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 DISCOVERIES

Chemistry: Bulgarian Journal Volume 23 Природните науки

1
of Science Education Number 2, 2014Maria Atanassova, 2вRadoslav Angelov
образованието

University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy, Sofia

History and Philosophy of Science
История и философия University
на науката of Sofia

CHRONOLOGY OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

DISCOVERIES
Dedicated to Marie Sklodowska-Curie, 80th years of her death (4 July 1934)
1Maria Atanassova, 2Radoslav Angelov

University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy, Sofia, University of Sofia

Dedicated to Marie Sklodowska-Curie, 80th years of her death (4 July 1934)

1)
Maria
Abstract. The Skłodowska-Curie
discovery (1867-1934)
of chemical elements during the centuries from Antiquity
up to now was observed in chemical and political point of view. A special attention was
spared for the French chemists and the work of Marie Curie.
Keywords: chemical elements, history, discoveries
1
An element is matter, all of whose atoms are alike in having the same positive charge
on the nucleus. Elements are divided into metals (approximately 80%) and no-metals.
Currently there are 86 known metals. Before the 19th century only 24 of these metals had

275
on the nucleus. Elements are divided into metals (approximately 80%) and no-metals.
Currently there are 86 known metals. Before the 19th century only 24 of these metals had
Maria Atanassova, Radoslav Angelov
been discovered and, of these 24 metals, 12 were discovered in the 18th century. Therefore,
from the discovery of the first metals gold and copper until the end of the 17th century, some
been discovered
7700 years, and, of these
only 12 metals were24known
metals,(Fig.
12 were
1).discovered
Four of in the 18
them th century. Therefore,
As, Sb, Zn and Bi were
from the discovery of the first metals gold and copper until the end of the 17th century,
th
discovered
somein7700
the 13
years, 14th12century,
andonly whileknown
metals were Pt was discovered
(Fig. in them
1). Four of the 16th
As, century.
Sb, Zn and Bi
were discovered in the 13th and 14th century, while Pt was discovered in the 16th century.

Fig. 1. Percent discovered elements over the years

Fig. 1. Percent discovered elements over the years
The origin of the chemical elements show a wide diversity beginning with the use
of some of primitive human societies that found native elements like gold and copper
and extracted
The origin of(smelted) iron and
the chemical a few other
elements showmetals
a wide from their ores.
diversity Modernwith
beginning historians
the use of
categorize the Golden and Silver Age as mythical, but consider the Bronze and Iron Age
some ofhistorically
primitivevalid.
human societies
Stone age manthat found
learned native elements
to fashion like gold
gold into jewelry and and copper and
ornaments,
learning
extracted that itiron
(smelted) could
andbeaformed into sheets
few other metalsand wires
from easily.
their It may
ores. Modernbe thehistorians
first metalcategorize
used
by humans. The Copper Age was a time period between the Neolithic and the Bronze
the Golden
Age. and
Edged Silver
weapons Agesuch
as mythical, but consider
as knives, swords, the Bronze
spearheads and axesand wereIron
madeAge historically
of copper,
as were brooches, pins and vessels for food and drink, in fact the tin was scarce. The
valid. Stone age man learned to fashion gold into jewelry and ornaments, learning that it
seven metals, known as the metals of Antiquity, were the metals upon which civilization
could bewas
formed
based.into
These sheets
sevenand wires
metals areeasily. It may
presented be the
in Table 1. first metal used by humans. The
Their names are connected with the Sun, Moon and the five known planets at that
Copper Age was a time period between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. Edged weapons
time from the Solar system. Au like a Sun has everlasting brilliance. Ag like a Moon
such as has ratherswords,
knives, cold luster. Cu was named
spearheads after were
and axes Venus,made
the goddess of beauty.
of copper, as wereThe brooches,
sparkling pins
plated made from Cu or bronze were used as mirrors. Fe was used for weapons manu-
and vessels forand
facture food
Mars and drink,
is the god in
of fact the Mercury
the war. tin was isscarce.
the godThe seven
of the metals,
trade, known as the
in continuously
movement, like Hg, that can not be detain in one place. The other two metals from the
2
great group of seven are Sn and Pb.

276
 Chronology of Chemical Elements Discoveries

Table 1. Metals in the Antiquity.

Element Antiquity Symbol Planet

Au 6000 BC Sun
Cu 4200 BC Venus
Ag 4000 BC Moon
Pb 3500 BC Saturn
Sn 1750 BC Jupiter
Fe 1500 BC Mars
Hg 750 BC Mercury

The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy with Sn
bronze (3300-1200BC). The Iron Age is the period generally marked by the prevalent use
of iron or steel as material for cutting tools and weapons. Around 3000BC, iron was a
scarce and precious metal, between 1200BC and 1000BC, diffusion in the understanding
of iron metallurgy and utilization of iron objects was fast and far-flung. The extraction of
usable metal from oxidized iron ores is more difficult than tin and copper smelting. It is
therefore not surprising that humans only mastered iron smelting after several millennia
of bronze metallurgy. Before 1800 there were 12 metals in common use: Au, Cu, Ag, Pb,
Sn, Fe, Hg, Bi, Zn, As, Sb and Pt (Table 2). The first element to be chemically discovered
was phosphorus, prepared from urine by Brandt in 1669. Alchemists and chemists subse-
quently identified many more, with nearly all of the naturally occurring elements becoming
known by 1900. In 1937, Tc became the first artificially synthesized element that does not
98
occur naturally: 42 Mo + 21 H ® 9943Tc + n. Its name came from the Greek word “τεχνικός”
meaning “artificial”. It was discovered by the Italian physicist Emilio Segre.
According to traditional accounts, the scientific revolution began in Europe towards
the end of the Renaissance era and continued trough the late 18th century. Although the
displayed diagram (Fig. 1), we do not have to believe that chemical elements had been
discovered only in 19th century. Gradually with increasing complexity of human life,
exploring the world, the people’s need of new materials naturally augment. The more the
time went on, the more the number of detected chemical elements growth. As a whole
the humanity went through several major historical moments: Medieval, Renaissance,
Absolutism, Enlightenment – rationalist age, 19th century, Modern Times – 19th–20th
century, as a distinct historical period it is time of Cold War and the fall of Berlin Wall,
21th century – the time of new technologies and globalization.

277
 Maria Atanassova, Radoslav Angelov

Table 2. Discovered elements from Antiquity to 2000 year

Antiq- Au, Ag, Cu, Fe, Sn, Pb, Sb, Hg, 1840 Er, Tb
uity S, C, N
Middle As, Bi, Zn, P 1850
Age
1700 1860 Cs, Rb, Tl, In, He
1710 1870 Ga, Ho, Yb, Sc, Tm
1720 1880 Gd, Pr, Nd, Ge, Dy, Sm
1730 Co, Pt 1890 Ar, Kr, Ne, Xe, Po, Ra, Ac
1740 1900 Rn, Eu, Lu
1750 Ni, Mg 1910 Pa, Re
1760 H 1920 Hf
1770 N, O, Cl, Mn, Ba 1930 Fr, Tc
1780 Mo, W, Te, Zr, U, Sr 1940 Np, At, Pu, Cm, Am, Pm, Bk
1790 Ti, Y, Be 1950 Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No
1800 V, Nb, Ta, Rh, Pa, Os, Ir, Ce 1960 Lr, Rf, Db
K, Na, B, Ca, Ru, Ba 1970 Sg
1810 I, F, Li, Se, Cd 1980 Bh, Mt, Hs
1820 Si, Al, Br, Th 1990 Ds, Rg, Cn
1830 La 2000 Fl, Lv

Considering the historical periodization of the world, we understand why huge

discovery of new elements started in the 19th century. By this time, Europe was under
cultural economic and political influence of the Christian religion. Only accepting the
ideas of the Renaissance, the people began to create the new worldview, understanding
that it was not just the subject of what was happened. Man transcended its pragmatic
nature and realized that they could change the world by studying the phenomena that
occurred in the world. Gradually the society was being transformed into centralized
world. The period – the end of the17th century – beginning of 18th – was a time of
new thinking, building the foundation of science. The final stage of the secularization
completed. The knowledge, separated and arranged by experiential, was getting rid
of dogma and prejudice. The new sciences such as chemistry, biology, mathematics,
medicine started to separate. The basic of logos was put. Since this stage of human

278
The historical events occurring in the 18th century prepared the growth of the discovering of
the chemical elements in 19th century. The states economical power divided the world into
spheres of influence. In 18thChronology
century inof Europe
Chemicalseveral
Elementsimportant
Discoveries events happened. Firstly, it

was the realization of the ideas of Baudelaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Charles Montesquieu
and development,
the subsequent theFrench
discoveryRevolution (1789−1799),
of new chemical elementswhich established
increased. a constitutional
The research on the
nature and its structure were closely related to the chemical elements.
monarchy and republic. Change in state structure led to a change in the development of The historical
events occurring in the 18th century prepared the growth of the discovering of the
science and scientific
chemical elements indiscoveries.
19th century.Along
The stateswitheconomical
the socialpower
revolution, in world
divided the Franceintocame
spheresin oftheinfluence.
revolution chemicalInscience.
18th century in Europe
In France several important
and Germany events happened.
was discovered Uranium 92U,
Firstly, it was the realization of the ideas of Baudelaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Charles
known with its powerful
Montesquieu and theapplication
subsequentinFrench
receiving of nuclear
Revolution power and which
(1789-1799), producing the atomic
established
bomb. a constitutional monarchy and republic. Change in state structure led to a change in
the development of science and scientific discoveries. Along with the social revolu-
The more interesting are the periods in which began the “boom” of discovery of
tion, in France came revolution in the chemical science. In France and Germany was
discovered
chemical elements.Uranium
On the92U, known
chart (Fig.with its peak
2) that powerful application
can be seen. Thein“boom”
receiving of nuclearby a
is followed
power and producing the atomic bomb.
period of decline (from 19th century to the end of the First World War 1914−1918 ). And
The more interesting are the periods in which began the “boom” of discovery of
againchemical
the periodelements. On the
of growth chart (Fig.
is coming (the2)time
that between
peak can the
be seen.
First The “boom”
World War is followed
and 1985– the
by a period of decline (from 19th century to the end of the First World War 1914-1918).
first beginning of the Soviet collapse). Another period of decline with its minimum is the
And again the period of growth is coming (the time between the First World War and
years1985–
1984−1996.
the first beginning of the Soviet collapse). Another period of decline with its
minimum is the years 1984-1996.

Fig. 2. Discovered elements over the years

Fig. 2. Discovered elements over the years
Obviously the discovery of the chemical elements is associated with the historical
events occurred
Obviously in discovery
the countries and
of depends on the elements
the chemical financial and economicalwith
is associated factors
theinhistorical
these
states (Figs. 3 and 4). In addition to this, the internal processes in a country weren’t isolated
events occurred
from in countries
the international and depends
community. Aparton the financial
of France, and economical
revolutions factors
for democracy in these
happened

279 5
as characterized by a very big world revolution – industrial (1750−1850). This was a period
transitionstates
from a 3primary
(Figs. and 4). Inagrarian
addition toeconomy to industrial
this, the internal production.
processes in The isolated
a country weren’t increasing
nsumptionfrom the international
in the community.
industry required newApart of France,in
discoveries revolutions for democracy
the science happened
of chemistry that incould
Maria Atanassova, Radoslav Angelov
many others countries worldwide. Along with the civil revolutions, the 18th and of early 19th
ad to increasing production. That’s why 42 percent of known nowadays chemical elements
was characterized by a very big world revolution – industrial (1750−1850). This was a period
ere found out in the 19th century (the maximum in Fig. 2).
inofmany
transition from a primary agrarian economy to industrial production. The increasing
others countries worldwide. Along with the civil revolutions, the 18th and of
consumption
early 19th wasin characterized
the industry required new discoveries
by a very big world in the science
revolution – of chemistry(1750-1850).
industrial that could
This
lead was a periodproduction.
to increasing of transition from
That’s whya 42
primary
percentagrarian
of knowneconomy
nowadaystochemical
industrial produc-
elements
tion. The increasing consumption
th in the industry required
were found out in the 19 century (the maximum in Fig. 2).
new discoveries in the science
of chemistry that could lead to increasing production. That’s why 42 THE percent of known
THE MAIN
MAIN SUBGROUPS
IOD SUBGROUPS

1 nowadays
2 chemical elements were found out in the 19th century13 (the14maximum 15 in Fig.17 2).
16 18
1 H 1 H 2 He
1

3 Li 4 Be THE MAIN 5 B 6 C MAIN

7 N 8 O 9 F 10 Ne
THE SUBGROUPS
PERIOD SUBGROUPS pre - history
2 SECONDARY SUBGROUP
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
11 Na 12 Mg 1 H 13 Al 14 Si 15 P 16 1 H 2
S 17 He
Cl 18 Ar
1 pre - history
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 Li 4 Be 5 B 6 C 7 N 8 O 9 F 10 Ne
19 K 20 2Ca 21 Sc 22 Ti 23 V 24 Cr 25 Mn SECONDARY
26 Fe SUBGROUP
27 Co 28 Ni 29 Cu 30 Zn 31 Gapre32- history Ge 33 As 34 Se 35 Br 36 Kr
c. 2500 BC c. 5000 BC pre 1500; 1250
4
11 Na 12 Mg 1374 13 Al 14 Si 15 P 16 S 17 Cl 18 Ar
pre - history
3
37 Rb 38 Sr 39 Y 40 Zr 413 Nb 442 5
Mo 43 6
Tc 44 7
Ru 45 8 9
Rh 46 Pd1047 11
Ag 48 12
Cd 49 In 50 Sn 51 Sb 52 Te 53 I 54 Xe
c. 3000 BC c. 2100 BC c. 1600 BC
5 19 K 20 Ca 21 Sc 22 Ti 23 V 24 Cr 25 Mn 26 Fe 27 Co 28 Ni 29 Cu 30 Zn 31 Ga 32 Ge 33 As 34 Se 35 Br 36 Kr
c. 2500 BC c. 5000 BC pre 1500; 1250
4
1374
55 Cs 56 Ba 57 La* 72 Hf 73 Ta 74 W 75 Re 76 Os 77 Ir 78 Pt 79 Au 80 Hg 81 Tl 82 Pb 83 Bi 84 Po 85 At 86 Rn
37 Rb 38 Sr 39 Y 40 Zr 41 Nb 42 Mo 43 Tc 44 Ru 45 preRh1700
46 c.Pd3000
47 BC Agc. 48
1500 BC Cd 49 In 50 c. 1000SnBC
51 c.Sb
1500
52 Te 53 I 54 Xe
6 c. 3000 BC c. 2100 BC c. 1600 BC
5

87 Fr 88 Ra 8955 Ac** 104

Cs 56 Ba Rf
57 105 La* 72Db 106Hf 73 Sg 107
Ta 74 BhW 108
75 Hs 76109
Re Os Mt
77 110 Ir 78Dm 111Pt 79 Rg Au
11280 CnHg 113
81 Tl 82114
Uut Fl 115 Bi 84
Pb 83 Uup 116
Po 85 Lv At
11786 Uus
Rn 118 Uuo
7 pre 1700 c. 3000 BC c. 1500 BC c. 1000 BC c. 1500
6

87 Fr 88 Ra 89 Ac** 104 Rf 105 Db 106 Sg 107 Bh 108 Hs 109 Mt 110 Dm 111 Rg 112 Cn 113 Uut 114 Fl 115 Uup 116 Lv 117 Uus 118 Uuo
7

Fig. 3. Periodic table with nationality of the countries of the chemical elements discovered
Fig.Fig. 3. Periodic
3. Periodic table table with nationality
with nationality of the countries
of the countries of the
of the chemical chemical
elements elements
discovered
discovered

Fig. 4. Number of discovered elements by countries

Fig. 4. Number of discovered elements by countries
Fig. 4. Number of discovered elements by countries 6

280
6
and North America, and gradually affected the whole world. In that period 1750–1850,
England and Sweden had grown in the discovery of the chemical elements. England
The industrial revolution and Civil revolutions spread from Britain to Western Europe
ecorded in its history 17 new chemical elements such as Mg, O, Cl, Pd, Na, B, K, Ca, etc.
and North America, and gradually Chronologyaffected
of Chemicalthe whole
Elements world. In that period 1750–1850,
Discoveries
Fig. 5, Table 3) and Sweden – 17 chemical elements among which Ni, Mn, Mo, Li, Se, La,
England and Sweden had grown in the discovery of the chemical elements. England
etc. (Fig. 6, Table 3).
recorded inTheitsindustrial
history revolution
17 new chemical elements such
and Civil revolutions spreadasfrom
Mg,Britain
O, Cl,toPd, Na, Europe
Western B, K, Ca, etc.
and North America, and gradually affected the whole world. In that period 1750–1850,
(Fig. 5, Table 3) and Sweden – 17 chemical elements among which Ni, Mn, Mo, Li, Se, La,
England and Sweden had grown in the discovery of the chemical elements. England
recorded
etc. (Fig. in its
6, Table 3).history 17 new chemical elements such as Mg, O, Cl, Pd, Na, B, K, Ca,
etc. (Fig. 5, Table 3) and Sweden – 17 chemical elements among which Ni, Mn, Mo,
Li, Se, La, etc. (Fig. 6, Table 3).

Fig. 5. Discovered elements by Great Britain over the years

Fig. 5. Discovered elements by Great Britain over the years

Fig. 5. Discovered elements by Great Britain over the years

Fig. 6. Discovered elements by Sweden over the years

Fig. 6. Discovered elements by Sweden over the years

281
Fig. 6. Discovered elements by Sweden over the years
 Maria Atanassova, Radoslav Angelov

In comparison with them, France and Germany in the same period (1750-1850)
found out much less elements (Figs. 7 and 8). Taking into account the political situation
in these countries, it is a usual fact. During this time France changed several govern-
ments – Napoleon Bonaparte, Louis XVIII, Charles X, Louis Philippe and twice pro-
claimed French Republic with two constitutions. Weaken by the internal contradictions
and the Napoleon’s wars, France and the French didn’t find time and energy to work for
innovations in the periodic system.

Table 3. Chemists who discovered or were succeed to isolate

in pure state more than one element

Elements, discovered or
Chemist Nationality Number Year
isolate in pure state

Humphry Davy English K, Na, Mg, Ba, Ca, Sr, B 7 1807-1808

Jöns Jakob Berzelius Swedish Zr, Se, Ti, Si, Th, Ce 6 1818, 1823,
1829
William Ramsew Scottish He, Ar, Kr, Ne, Xe, Rn 6 1895, 1898
Carl Wilhelm Scheele Swedish O, Cl, Mn, Ba, Mo 5 1771, 1774
Carl Gustav Swedish Y, Ce, La, Er, Tb 5 1838, 1842
Mosander
Martin-Henrich German Te, Zr, U, Ce 4 1789
Klaproth
Paul-Émili Lecoq de French Ga, Sm, Gd, Dy 4 1875, 1879,
Boisbaudran 1880, 1886
Smithson Tennant English Os, Ir 2 1803
Marie and Pierre French Po, Ra 2 1898, 1902
Curie
Carl Auer von Austrian Pr, Nd 2 1885
Welsbach
Louis-Nicolas French Be, Cr 2 1798
Vauquelin
William Hyde English Pd, Rh 2 1803, 1804
Wollaston

282
 Chronology of Chemical Elements Discoveries

A history of modern chemistry can be taken to begin with the distinction of chemistry
from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work “The skeptical chemist” in 1661 and another
important step was made by Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry). Chemistry
is considered to have become a full-fledged science with the work of Lavoisier, who
developed a low of conservation of mass in 1789. Sulfur was first used at least 4000
years ago but it was recognized as an element by Antoin Lavoasier in 1777. Lavoisier
also named hydrogen (1793), oxygen (1777) and nitrogen in 1776.
The French chemist and pharmacist Nicolas-Louis Vauquelin discovered Be in beryl
and emerald, and Cr in 1797, but isolated chromium in 1798. Although H. Klaproth
observed in 1789 uranium, E.-M. Péligot named it after the recently discovered planet
Uranus.
Iodine was discovered in sea weed ash by the French Bernard Courtois in 1811 al-
though it was proved to be an element in 1814 by Gay-Lussac.
The discovery of bromine was credited to the French Antoine-Jerome Balard. The
French chemist Claude-Francois Geoffroy showed that bismuth was distinct from lead
in 1753.
The metal Tl was first isolated by Claude-Auguste Lamy in 1862.
Although boron compounds were known for thousands of years, it was not isolated
until 1808 when Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thenand obtained boron in an
impure state and the English chemist, Humphry Davy, prepared pure B by electrolyses.
The Mg in pure state was obtained in 1831 by the French pharmacist and chemist
Antoine-Alexandre Brutus Bussy, but in 1808 H. Davy obtained the impure metal.
The element He was discovered by spectroscopy during a solar eclipse in the sun’s
chromosphere by the French astronomer Pierre-Jules-Cesar Janssen in 1868. Until 1895
it was thought to be only a solar constituent, when Scottish chemist William Ramsay
found that it was identical to the He in the uranium ore cleveite (Table 3).
The name of gallium derives from the Latin Gallia for “France”, since it was discov-
ered in zinc blende by the French chemist Paul-Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875
(Table 3).
The element with atomic number 89 and the chemical symbol Ac is a powerful
source of alpha radiation and its discovery has been credited also to the French chemist
Andre-Louis Debierne in 1899.
Marie Curie-the first women to be awarded with Nobel Prize, the only women to
win in two fields (1903 in physics and 1911 in chemistry) and the only person to win in
multiple sciences. As a scientist, she was a genius at measuring and working out methods
for experiments. She discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive as U. In
July 1898, Marie Curie and her husband published a paper announcing the existence
of an element which they named “polonium”, in honor of her native Poland. She never

283
 Maria Atanassova, Radoslav Angelov

succeeded in isolating Po, which has a half-life of only 138 days. On 26 December 1898,
the Curies announced the existence of a second element, which they named “radium”
(Table 3). Her research into radiation helped others discover the stricture of the atom,
one of the greatest puzzles of the universe. Radiation itself turned to be extremely dan-
gerous, but it also proved to be very useful in areas such as treating cancer, generating
electricity, and diagnostic medical problems. Marie Curie became one of the history’s
best-known scientists. A century after Marie Sklodowska struggled to complete her
education in a friendly but foreign country, the European Union demonstrated its belief
that education is one of the best investments in society by enacting a system of financial
support for young people. The most spectacular of such assistance programs are the EU
Marie Curie Actions, started in 2002 and continued up to now.
During the ruling of Adolph Thiers 1871 as interim Head of State (1871-1875),
France was stabilizing and the Paris Commune was quenched. Only in the management
of Patrice de Mac Mahon, second president of the Third French Republic (1875-1879),
France got its domestic stability and this affected in scientific discoveries. From 1871
to the beginning of World War I (1914-1918) the French discovered whole 9 chemical
elements. This was the peak (Fig. 7). Among the detected elements except F, and trace
elements are as Ra, Ac, Po, and lanthanides Sm, Dy, Eu, Lu. The discovery of the rare
earth elements provided a long history of almost two hundred years of trial and error
in the claims of element discovery. The fact that the similarity in the chemical proper-
ties of the rare earths(RE) make them especially difficult to chemically isolate led to a
situation where many mixtures of elements were being mistaken for elemental species.
Very pure RE samples did not become a reality until the middle twentieth century. Sm
was discovered by the French chemist Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1879. It was originally
discovered in 1878 by the Swiss chemist Marc Delafontaine, who called it decipium
but in 1881, he determined that his decipium could be resolved into two elements,
one of which was identical to Boisbaoudran’s samarium. In 1901, the French chemist
Eugene-Anatole Demarcay showed that this samarium earth also contained europium.
Lecoq de Boisbaudran was also discovered Dy (dysprosium) in a holmium sample in
1886 but the French George Urbain first isolated it in 1906. The chemist George Urbain
in 1907 discovered lutetium, Lu (and independently by the Carl Auer von Welsback also
(named cassiopeium)) and the name derives from “lutetia”, the ancient latin name for
the city of Paris. In 1949 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
adopted officially Urbain’s name based on consideration of prevailing usage, finally
ending the controversy.
Although, in period of restoration after World War I, with discovery of Francium –
Fr by Marguerite Perey, another French female scientist, France recorded in 1939 in
its history last open chemical elemen and it was the last element discovered in nature,

284
 Chronology of Chemical Elements Discoveries

Fig. 7. Discovered elements by France over the years

Fig. 7. Discovered elements by France over the years

During the rule of Napoleon, France led incessant battles appoints Germany
which broke up in 1806. From that moment on the political map of Euro
egan life. But this did not lead to stability in political terms. Between 1815–18
d of countless independent states, 39 of which formed the German Union. T
rian centralized state explained the few of discovered chemical elements in G
d – only 5 chemical elements. After that period from 1871 until the end of
postwar years several important events in Germany happened. Firstly
ment, of the Second Reich, also known as the German Empire in 18.07.1871,
k. Secondly, Germany also failed in several military battles. It lost its provinc
Fig. 8. Discovered elements by Germany over the years
Fig. 8. Discovered elements by Germany over the years
in 1871 battle with France. During World War I, Germany invaded 285
France
e inVersailles
ed 1918, whenPeace convention
the German emperor along
waswith
forcedthe global economics
to abdicate cris
and the Germa
ning
fromofthe
theWeimar
extremeRepublic.
left and After
strongwar
political parties into Germany.
lost, according the Treaty This was
of Versai
 Maria Atanassova, Radoslav Angelov

rather than by synthesis. You will not find Francium in a list of chemical catalog for sale.
Francium’s most long-lived isotope, Fr-223, has a half-live of a mere 22 minutes. A quick
calculation based upon the annual production of uranium (Fr is the fourth daughter in the
U-235 decay series), yields an estimated 1.2x10-11 grams of this elusive element in the
combine worldwide uranium production bins. Expected to be the most electropositive
element with an estimated Pauling electronegativity of 0.7 and combining it with fluo-
rine (isolated in 1886 by the French pharmacist and chemist Ferdinand-Frederic-Henri
Moisson), the most electronegative element (4.0) we would obtained the most stable
alkali halide FrF.
During the rule of Napoleon, France led incessant battles appoints Germany (Holy
Roman Empire), which broke up in 1806. From that moment on the political map of
Europe the Rhine Union began life. But this did not lead to stability in political terms.
Between 1815–1871, Germany consisted of countless independent states, 39 of which
formed the German Union. The lack of an authoritarian centralized state explained the
few of discovered chemical elements in Germany over the period – only 5 chemical
elements. After that period from 1871 until the end of World War I and the postwar years
several important events in Germany happened. Firstly, it was the establishment, of the
Second Reich, also known as the German Empire in 18.07.1871, by Otton von Bismarck.
Secondly, Germany also failed in several military battles. It lost its provinces Alsace and
Lorraine in 1871 battle with France. During World War I, Germany invaded France in
1914. The war ended in 1918, when the German emperor was forced to abdicate and the
German Empire was inherited from the Weimar Republic. After war lost, according to
the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forced to pay excessive reparations. The political
events and postwar crisis had a great impact on the chemical development and research.
Logically, in comparison to 1814–1871 (57 years with 5 discovered elements), Germany
discovered from 1871 to 1933, 4 chemical elements. No matter how contradictive the
period was, new chemical elements were being discovered. However, the “more terrible”
period in the field of the discovering chemical elements was forthcoming in Germany.
The Versailles Peace convention along with the global economics crisis led to a
strengthening of the extreme left and strong political parties in Germany. This was
precisely the moment when as a head of Germany in 1934 stood Adolf Hitler and The
Third Reich was established. His politics in the field of science was evaluated as very
contradictory. His regular army in the beginning of war achieved impressive results in
the battlefield. This was due to the industry, which was developed in order to create a
number of products, need for the population in the Third Reich. This all required good
scientific basis and development. But one-party totalitarian state (Nazi Germany), with
its repression apparatus pursued, killed prominent politicians, scientists and artists, and
culminated in the massacre of millions of Jews (Holocaust). The period 1935–1945 was

286
able with two new chemical elements. The both countries with compleme
to find two extra elements in 2009 and 2010, respectively – 114Fl and 116Lv.
Chronology of Chemical Elements Discoveries

Fig. 9. Discovered elements by USA over the years

Fig. 9. Discovered elements by USA over the years

Fig. 10. Discovered elements by Russia over the years

Fig. 10. Discovered elements by Russia over the years
287
of all, the discovery of the chemical elements is a creative and profou
hought during the centuries. This labour has been under strong influen
 Maria Atanassova, Radoslav Angelov

characterized by no one chemical element had been discovered. This and the next period:
1945– 1981 (the period of Cold War between the East and the West) were “dead time
for elements discovering”. Neither was found, nor synthesized (Fig. 8). Only at the end
of Cold War, Germany revived its scientific research, in particular in chemistry, finding
in 1981 – an element Bh. Followed series of breakthroughs in 1982, 1984, 1994, 1996
– with Mt, Hs, Ds, Rg, Cn, and their number reached 6 elements: from serial number
106 of Periodic table.
A very important point after the World War I was that new political forces have
appeared at the international politics stage. The countries which left their traces in
the history of the opening of chemical elements were the United States of America
and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, which began to appear as major polit-
ical forces. In geographical plan, USA has a large area, but only a single war was
conducted in its territory – Civil War (1861-1865). Lack of military actions affected
the normal course of business and research, the development of economy and soci-
ety. Nevertheless, the USA was involved in two world wars, the military operations
were conducted in Europe, Asia and Africa. This explained why the USA seemed to
be at the top in 1940 by number of detected chemical elements – At, Np, Pu (Fig.
9). And more important, after this peak research, the successes of the research of
the University of Berkeley continued. In the period 1945–1974 when the world
was divided into two military – political blocks, the USA discovered 11 chemical
elements for 29 years. This rate of discovery can be observed in the constant com-
petition between the USA and USSR during this period in different areas. Interesting
coincidence was that 104Rf and 105Db were detected at the same time by the USA and
the USSR scientists. Until now, the story still couldn’t say for sure what exactly had
happened. We can not generally claim for sure whether the activities in the opening
chemical elements by USSR and USA were the results of the actions of the various
intelligence agencies. But surely chemical discoveries were clear result of scientific
work with modern equipment.
At the same time the situation in the USSR was unlike the USA. Soviet Union fell
behind with the discovering chemical elements. No doubt USSR had contribution in
the systematization of elements in period and groups (activities Mendeleev master of
piece), but this could not be asserted about elements. In its history, Russia had discov-
ered only 5 chemical elements (Fig. 10). Ruthenium Ru was discovered in 1844, when
Tsar Nickolai I ruled. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union in parallel with USA
discovered 104Rf and 105Db. Like Germany, the reason for the lack of the discovery and
synthesis of new chemical elements should be search in deep communist ideology in
science at that Totalitarian system, imposed by working class, with its centralized gov-
ernment also made an impact in the dissemination and promotion of freedom of speech

288
 Chronology of Chemical Elements Discoveries

and science. These limitations in the freedom of science vanished with the Berlin Wall
demolition. This was indicated by the common research activities between USA and
Russia in supplementing the Periodic table with two new chemical elements. The both
countries with complementary actions managed to find two extra elements in 2009 and
2010, respectively – 114Fl and 116Lv.
All of all, the discovery of the chemical elements is a creative and profound work of
the scientific thought during the centuries. This labour has been under strong influence
of political changes, authoritatively ideologies as well as the conjectured circumstances
in national and international aspect. This permit to conclude that the obstacles in po-
litical and economical point of view could slow up the development but not stopping
the investigations and the need of research to study our surroundings and environment,
based on the atoms of the chemical elements.

NOTES
1. Wikipedia.

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* Dr. Maria Atanassova (corresponding author)

Department of General and Inorganic Chemistry
University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy
8, Kl. Okhridski Blvd.
1756 Sofia, Bulgaria
E-mail: ma@uctm.edu

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