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, Attachment 1 (The ongoing decline in the
population and conservation status of threatened fauna), p. 2.
18 WWF-Australia, Submission 131, p. 1.
19 Mr James Trezise, Policy Analyst, Australian Conservation Foundation, Committee Hansard,
8 October 2018, p. 1.
20 Centre of Ecosystem Research, Submission 56, p. 7.
 23

Rate of faunal extinction in Australia

2.16 At the time of European settlement, much of the fauna now regarded as
threatened flourished across the continent. The Northern Territory Government noted
extinctions had occurred even in the arid lands of central Australia and stated that this
area experienced the worst mammal loss since European settlement. 21 Woinarski et al
provided evidence of the rate of mammal extinction in Australia from settlement and
stated:
Although the detail of the patterning is imprecise, the available evidence
indicates a broad sequential wave of mammal losses, beginning from the
first settled areas in southeastern Australia (coincident with the first arrivals
of some associated threats) from the 1840s, reaching central Australia in the
1890s with rapid declines there particularly over the period of 1930–1960
and marked losses continuing from about the 1960s to the present day in
much of northern Australia. 22

2.17 Woinarski et al also pointed to records of the collection of skins of now

extinct and threatened species as evidence of this earlier abundance. For example, in
one year (1908), a single company marketed 100 000 brush-tailed rock-wallaby skins;
and in about 1900, dealers in Adelaide sold a now-extinct subspecies of brush-tailed
bettong by the dozen at about ninepence a head for coursing on Sunday afternoons. 23

2.18 One significant example of the decline of a previously abundant species is the
koala. The number of koalas at the time of European settlement has been estimated as
being up to 10 million. 24 Following settlement, koala populations came under pressure
from clearing of habitat, fire and hunting. Woinarski et al, in their study of mammal
extinctions, commented that in the 31 days of the last open season in Queensland in
1927, 500 000 koala skins were collected. 25

2.19 While hunting of koalas ceased by 1930, continuing pressure from clearing of
habitat, disease, fire and drought, saw numbers decline significantly. Koala
populations in Queensland, New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory
were listed as vulnerable under the EPBC Act in May 2012. The Species Profile and
Threats Database utilised in the listing process assessed koala populations in the

21 Northern Territory Government, Submission 2, p. 2.

22 J Woinarski, A Burbidge and P Harrison, 'Ongoing unravelling of a continental fauna: Decline
and extinction of Australian mammals since European settlement'.
23 J Woinarski, A Burbidge and P Harrison, 'Ongoing unravelling of a continental fauna: Decline
and extinction of Australian mammals since European settlement'.
24 Bill Phillips, Koalas: The little Australians we'd all hate to lose, Australian Government
Publishing Service, Canberra, 1990, pp. 20–26.
25 J Woinarski, A Burbidge and P Harrison, 'Ongoing unravelling of a continental fauna: Decline
and extinction of Australian mammals since European settlement'.
24
period 1990 to 2010 as having declined by 43 per cent in Queensland and 33 per cent
in New South Wales. 26

2.20 Despite being listed as vulnerable, submitters argued that koala numbers are
still declining, with the Australian Koala Foundation estimating that there are fewer
than 100 000 koalas left in the wild, possibly as few as 47 860. 27 Localised extinction
is now predicted—Koala Action submitted that the koala is now 'on the brink of
extinction in many regions of Queensland'. Koala Action noted that between 1996 and
2014 the estimated mean decline in koala density in the Koala Coast (Redlands) was
80.25 per cent and in the Pine Rivers 54.28 per cent. 28

2.21 While environmental awareness has grown from the 1960s, with both the
Commonwealth and state governments enacting legislation to protect biodiversity,
declines in abundance and extinctions have continued to occur. For example, the
Commonwealth Endangered Species Protection Act 1992 responded to 'the
widespread view expressed by the Australian public that endangered species are a
national problem that requires Commonwealth Government involvement'. The Act
established national lists of endangered and vulnerable species and endangered
ecological communities. At that time there were 226 species and sub-species of plants
and 73 species of animals regarded as endangered, with a further 661 species and
sub-species of plants and 66 of animals regarded as vulnerable. 29

Since the introduction of the EPBC Act

2.22 The EPBC Act replaced the previous ad hoc approach to environmental
legislation. In relation to biodiversity, it was the first time that the Commonwealth
Government had 'legislated for the holistic concept of biodiversity conservation'. 30
One of the objects of the EPBC Act is to conserve Australian biodiversity. 31 In order
to achieve its objects, the EPBC Act enhances Australia's capacity to ensure the
conservation of its biodiversity by including provisions to protect native species,

26 Department of the Environment and Energy, Species Profile and Threats Database:
Phascolarctos cinereus (combined populations of Qld, NSW and the ACT)–Koala (combined
populations of Queensland, New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory)
www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=85104 (accessed
28 February 2019).
27 Australian Koala Foundation, Submission 169, p. 2.
28 Koala Action, Submission 92, p. 3.
29 Senator the Hon Nick Bolkus, Minister for Administrative Services, Second Reading Speech,
Senate Hansard, 26 November 1992, p. 3587.
30 Senate Environment, Recreation, Communications and the Arts Committee, Environment
Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Bill 1998 and Environmental Reform (Consequential
Provisions) Bill 1998, April 1999, chapter 9.
31 EPBC Act, paragraph 3(1)(c).
 25
including the prevention of extinction and the promotion of the recovery of threatened
species, and protection of ecosystems. 32

2.23 The EPBC Act provides for species identification and listing of species and
ecological communities as threatened. Since the commencement of the EPBC Act,
new categories have been added for listed threatened species and ecological
communities. Critically endangered, conservation dependant and extinct in the wild
have been added to the previous categories of endangered, vulnerable and extinct for
threatened species and critically endangered and vulnerable have been added to the
previous category of endangered for ecological communities. 33

Trends in listings

2.24 Many submitters noted that since the introduction of the EPBC Act in 1999,
the list of nationally threatened species and ecological communities has increased by
more than 30 per cent. 34 The Threatened Species Recovery Hub added that, since the
EPBC Act's inception, only 13 animal species have been delisted, five animals species
have been down-listed (mostly due to review or new information) and 46 species have
had their conservation status up-listed, mostly because of ongoing and severe
deterioration in their conservation outlook. 35

2.25 The SoE Report 2016 provides information on the threatened species list as at
December 2015:
• 74 ecological communities, of which 31 were listed as critically endangered,
41 as endangered and 2 as vulnerable.
• 480 animal species, including 55 listed as extinct or extinct in the wild, an
increase of 44 species since 2011. The number of nationally listed threatened
animal species has increased for all taxa except amphibians. This included
seven new mammal species listed as endangered and four new species listed
as vulnerable. Two species of marsupial mole were delisted. The number of
threatened bird species increased by 15 species; the number of critically
endangered bird species increased by seven. Four species were uplisted to
critically endangered since 2011. 36

32 EPBC Act, sub paragraphs 3(2)(e)(i), 3(2)(e)(iii).

33 As set out in chapter 1 of this report.
34 The Wilderness Society, Submission 133, p. 5.
35 Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, Attachment 1 (The ongoing decline in the
population and conservation status of threatened fauna), p. 1.
36 Department of the Environment and Energy, Australia State of the Environment 2016,
Terrestrial plan and animal species: Threatened Species Lists (2016),
https://soe.environment.gov.au/theme/biodiversity/topic/2016/terrestrial-plant-and-animal-
species-threatened-species-lists#figure-bio14number-of-fauna-species-listed-under-the-
environment-protection-and-biodiversity-conservation-act-1999-2011-and-2015--119471
(accessed 28 February 2019).
26
• 1294 plant species, including 37 species listed as extinct. 37

2.26 The SoE Report 2016 also provides the change in listings between 2011 and
2015 and noted that in that period, the list of nationally threatened species and
ecological communities increased, with the addition of 30 new ecological
communities, and 44 animal and 5 plant species. 38 Figure 2.1 provides EPBC Act
fauna listings for 2011 and 2015.

Figure 2.1: Number of fauna listings under the EPBC Act, 2011 to 2015

Source: Department of the Environment and Energy, SoE Report 2016.

2.27 In July 2018, there were a total of 511 faunal species listed under all
threatened species categories, an increase in total listings of 31 since 2015. 39 On

37 Department of the Environment and Energy, Australia State of the Environment 2016,
Overview, p. 27.
38 Department of the Environment and Energy, Australia State of the Environment 2016,
Overview, p.27.
39 Humane Society International, Submission 98, p. 2.
 27
18 February 2019, the reclassification of listed species reduced the total number of
threatened species to 506. 40

2.28 Table 2.1 provides the EPBC Act list of threatened fauna in 2018 and 2015.

Table 2.1: EPBC Act list of threatened fauna

Listing Species number 2018 Species number 2015

Extinct Frogs (4) Fauna species extinct or
Mammals (27) extinct in wild (55)
Birds (22)
Other animals (1)
Extinct in the wild Fishes (1)
Critically endangered Fishes (8) Fishes (7)
Birds (17) Birds (13)
Frogs (5) Frogs (5)
Mammals (9) Mammals (6)
Reptiles (10) Reptiles (8)
Other animals (29) Other animals (24)
Endangered Fishes (17) Fishes (16)
Birds (54) Birds (46)
Frogs (14) Frogs (14)
Mammals (37) Mammals (38)
Reptiles (20) Reptiles (17)
Other animals (21) Other animals (19)
Vulnerable Fishes (24) Fishes (24)
Birds (62) Birds (65)
Frogs (10) Frogs (10)
Mammals (60) Mammals (58)
Reptiles (33) Reptiles (33)
Other animals (13) Other animals (12)
Conservation dependent Fishes (8) Fishes (7)
TOTAL Fauna 506 Fauna 480

Sources: Department of the Environment and Energy, Species Profile and Threats Database,
www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl; and State of the Environment
Report, Terrestrial plant and animal species: Threatened species lists,
https://soe.environment.gov.au/theme/biodiversity/topic/2016/terrestrial-plant-and-animal-species-
threatened-species-lists#figure-bio14number-of-fauna-species-listed-under-the-environment-
protection-and-biodiversity-conservation-act-1999-2011-and-2015--119471 (both accessed
28 February 2019).

40 The Hon Melissa Price MP, Minister for the Environment, 'Stronger Protections for threatened
species', Media Release, 18 February 2019.
28
2.29 The Threatened Species Recovery Hub provided an analysis of population
trajectory of EPBC Act listed threatened animal species, based mainly on recent
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assessments. The trajectory is
provided in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Population trajectory of EPBC Act listed threatened animal species
Years on Current population trajectory
EPBC Act list Decreasing Stable Unknown Increasing Not given
18 116 47 21 3 9
15-17 10 1 0 0 2
12-14 10 2 1 0 1
9-11 5 1 0 0 0
6-8 9 1 1 0 0
3-5 16 6 2 0 3
0-2 8 2 2 0 1
Total 174 60 27 3 16
Source: Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, Attachment 1 (The ongoing decline in
the population and conservation status of threatened fauna), p. 7. See submission for notes
accompanying table.

Faunal species extinctions

2.30 The EPBC Act list includes 55 fauna species either extinct or extinct in the
wild. However, evidence suggests that the number of extinctions is much higher.

2.31 For example, while the EPBC Act lists 27 extinct mammal species, the
Threatened Species Recovery Hub have identified 34 mammal extinctions in Australia
since European settlement. It was added that of the 27 listed mammal extinctions
include seven subspecies. As a consequence, 'only 59% of the extinctions of
Australian mammal species are formally acknowledged under the Act, severely under-
playing the extent of loss'. 41

2.32 The Threatened Species Recovery Hub added that 'the rate of Australian
mammal extinctions has continued largely unabated, with an average of
1–2 Australian endemic mammal species being made extinct per decade since about
the 1850s'. The Hub also noted that many of the now extinct mammal species had vast
ranges and large population sizes. 42 The cumulative number of extinct mammal since
1800 is provided in figure 2.2.

41 Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, Attachment 1 (The ongoing decline in the
population and conservation status of threatened fauna), p. 3.
42 Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, Attachment 1 (The ongoing decline in the
population and conservation status of threatened fauna), pp. 3–7.
 29

Figure 2.2: Cumulative number of extinctions of Australian endemic mammal

species since 1800

Note that, for some species, the dating of extinction is too difficult to assess, so the graph does
not include all extinct species

Source: Threated Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, Attachment 1 (The

ongoing decline in the population and conservation status of threatened fauna), p. 3.

2.33 The Threatened Species Recovery Hub also provided information on the rate
of extinction of reptiles and noted that the first known extinction of an Australian
endemic reptile species since 1788 occurred in 2014, with the death in captivity of the
last known Christmas Island forest skink (Emoia nativitatis). 43 It also noted that two
other Australian endemic lizards, the blue-tailed skink (Cryptoblepharus egeriae) and
Lister's gecko (Lepidodactylus listeria), became extinct in the wild in 2010 and 2012.
The Threatened Species Recovery Hub commented that extinction, or extinction in the
wild, of these three Australian endemic lizards represents about 10 per cent of the
31 global reported reptile extinctions since 1500. The Hub stated that, other than the
extinction of one tortoise species, these three reptiles are the only known reptile
extinctions in the world since the 1970s. 44

2.34 Submitters also commented that two other species–Bramble Cay melomys
(Melomys rubicola), the and Christmas Island Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus murrayi)—have
gone extinct in the last decade. 45 In February 2019, the Minister, based on advice from

43 Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, Attachment 1 (The ongoing decline in the
population and conservation status of threatened fauna), p. 3.
44 Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, Attachment 1 (The ongoing decline in the
population and conservation status of threatened fauna), p. 4.
45 Green Fire Science, University of Queensland, Submission 88, p. 5; Victorian National Parks
Association, Submission 110, p. 2.
30
the Threatened Species Scientific Committee (TSSC), determined to move the
Bramble Cay melomys to the extinct category. At that time, the Tammar wallaby was
removed from the extinct list to not listed. 46

2.35 The committee also received evidence that 'many more Australian animal and
plant species have not been sighted for decades, which warrants full scientific
assessment for extinct listing'. 47. For example, three subspecies and one species of
Australian bird are thought to have gone extinct in the last two decades: Spotted
Quail-thrush (Mt Lofty Ranges), Hooded Robin (Tiwi Islands), Star Finch (southern)
and White-chested White-eye. All were seen in the 1980s or early 1990s but have not
been sighted since. 48

2.36 Given the concern that the EPBC Act listings do not accurately reflect the
current outlook for many species, the Centre for Ecosystem Science, UNSW,
concluded:
Many more Australian animal and plant species have not been sighted for
decades, warranting full scientific assessment for extinct listing. 49

Species that are threatened with extinction

2.37 The committee also received evidence that pointed to a range of species which
are threatened with extinction in the coming decades. 50 For example, Green Fire
Science highlighted that, according to the Action Plan for Australian Mammals,
56 mammal species and 33 mammal subspecies are threatened with extinction. 51

2.38 BirdLife Australia noted recent research which has identified a group of
threatened birds at high risk of extinction in the next 20 years. It stated that 'these are
taxa that have not attracted significant recovery effort, funding and/or lack recovery
plans, representing the failure of successive Australian Governments to meet our
international obligation to protect and conserve biodiversity'. 52

2.39 In addition, submitters stated that, for many species, there is too little
information about them to have them listed. The TSSC stated that:

46 Minister for the Environment, the Hon Melissa Price MP, 'Stronger protection for threatened
species', Media release, 18 February 2019.
47 Centre for Ecosystem Science, Submission 56, p. 7.
48 Green Fire Science, University of Queensland, Submission 88, p. 9; BirdLife Australia,
Submission 118, p. 4.
49 Centre for Ecosystem Science, UNSW, Submission 56, p. 7.
50 Nature Conservation Society of South Australia, Submission 104, p. 3.
51 Green Fire Science, University of Queensland, Submission 88, p. 9, citing Woinarski JCZ,
Burbidge AA, Harrison PL 'The Action Plan for Australian Mammals 2012', CSIRO Publishing
(2014).
52 BirdLife Australia, Submission 118, p. 6.
 31
There are large numbers of other poorly known but imperilled species at
risk from extinction but they are not protected because we know so little
about them. Sufficient data are available for other species that have not
been assessed. Scientists suspect that many hundreds of thousands of
Australian species remain undiscovered or poorly known, and that many of
these species are at as great a risk of extinction as those formally listed as
threatened. 53

2.40 Green Fire Science commented that research suggested that 'the number of
EPBC Act listed threatened fauna species in Australia is possibly just 1/20th of the
number that may actually be threatened'. Further, numerous species may have been
lost before they were known to science. Green Fire Science concluded that 'we are
constantly under-stating the severity of the crisis facing us'. 54

Issues raised in relation to the threatened species list

2.41 As the EPBC Act list is at the heart of the legislative framework for
threatened species recovery and protection, it was argued that the list must be rigorous
and reflect the current situation of listed species. The Threatened Species Recovery
Hub stated:
The list of Australia's threatened species provides a robust foundation for
recovery efforts and the application of regulatory protections. The list
should therefore be justified, up-to-date and appropriately include all
Australian species that are threatened with extinction. If the list is not
comprehensive, so must our approach to conserving species be inadequate.
An accurate, scientifically robust list thus provides a strong foundation for
the prevention of extinction, and the recovery, of Australia's threatened
species. 55

2.42 However, the committee received a range of evidence commenting on aspects

on the process for listing threatened species and ecological communities including:
• lengthy delays between nomination and listing of species and communities;
• the lists are incomplete, inaccurate and are not reviewed;
• heavy reliance on public nominations;
• problems with listing where there is insufficient data;
• taxonomic bias in the lists; and
• lack of emergency listing provisions.

53 Threatened Species Scientific Committee, Submission 151, p. 4.

54 Green Fire Science, University of Queensland, Submission 88, p. 9.
55 Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, Attachment 10 (The adequacy of existing
assessment procedures for identifying the conservation status of threatened fauna), p. 3.
32
2.43 The following discussion provides an overview of the evidence received in
relation to these issues. The committee's final report will consider these issues in
greater detail.

Delays in nomination

2.44 Submitters stated that the process for listing is slow—at best taking up to a
year, but generally taking two years. 56 While the EPBC Act includes timeframes for
the TSSC to complete its assessment of nominations, the Act allows the TSSC to seek
an extension of time to do so. The Department of the Environment and Energy
(the department) has informed the committee that, at the time of writing, there are
currently 13 species for which the assessment completion time has been extended by
the Minister, at the TSSC's request. The department also commented that the requests
and justification for extensions are available on the departmental website. 57

2.45 One example of a delay in the assessment of a change in listing is the

Australian sea lion. In 2005, the sea lion was EPBC Act listed as vulnerable.
However, in 2008, the IUCN listed it as endangered. The TCCS is currently assessing
the listing of the Australian sea lion and has been doing so for a number of years. 58

2.46 As a consequence of the time taken to complete a nomination, a species may

continue to decline and their conservation status can become more threatened. In
addition, the failure to list a species may result in a lack of adequate consideration
being given when a development proposal is being assessed. To address these
concerns, submitters called for a simpler and faster nomination and listing process
with statutory timeframes for the assessment of nominations. 59

Lack of accuracy

2.47 In addition to concerns about the accuracy of listed species that have gone
extinct, submitters also questioned the accuracy of the threatened species list for other
classifications. For example, Associate Professor Mark Lintermans stated that the
listings of freshwater fish grossly underestimate the actual number of threatened taxa.
Professor Lintermans added:
It is estimated that approximately 1/3rd of Australia's freshwater fish are yet
to be formally described, and it is this cryptic freshwater fish biodiversity

56 Green Fire Science, University of Queensland, Submission 88, p. 19; Australian Institute for
Marine Science, Submission 158, p. 4.
57 Department of the Environment and Energy, Answer to questions on notice from Additional
Estimates 2018-19, 18 February 2019, Question no. 37 (received 20 March 2019). The list of
extensions for assessment and decision can be found at www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/
threatened/nominations/extensions (accessed 20 March 2019).
58 Environment and Communications Legislation Committee, Mr G. Richardson, Department of
the Environment and Energy, Proof Estimates Hansard, 18 February 2019, p. 114.
59 EDOs of Australia, Submission 52, p. 7.
 33
that is providing the bulk of recently identified taxa that urgently needs
conservation action. 60

2.48 The department commented that 'many of the species listed under the EPBC
Act do not regularly have their status reviewed'. The department added that
'comprehensive reviews of all listed species is challenging due to the large number
that are threatened'. 61

Reliance on public nominations

2.49 Submitters argued that the threatened species list relies heavily on ad hoc
nominations from 'under-resourced community groups rather than any program of
systematic review'. 62

Impact of insufficient data

2.50 Many species are either unassessed or classified as data deficient, meaning
they do not receive environmental protection or management even if they are at threat
and declining. 63

Lack of emergency listing

2.51 As listing of a threatened species can take up to two years, submitters

supported the inclusion of an emergency listing mechanism. For example, the Humane
Society International stated that there should be a means by which 'more urgent
nominations can be prioritised and emergency listings made where there are
demonstrated immediate or significant threats'. 64 The Threatened Species Recovery
Hub commented that:
[Emergency listing] may be particularly critical where species experience
sudden, catastrophic declines, or where a new species discovered during an
environmental impact assessment could be at risk from the proposed
development. 65

2.52 The Threatened Species Recovery Hub provided the case of the Bellinger
River Snapping Turtle, Myuchelys georgesi, to illustrate the need for emergency
listing. In 2015, the turtle experienced an up to 90 per cent loss of population in under

60 Associate Professor Mark Lintermans, Submission 228, p. 1.

61 Department of the Environment and Energy, Submission 57, p.12.
62 Nature Conservation Society of South Australia, Submission 104, p. 8.
63 EDOs of Australia, Submission 52, p. 8; Green Fire Science, University of Queensland,
Submission 88, p. 19.
64 Humane Society International, Submission 98, p. 18. See also, Tasmanian Land Conservancy,
Submission 44, p. 4; Green Fire Science, University of Queensland, Submission 88, p. 19;
Australian Conservation Foundation, Submission 137, p. 9.
65 Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, p. 18.
34
one year due to disease. While a recovery program has been established, the change in
the formal conservation status under the EPBC Act took from February 2015 to
December 2016 to be completed. The Hub noted that 'during which time the
Commonwealth would have been unable to legally use the turtle's proposed Critically
Endangered status in considering applications for developments that would impact
them'. 66

Key drivers of faunal extinction

2.53 According to the state of the environment report, the key pressures of habitat
clearing and fragmentation, invasive species and climate change remain high on the
list of pressures that threaten listed species and ecological communities, and
biodiversity in general. 67 Evidence received by the committee also pointed to a range
of threatening processes, both singly and in combination, driving biodiversity loss in
Australian including:
• habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation;
• invasive species including cats and foxes;
• changes to fire management;
• climate change; and
• disease.

Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation

2.54 The Commonwealth Endangered Species Scientific Sub-committee (the

predecessor to the TSSC) commented that it was 'strongly of view that land clearance
has been the most significant threatening process in Australia since European
settlement' and should land clearing continue, additional species will become
endangered. 68 Many submitters supported this view. 69 Dr Prowse for example,
commented:
The extinction of species and the loss of biodiversity is clearly a crisis of
our own making. The reasons for this crisis are really quite clear: the loss of
habitat is driving a loss of biodiversity and leading to extinction of
species. 70

66 Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, p. 18; Attachment 10 (The adequacy of
existing assessment procedures for identifying the conservation status of threatened fauna),
p. 4.
67 Department of the Environment and Energy, Australia State of the Environment 2016,
Overview, p. vii.
68 Department of the Environment and Energy, 'Land Clearance', www.environment.gov.au/
biodiversity/threatened/key-threatening-processes/land-clearance (accessed 19 March 2019).
69 Australian Veterinary Association, Submission 54, p. 3.
70 Dr Stephen Prowse, Chair, Protect the Bush Alliance, Proof Committee Hansard,
1 February 2019, p. 28.
 35
2.55 The Centre for Ecosystem Science, UNSW, provided the following overview
of deforestation:
• between 1972 and 2014, more than 7.2 million ha of primary forest was
cleared across Australia, about 7 per cent of the available forest;
• in 2015, Eastern Australia, including NSW, was identified as one of only
11 regions of the world undergoing high deforestation and the only one in a
developed country;
• deforestation has contributed to serious declines in woodland birds and
reptiles. For example, it was estimated that about 100 million native birds,
reptiles and mammals were killed because of destruction of their habitat in
NSW between 1998 and 2005; and
• the loss of such habitat threatens the continent's biodiversity, affecting 60 per
cent of Australia's nearly 1700 threatened species. 71

2.56 Professor David Lindenmayer, appearing in a private capacity, provided

evidence on the impact of logging on forest biodiversity. He stated:
What we have seen, particularly in the last 20 years, is a significant decline
in what we call site occupancy—that's the occupancy of these long-term
sites by various elements of biodiversity. We have seen site occupancy for
Leadbeater's possum decline by half, 50 per cent, in the last 20 years.
Greater gliders have declined by 64 per cent. We've seen significant
declines in virtually all of the species of possums and greater gliders on
which we have worked. We have seen declines in 24 of the 49 species of
birds on which we work. 72

2.57 The rate of land clearing is contentious. The Australian Veterinary

Association pointed to work by Evans which indicated that a lack of consistency
between Queensland's SLATS (Statewide Landcover and Tree Study) and the
Australian Government's NCAS (National Carbon Accounting System). The study
concluded that 'in the absence of a robust quantitative evaluation, it is not yet clear
whether deforestation rates have significantly changed following other recent policy
changes in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia'. 73 This issue will be
explored further in the committee's final report.

2.58 Dr Reside provided evidence on the threat of extinction facing the black-
throated finch from habitat loss. The black-throated finch has been EPBC Act listed as
endangered for nearly 14 years. As a result of habitat loss it has now disappeared from

71 Centre for Ecosystem Science, UNSW, Submission 56, p. 6 (citations not included).
72 Professor David Lindenmayer, Private capacity, Committee Hansard, 22 November 2018, p. 2.
73 Australian Veterinary Association, Submission 54, p. 5.
36
over 80 per cent of its original range and is now confined to two major areas around
Townsville and the Galilee Basin in Central Queensland. 74

Invasive species including cats, foxes and cane toads

2.59 Invasive species have contributed significantly to species extinctions in

Australia. The Invasive Species Council stated that 'invasive species have been
overwhelmingly the main cause of animal extinctions in Australia, primarily
responsible for at least three-quarters of the mammal losses, about half the bird losses
and all frog and lizard losses'. The Council went on to note that the recent extinctions
and extinctions on Christmas Island (of the Christmas Island pipistrelle, Christmas
Island forest skink, Blue-tailed skink and the Lister's gecko), were all due to invasive
species such as the Asian wolf snake, cats, black rates and Asian giant centipedes. The
Council concluded that 'Christmas Island offers a sobering case study of the
destruction that can be wrought by invasive species'. 75

2.60 Submitters commented on the benefits of eradicating invasive species for

faunal populations. Many pointed to the example of Macquarie Island where feral
cats, rabbits, ship rates and house mice had destroyed important seabird populations
and sub-Antarctic ecosystems. An eradication program was completed in 2014 and
since that time, populations of eight threatened bird species had either stabilised or
recovered. 76 A further example was provided by Professor Moritz who noted that the
baiting of foxes in Western Australia 'was demonstratively effecting in recovering
threatened species there'. 77

2.61 Some evidence pointed to the need for a more stringent environmental
biosecurity regime, which would prevent the arrival into Australia of potentially
harmful new invasive species. For example, the Invasive Species Council supported a
stronger regime, particularly for islands, where native animal populations were more
vulnerable to the effects of invasive species. The Invasive Species Council also noted
that island habitats also offered substantial opportunities for the recovery of threatened
fauna, as feral animals could be eradicated to protect endemic species. 78

74 Dr April Reside, Research fellow, Green Fire Science Lab, University of Queensland, Proof
Committee Hansard, 1 February 2019, p. 40.
75 Invasive Species Council, Submission 27, p. 2. See also, Ms Rachel Lowry, Director of Wildlife
Conservation and Science, Zoos Victoria., Committee Hansard, 22 November 2018, p. 51.
76 Invasive Species Council, Submission 27, p. 9; Australian Veterinary Association, Queensland
Branch, Submission 54, p. 2.
77 Professor Craig Moritz, Chair, National Committee for Ecology, Evolution and Conservation,
Australian Academy of Science, Committee Hansard, 8 October 2018, p. 25.
78 Invasive Species Council, Submission 27, p. 9.
 37

Changed fire management

2.62 Changed fire regimes is considered a major threat that has contributed to the
extinction of six mammal species, and is a significant pressure on 35 threatened
mammal species. 79

2.63 Professor Bowman provided evidence on the impact of the change from
Aboriginal fire management:
…the fire regimes that were applied to that national park were completely
at odds with the fire regimes under Aboriginal practice. I wanted to know
about Aboriginal practice. I've worked in central Arnhem Land for
20 years. I've seen traditional Aboriginal fire management. I've worked on
an estate that was very rich in biodiversity. Again, that system where we
worked has now also deteriorated. 80

Disease

2.64 Disease is now affecting a number of Australia's native animals, including:

Tasmanian devils and facial tumour disease; chytrid fungus with global impacts on
wild frog populations; Bellingen River turtle virus; Koala chlamydia; and sarcoptic
mange in wombats. 81

2.65 The department noted that in 2014, seven frog species were identified as
being at high risk of extinction from the disease chytridiomycosis, resulting from
infection by the chytrid fungus, with a further 22 species assessed as being at
moderate to lower risk of extinction. 82

Climate change

2.66 Climate change is recognised as having a severe impact on the survival of

species across the globe and in Australia it is seen as one of the major factors in
biodiversity decline and species loss in both the terrestrial and marine environments.
Professor Brendan Wintle, a Director of the Threatened Species Recovery Hub,
commented that 'of the 450 listed animals in the EPBC Act, almost all of them are
actually still declining, so there is a real risk also that these declines will be
accelerated and exacerbated by climate change'. 83

79 Department of the Environment and Energy, Submission 57, p. 4.

80 Professor David Bowman, Private capacity, Proof Committee Hansard, 14 February 2019, p. 9
81 Zoo and Aquarium Association of Australia, Submission 51, p. 2.
82 Department of the Environment and Energy, Submission 57, p. 4.
83 Professor Brendan Wintle, Director, Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Proof Committee
Hansard, 4 February 2019, p. 61.
38
2.67 Australia has already lost one known species due to the effects of climate
change. In 2016 a report found that the Bramble Cay melomys was found to have
become extinct due to sea level rise, which was attributed to climate change. 84

2.68 The committee was also provided with evidence of the impact of extreme
weather arising from climate change. In the case of the white lemuroid ringtail possum
which lives on Mount Lewis in Far North Queensland, a severe heatwave in 2005 had
a catastrophic impact on population numbers. 85

Impacts of faunal extinction and decline

2.69 The impacts of faunal extinction and decline are multifaceted and pervasive; it
is not only the environment that suffers but also Australian society and our economic
wellbeing.

2.70 The committee received extensive evidence on the ecological impact of faunal
loss and decline and the need to maintain health and diverse ecosystems. For example,
the Tasmanian Land Conservancy, citing a study by Fonesca, stated:
…the stability in natural ecosystems modulates depending on their richness
and the functional role played by its composite species. In some cases
extinction will have no effect at all if the role of the species lost is assumed
by others, but extinction can have devastating ecosystem effects if the
species lost performs a unique function or if services are compromised. 86

2.71 The Wilderness Society submitted that emerging research shows the impacts
of diversity loss might be sufficiently large to rival the impacts of other global drivers
of environmental change such as climate change—that is, diversity loss may have
fundamental impacts on global life systems such as water exchange, nutrient cycling
and climate. 87 The Threated Species Recovery Hub added:
Ecological research worldwide has documented the beneficial interactions
of species in food webs and has shown that simplification of food webs due
to the extinction (or functional disappearance) of some species can have
cascading and complex effects on biodiversity, ecosystem processes and
ecosystem services… 88

84 Gynther, I., Waller, N. & Leung, L.K.-P, Confirmation of the extinction of the Bramble Cay
melomys Melomys rubicola on Bramble Cay, Torres Strait: results and conclusions from a
comprehensive survey in August–September 2014 (2016), Unpublished report to the
Department of Environment and Heritage Protection, Queensland Government, p. i.
85 Mr Lyndon Schneiders, National Director, The Wilderness Society Ltd, Proof Committee
Hansard, 1 February 2019, p. 9.
86 Tasmanian Land Conservancy, Submission 44, p. 3.
87 The Wilderness Society, Submission 133, p. 4.
88 Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, Attachment 2 (Ecological impacts of
faunal extinction and decline), p. 3.
 39
2.72 Disturbance of ecosystems through loss and decline can cause substantial
change and the recovery of threatened species will have environmental benefits. Many
threatened species have roles in the dispersal of seeds of native plants and spores of
beneficial fungi. They play a role as ecosystem engineers and in balancing populations
through predation as well as moderation of fire regimes, control of vegetation
composition, and prevention of erosion. 89

2.73 In this regard, the Tasmanian Land Conservancy pointed to ecosystem de-
stabilisation in Tasmania due to the functional loss of two apex predators, the extinct
Thylacine and now reduced Tasmanian devil populations due to Devil Facial Tumour
Disease. As a consequence, 'over the past two decades significant shifts in predatory
species especially feral cats now impacting critical weight range species such as
bandicoot and bettong mean that Tasmania's status as a safe haven is perilously at
risk'. 90 Bush Heritage Australia also added that quoll populations are at risk in
Tasmania from increased numbers of feral cats. 91

2.74 The Northern Territory Government noted declining biodiversity of complex

ecosystems and stated that the 'loss and decline of threatened species, along with the
wider declines of species that they are indicative of, have potential ecological domino
effects on other species and communities'. These effects include: reduced prey
availability for native predators, changes in community composition and competition,
reduction in species for pollination and seed/fruit dispersal, and loss of environmental
engineers, for example mammals that burrow and dig. 92

2.75 Further evidence of the ecological contribution of threatened species was

provided by the Western Australian Government, which provided the following
examples:
• the endangered Carnaby's Cockatoo contributes to the health of the
Endangered Banksia woodlands of the Swan Coastal Plain ecological
community through its role in removing wood boring grubs and pruning trees
and shrubs to increase flowering and fruiting;
• the burrows of the vulnerable bilby provide shelter and refuge for at least
20 species of arid zone mammals, reptiles and birds. Bilby burrows also
accumulate nitrogen and other nutrients and hold moisture for longer periods
in arid environments, which support improved plant regeneration; and

89 Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, Attachment 2(Ecological impacts of faunal
extinction and decline), p. 6.
90 Tasmanian Land Conservancy, Submission 44, p. 3. See also, Threatened Species Recovery
Hub, Submission 159, Attachment 2 (Ecological impacts of faunal extinction and decline),
pp. 5–6.
91 Bush Heritage Australia, Submission 37, p. 3.
92 Northern Territory Government, Submission 2, p. 4. See also, Australian Wildlife Conservancy,
Submission 55, p. 2.
40
• the Critically Endangered woylie turns over large volumes of soil, dispersing
seeds and fungi, improving water infiltration, nutrient cycling, plant
regeneration and reducing fire risk by lowering leaf litter fuel loads. 93

2.76 The Ecological Society of Australia pointed to the part played by Australian
marsupials such as bettongs and potoroos in dispersing spores of fungi which are of
benefit to trees. The loss of these marsupials has a cascading effect on the health of
the entire ecosystem. 94 Many mammals such as bandicoots and rat-kangaroos dig for
food and in the process turn over large volumes of soil, keeping soil in a loose and
friable state, accelerating recycling of nutrients, and enhancing penetration of
moisture. 95

2.77 Other submitters cited the loss of dingoes from the environment in order to
protect livestock as contributing to the rise in numbers of kangaroo and feral pigs. 96

2.78 In further evidence to the committee, submitters commented on the

importance Australia's unique biodiversity on our character, our economic wellbeing
and for Indigenous Australians.

2.79 Mr Trezise of the ACF drew to the committee's attention the place of
Australia's biodiversity at the core of our national identity; that we are taught from a
young age the wonders of our native fauna. 97 Professor Wintle, Threatened Species
Recovery Hub, added that the loss of species degrades our society and that:
Species have a right to exist, and the loss of species degrades our society.
We have a responsibility to pass on to future generations the wondrous
natural heritage that we've been so fortunate to inherit, and we need to pass
it on in a state that's equal to or better than when we inherited it. The
current faunal extinction crisis represents a major threat to the legacy of our
generation. 98

2.80 Australians depend on thriving ecosystems for their well-being and prosperity.
Extinction and species population loss reduces overall biodiversity in any ecosystem,
reducing the stability of ecosystems and affecting the efficiency of ecosystem
function. The Australian Veterinary Association, Queensland Branch submitted:

93 Western Australian Government, Submission 9, p. 2.

94 Ecological Society of Australia, Submission 86, p. 2.
95 Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Submission 159, Attachment 2 (Ecological impacts of
faunal extinction and decline), p. 5.
96 Bush Heritage Australia, Submission 37, p. 3; Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland
Fraser Coast, Submission 41, p. 6
97 Mr James Trezise, Policy Analyst, Australian Conservation Foundation, Committee Hansard,
8 October 2018, p. 1.
98 Professor Brendan Wintle, Threatened Species Recovery Hub, 14 February 2019, p. 8.
 41
Biodiversity in all its complexity is essential for the maintenance of
ecosystem services, clean and adequate water supplies, clean air, soil
fertility and stability, carbon sequestration and to address climate change.
Human health and prosperity as well as that of the natural world is
ultimately dependent upon addressing faunal extinctions. A healthy fauna
can only exist in conjunction with a healthy flora and microbiota. 99

2.81 The Centre for Ecosystem Science similarly emphasised the importance of
maintaining healthy ecosystems and argued that 'prolonged over-exploitation of
[Australia's] landscapes has eroded their capacity to deliver economic prosperity and
security'. The Centre added:
Ecosystems deliver services such as clean water and air, soil stability and
fertility, climate regulation, carbon storage, recreational and tourism
opportunities, as well as production goods such as food, fibre and timber.
Although many of these services are often regarded as economic
externalities, they cannot be taken for granted and their maintenance costs
cannot be ignored without eroding Australian incomes and business
profitability. 100

2.82 Other submitters pointed to impacts on particular industries, should the

extinction crisis not be addressed. This included losses to the tourist industry when
iconic wildlife such as the koala no longer exist or when ecological systems such as
the Great Barrier Reef are so degraded that their appeal to tourists diminishes. The
continued loss of fauna risks crop and stock production and therefore loss of food
supplies. 101 The Environmental Farmers Network commented that
Ecological networks, like all complex systems, behave in unpredictable
ways when components are removed (become extinct). Ecological
processes are critical to sustainable farming, eg pollination, water filtration,
breakdown of crop residues and the recycling of nutrients. Fauna play roles
in these things. 102

2.83 A further matter raised in evidence was the fundamental importance of

Australia's unique flora and fauna to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people who
have strong connections and obligations to country. The Australian Institute of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS) submitted that:
Retaining connection to country is critical to the identity and cultural
continuity of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander societies and as a
consequence, for the wellbeing and freedom of individual Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander people. Indigenous peoples' laws and philosophical

99 Australian Veterinary Association, Queensland Branch, Submission 54, p. 2.

100 Centre for Ecosystem Science, Submission 56, p. 10.
101 Name withheld, Submission 391, p. 8.
102 Environmental Farmers Network, Submission 29, p. 2.
42
traditions, kinship, language and art are all connected through their
relationship with lands and waters. 103

2.84 AIATSIS went on to state that 'Indigenous owners prioritise caring for
country as part of their overarching obligations and spiritual relationships with their
lands and waters because of their interconnectedness with all aspects of the natural
environment'. 104 Any extinction affects that interconnectedness. The ACF commented:
Extinction events can have profound cultural implications. There are deep
connections between Indigenous culture and custom and Australia's
wildlife. Extinction events break these connections. They can and have
significant impacts on communities and can further perpetuate social
inequality. 105

103 Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, Submission 168, p. 2.
104 Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, Submission 168, p. 3.
105 Australian Conservation Foundation, Submission 137, p. 2.