GRAMMAR

OF THE

PERSIAN LANGUAGE,
&c. &c. &c.
 GRAMMAR
OF THE

PERSIAN LANGUAGE.
TO WHICH ARE SUBJOINED,

SEVERAL DIALOGUES;
WITH AN

ALPHABETICAL LIST
OF THE

ENGLISH AND PERSIAN TERMS OF GRAMMAR ;

AND AN

APPENDIX,
ON

THE USE OF ARABIC WORDS.

BY MEERZA MOHAMMAD IBRAHEEM,

PROFESSOR OF ARABIC AND PERSIAN LANGUAGES

-IT THE HON. EAST-INDIA COMPANY'S COLLEGE, HAILKYBURY.

LONDON:
W M H.
. ALLEN AND CO.
33oofesdlew to ti>c Honourable Isasstsln&ta ompang,
7, LEADENHAI.L STREET.

L841.
 TK

LONDON:

PRINTED BY RICHARD WATTS,

PRINTER TO THE HON. EAST-INDIA COMPANY'S COLLEGE,
HAILEYIURY.
 TO THE HONOURABLE

THE CHAIRMAN, THE DEPUTY CHAIRMAN,

AND THE

COURT OF DIRECTORS
OF THE

HONOURABLE EAST-INDIA COMPANY,

&c. &c. &c.

HONOURABLE SIRS,

IHE results of the literary labours undertaken by

your own cherished Servants, in their zeal for the

well-being of your liberal Institutions, might always

with propriety be dedicated to your Honourable

Court; but the munificent patronage which you have

vouchsafed to the publication of this Volume fully
warrants me in inscribing it to you, with the warmest

feelings of gratitude.

I have the honour to subscribe myself, with the

greatest respect,

HONOURABLE SIRS,

Your most faithful and humble servant,

MOHAMMAD IBRAHEEM.

EAST-INDIA COLLEGE, HAILEYBURY,

September 1841.
 THE

PREFACE.

A FOREIGNER, who
under the necessity of addressing the
is

natives of a country in their own language, must throw

himself upon their candid and indulgent criticism.

However familiar he may have become with their speech,

for the purpose of daily whatever pains he may have
life

taken to make himself acquainted with the style of their

standard authors he cannot fail to be aware, that there are

peculiarities of expression and construction in all languages,

which those who speak them as their native tongues practise

unconsciously, but which a stranger can scarcely ever hope

tocommand at will. Impressed, deeply, with a true sense of
my own deficiencies, I therefore, with unfeigned humility,
solicit the indulgence of my readers to the composition of the
following pages ; in which, for reasons sufficiently obvious,

I, a native of Persia, undertake to communicate the elements

of Persian Grammar to English Students, in an English dress.
At the same time, I may so far venture to feel confident that

my meaning will be
found to be intelligibly conveyed, as
the kind supervision of a liberal and benevolent friend has

removed the likelihood of any material mistakes.

Nor is only to the outward garb that this beneficial

it

assistance has been directed the same masterly hand has

:

contributed to improve the substance and it is with senti- :

ments of pride and gratitude, that I acknowledge the aid I

have received, throughout the whole of my work, from the ob-
servations of that unrivalled Persian Scholar, and enlightened
 PREFACE.

Patron of Persian Literature, NEIL BENJAMIN EDMONSTONE,

Esq. ;
of whom, am most grieved to state, the hand of
I

Death has since bereaved me and to whose honoured memory

;

I now feel it my duty

pay to this humble tribute, with extreme
reverence and deep sorrow ! !

Encouraged by such approbation and aid, I therefore sub-

mit this volume to the Students of the Persian Language ;

trusting they will find it sufficiently accurate and serviceable ;

and will derive from it facilities for the attainment of the

language, which they have hitherto, it is to be apprehended,

but imperfectly enjoyed.

No native of any Eastern country has hitherto attempted

to exhibit the structure, genius, and idiomatic phraseology of
his own language, through the medium of any European
dialect. have, nevertheless, been induced, by the peculiar
I

circumstances of my position in this country, to venture on

that arduous undertaking. happened, that almost imme-
It

diately after my arrival in England I had the honour of an

appointment at the East-India College. At that time I was

an entire stranger to the English tongue. I was utterly un-
able to use it, either for the purposes of reading or of conver-

sation. My first duty therefore, as a Teacher of Persian,

was to remedy this defect, by making myself, as speedily as
possible, familiar with the native language of my pupils.
With this view, I had recourse to the Elementary Works
composed by the English Orientalists, for the express purpose
of teaching Persian to English Students ;
in order that, by
reversing the process, I might become a learner of English,
through their instructions in my own tongue. At the same
time, I gladly availed myself of the advantages afforded me by
daily intercourse and conversation with the Members of that
Learned Body among whom I had the good fortune to be
 PREFACE. Ill

placed :
and, by a persevering use of these resources, I soon
had the satisfaction to find myself making rapid progress
towards the attainment of my object.

In the course, however, of my studies, and especially of

my instructions now carried on for a period of above fourteen

years have had frequent reasons to think that the existing

I

system of teaching might be improved, and that a more

idiomatic and living character might be given to its Rules and
Principles.

It must not however be imagined, that this statement is

offered with the slightest intention to underrate the
labours,
or disparage the acquirements, of the Orientalists who have
preceded me.
The grammatical works of these distinguished Scholars
have undoubtedly been most valuable instruments for the

acquisition of an elementary knowledge of the Persian lan-

guage. They contain, indeed, as much information as can
well be derived from the study of literary composition in
that language but still, they are wholly insufficient for the
;

purpose of imparting to the learner any competent know-

ledge of its colloquial phraseology and idiom, its peculiar turns of
expression, and its various refinements and niceties of diction.

The only extant Persian Grammars are those compiled by

European Authors few of whom have ever even visited the

;

people whose language they undertake to teach and none of ;

whom have possessed, or could have the means of acquiring,

a complete mastery of it, in all its various uses, literary,

technical, and colloquial. Without these, however, a writer

on Grammar must be and exclusively dependent
necessarily
upon the resources of prosaic and poetical composition. His
work must consequently be, in some respects, erroneous, and
 \

IV PRKFACE.

in very many points essentially defective. To supply those

wants, and to rectify these defects, are the objects which

Ihave principally in view, in the composition of the following
work. I seek to teach the Persian of Persians; not the Persian

only of books. At the same time, I fully acknowledge the

value of the efforts made by my learned predecessors and :

if I should be found in any degree to have advanced beyond

them, it will, be owing to the instruction I have

in part,

derived both from their merits and their failures ; and not

merely to the accidental circumstance, that Persian is my

native speech.

In the composition of my Grammar, I have not been

dependent upon the works of others, but I have endeavoured

to draw materials from my own resources. The examples
and illustrations which have been cited throughout this work
will, therefore, be found to consist of such idiomatic expres-
sions as are used, in their daily intercourse, by those classes of

native Persians who speak the language in its greatest purity.

In my efforts, however, have not sought to supersede,

I

but to assist, the philological labours of others. Their

works are not rendered less useful by mine ;
and while I

attempt to correct what appears to me to be erroneous,

I endeavour to supply what I consider is deficient in them.

I have framed this Grammar chiefly for the use of beginners,

to whom the desultory arrangement and the multifarious and

complicated rules of the Grammars of the English Authors

must present a discouraging obstacle. I do not profess to
exhibit a complete Grammar ofmy language, in all its extended
branches and departments :
my purpose is, to give a compen-
dium of its structure, its idiom and phraseology, by plain rules
and simple illustrations. Although much of what is comprised
in European works is, for that reason, omitted in this
 PREFACE. V

Grammar, much also is contained in it that is not to be found

in any other; as will appear, especially, on a reference to the

various heads of Pronouns, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Inter-

jections, Adverbs, Diminutive Nouns, and Particles, the for-

mation of Compound Epithets, &c. &c. And I have endea-
voured to lay down a more correct and simple system of
Verbs and their Conjugations than is
adopted in the works
of my European predecessors.

The important branch of Syntax instead of consisting, as

in the other Persian Grammars, of a series of elaborate and
not always correct rules, exemplified chiefly by quotations
from books of Poetry, some of which are almost obsolete is

explained and illustrated in a succession of Dialogues, eight

in number, composed for the occasion. The parties chiefly

conversing are supposed to be an English Gentleman, who

has acquired a competent knowledge of the language of

Persia, and is travelling in that country for improvement;

and a native Persian friend, who has also resided long

enough in England to be able to converse with facility in

English. The former makes mistakes, which the

occasionally
latter corrects ; and an opportunity is thus afforded of exem-

plifying some of the Rules of Syntax, in a simple, practical,

and attractive manner ; while, at the same time, the subjects

of the several antecedent chapters of the Grammar are illus-
trated by examples introduced into the Dialogues, and speci-
fically referred to as those examples occur ;
accompanied also

with many explanatory Notes.

My chief object, in the course of these Dialogues, has been

to exhibit, to the best of my ability, the genuine idiom and

the colloquial and literary phraseology of the language, on
a great variety of subjects : and the discussion of those

subjects has been conducted with a view to afford as ample

VI PREFACE

and varied a display as possible of national sentiments and

manners, and thus to furnish the Student both with instruc-
tion and amusement. They are accompanied with an
English Translation, as literal as the idiom will admit
: and
the great difference between the idioms and modes of ex-
thus advantageously exhi-
pression of the two languages are
bited. The Vowel or Diacritical Points have been used

throughout the work, in order to afford the Student the

facility of pronouncing
the Persian words correctly. A List
also hasbeen subjoined, in which the Student will find all the

English and Persian Terms of Grammar alphabetically ar-

ranged, in parallel columns and in an Appendix, the Ex-
;

planation, the various Forms or Measures, with proper

Examples, of all the Arabic words which are of most frequent

occurrence in the Persian language.

EAST-INDIA COLLEGE, HAILEYBURY,

September, 1841.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

THE PREFACE ... p. i. vi.

Page,
Of the ALPHABET . i 4

Of VOWELS 5 g

Of Spelling and Forming Words 7 9

Of the NUMERALS 10 13

Of Single Significant Words 13 21

Of NOUNS 22
Of the Cases 22 24

Of the Plurals 25 28

Of ADJECTIVES 29 30

Of Comparison 30 32
Of DEFINITE and INDEFINITE NOUNS 32 34

Of PRONOUNS 34 35

The Reciprocal ditto 35

The Possessive ditto 36 37

Of Demonstrative ditto 37 38

Of Relative ditto 3940

Of Interrogative ditto 40 43
Of the PERSIAN VERBS 43 47

Of the Auxiliary Verbs 47 60

Of the Subjunctive and Potential Moods . . . 61 67

Of the Optative Mood 6768

Of Negative Verbs 68 69

Of the Passive Voice 69 71

Of Causal Verbs 7281

 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Pages

Of Interrogative Verbs gj 94
Of Compound Verbs 85 98

Alphabetical Series of Verbal Nouns, or Simple Per-

sian Infinitives, with their respective 98 102
Imperatives,
Of COMPOUND ADJECTIVES &c. the Nature of their

Composition 103 106

Of NOUNS compounded with PARTICLES .... 107

Of Names of Agents 108

Of NOUNS of PLACE 108 111

Of PREPOSITIONS Ill 112

Of CONJUNCTIONS 113116
Of INTERJECTIONS, and EXCLAMATIONS .... 117 119

Of ADVERBS 119 127

Of DIMINUTIVE NOUNS 127 128

Of DIMINUTIVE PARTICLES 129 132

Dialogue, in exemplification 132 136

Of SYNTAX 137

Dissertation on Syntax 137 141

Dialogue 1 141144
Dialogue II 144152
Dialogue III 152162
Dialogue IV 162176
Dialogue V 176190
Dialogue VI 190198
198
Dialogue VII
21-?

Dialogue VIII
212226

Alphabetical List of the ENGLISH and PERSIAN TERMS

of GRAMMAR . 227-239
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

APPENDIX.

ON THE USE OF THE ARABIC WORDS . . . P. 241.

Pages
Verbal Nouns of Triliteral Radical Verbs .... 242 244

Increased Triliterals 244 246

Verbal Nouns of Radical and Increased Quadriliteral

Verbs 246

Forms and Examples of Attributives, or Nouns of

Excess 246248
Forms and Examples of the Irregular Participle Pas-

sives 248 249

Forms and Examples of Attributives, or Derivative

Nouns, &c. &c 250252

Nouns of Superiority 252

Nouns of Instrument 253

Nouns of Time and Place 253 254

Irregular Feminines 254 256

The Arabic Plurals 256

Plurals of Paucity 258260

Plurals of Multitude 260266
Plural of Plurals 267, 268
 " THE Learner is
supposed to be acquainted with the
" common terms of Grammar, and to know that the
" Persians write their characters from the
right-hand to
" the left."
SIR WILLIAM JONES.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

OF THE ALPHABET.
1. _LHE Persian Alphabet, properly, consists of Twenty-
four Letters ;
of which, Twenty are common to the Persians

and the Arabs :

but, in consequence of the introduction of so

many Arabic words Language, Eight more

into the Persian

Letters, peculiar to Arabic, have been incorporated with the

Persian Alphabet; which at present consists, therefore, of
Thirty-two Letters.

2. These Letters, when written singly, appear as follows :

t, .. \

Ch J S T P B A
che jeem se te pe be alef

J (French) Z R
je ze
2 (T) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

3. In composition, some of these letters undergo certain

modifications merely in form, and assume somewhat different

appearances. But the difference is

very trifling; as they

never lose their original forms so entirely as not to be

recognised by the beginner.

Accordingly, at the beginning of a word they appear thus :

~
3 : J -T J \

In the middle of a word, they appear thus :

, .
/ -^
A * a * *<ft -A -. ';';
(/ J V -s
J 4 ' A * ^ ^ f ^~ *

And at the end of a word, they appear thus :

o J w r

4. When the letters \ and \ come together, if the former

precedes the latter, they are written thus, X, or X, or ^ .

The compound name of Laum-Alef, which of course ex-

presses its own meaning, has been given to this combination ;

and sounded as
"
it is it is written, Law."

5. The letter ], at the end of a word, is sometimes

*
written thus ,
which then goes by the Arabic name Hamzah.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (H 3

It has other uses as well, which shall be duly explained

hereafter.

6. Double letters occur in Persian ; but to avoid the

necessity of writing a letter twice over, the Persians have

" "
likewise adopted the Arabic mark Tashdeed, strengthener,"
which is placed over the letter intended to be double.

7. When two Alefs come together in the same word,

"
instead of using the mark Tashdeed, as in the case of other
~~
double letters, this mark is
placed over the letter, thus, \ .

This borrowed from Arabic and it goes by the name

is also ;

" " "

of Madda, signifying to draw out or to prolong ;" and

the \ over which it is

placed, is then sounded aw, as in the
words
" "
The Madda "
paw," jaw," &c. is, in fact, the
second \
horizontally placed over the other. It is sometimes,
however, placed parallel to, but somewhat shorter than, the

other, thus \' : and it answers the same purpose. The

Madda is
only used when the \ appears at the beginning of a
word, as, without this mark, there, always short by it is

position ; as it is
always long in the middle, or at the end
of a word, by position likewise.

"
8. This Arabic mark sometimes placed above a also is

consonant, to shew that the syllable ends with it it is called :

" "
Jazm, i.e. to conclude," or to fix."

9. The following eight letters appear only in words purely

or originally Arabic ; and in many instances will be doubly
useful to a beginner, inasmuch as they point out to him the
Arabian origin of the words in which they occur. They are
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

Every letter (of a word) should be connected with

10.

that which follows it except these seven,

;

\. X " '

J / J / J / J

OF THE PRONUNCIATION OF. THE ARABIC LETTERS.

11. The beginner cannot fail to observe, that many of

the letters, as they are set down in the order of the alphabet,

have the same sounds, as

LT
which have been marked as S, Z, T, A, and H ; and he

may naturally wonder at this redundancy. In fact, there is

no actual redundancy. Eight of these letters, as already

stated (see p. 3), are peculiar to the Arabic, and are sounded

in from what they are in

that language very differently

Persian. They have generally sounds very harsh and rough ;

some very difficult, and others almost impossible for an

English beginner to imitate. Let him be consoled, however,
with the assurance, that an exact imitation of these sounds is

not only unnecessary, but absolutely useless to a reader of

the Persian language ;
inasmuch as the Persians themselves,
in speaking and reading their native tongue, when they come
to an Arabic word in which any of those letters occur,

never attempt to pronounce them as the Arabs except, ;

perhaps, the letter ,

which is pronounced with a stronger

aspirate than the they pronounce them merely like as

& :

many Persian letters as come the nearest in point of sound

to them, exactly as I have set them down in the order of

the alphabet. (See the Alphabet, p. 1 .)

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. o 5

OF VOWELS.
These thirty-two letters are all consonants with the
12. ;

exception of <_" \ which serve also as long vowels but

j ;

the . is used b jth as a long and short vowel. When short,

it answers to the vowel u in English, as in the words "put,"

"push," &c. ; and when long, it answers to oo, as in the

" "
word boot," or to u, as in the word brute." The \ is
" "
long ;
and it
corresponds with au," as in the word cause ";

or with "aw," as in the word "paw." The L is also always

"
long; and answers to ee," as in the word "beef"; or to

"ea," as in the word "beat".*

13. The short vowels are expressed by three small

marks ; of which, one is
placed above the consonant, thus
^ bd, and answers to the short a in English, as in the
word "bat"; one below the consonant, thus j_> pe, and
"
answers to the short e, as in the word pet"; and the
third is somewhat in the front above the consonant, thus
l^H shu, and answers to the u as pronounced in the word
"bull": they are called by the Persians
y^ zabar, ?>
"
seer, and AL? P ees h respectively, signifying
.
above,"
" "
below," and the front "; each of them expressing its own

peculiar position with respect to the consonant.

The Indians use the vowel

^ sometimes like ea, as in the word "bear";
and the vowel . like oa, as in the
->">? *>'
word "boat"; to which . and ^ they

have given the appellation of --

Maj/tool, "obscure,"
in contradistinc-
J^^
tion to the other instances in which they are used as long vowels, when they
D O?-)x
are called i__9.ji Maaroof, distinct." This distinction, however, is not

known among the modern Persians.

6 0) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

" *
14. These short vowels are sometimes doubled thus :

they have still the same power ;

but with this addition,
that they are sounded as if the syllable ended with a ;
^.
thus,
J
*, ran, o
*
ten, "i dun.

15. Although these double marks are purely and pecu-

liarly Arabic, and the Persians never use them yet, as ;

they often occur in Arabic passages and quotations, with

which a Persian student must frequently meet in the course

of his studies, I thought they might as well be explained

here. Their collective name (in Arabic of course) is
JyJJ
" to
Tamceen, signifying pronounce or produce the sound
"
of the letter ; and, separately, they go by the names
**" -

J JVasft, .
Jarr, and i. Rafa, respectively, signifying

the same as the short vowels in Persian.

16. Let it be remarked here, that when the letter . in

the middle of a word precedes the letter \, it loses its

sound altogether in some instances ;

as in the words
s 1
" "
to to wish," &c., which are
^ Lv>_i\,^ sleep," ^.^A.^
pronounced khaubeedan, khaustan, &c. : in the same manner,
o
"
when it
precedes the letter ^J, as in the word ,jty*> se lf"
"
or relation," which is
pronounced kheesh. And the \ in

the middle of a word is used sometimes as a consonant ; in

*
which case the hamzah is
placed over it, to distinguish it
-*'
from the vowel \i as, L\J ta-ammull, "reflection."
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (v) 7

OF SPELLING AND FORMING WORDS.

17. The beginner can have no difficulty now, in spelling

and pronouncing any short Persian words, properly marked

with the vowel-points. I advise him, however, to begin by pro-

nouncing single letters ;

appreciating duly the sound of each
consonant, and the power of the vowels, before he attempts

X'X'XXX
the compounds

_
: so let

_
him commence

L_>
>.
<__>
X"

..
as follows
X
:

f *
\

^
< )

C \L
,7-
<~
1

khd hd chd jd sd td pa bd a

U" J J J
Qi}p
t>/*C <>G
ffa ip
/C
iv
(O
p
C 0*0
I fj
y~l'
fl n ft
UjVv

i C. k> ^
fu ghe e ze te ze se

j
'

u
>

r_
>

J ^ ! 9

*=>_
9

(3
vu nu mu Lu ff^ leu CKU

(
A
yu hu
*

C t -
C.
*. *..

^ \

hdn chdn idn sdn tan ndn ban an

u~ ^
*
J^ j? j ? , r
^
*/ie *e jew ^e re s'ew (/e Maw

J ^ d
v_ ^
v^
Ji
^
So
,>

c^wn y^w gAw

o 6mz zen ten zen sen
s

yun hun nun nun mun lun kun.

8 (*) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

18. COMPOUNDS OF TWO LETTERS.

O 1 -I, Ox ~>

beb eb jab tab bub

haba hub nub dub heb

ban leta kela bata mata shata

> rf )_*
huva fema za.lt rad jasa has

V V >
jaw baw bar tel sa-a muna
> x Ox T x Ox
"f* ** M V^

/a*/i as ar /flic &aw

* > ~> '

Me 600 koo slier now yaw

o x Of *-
iaj /j*^ \ V Vo .J

na< 6zw at aic waw j/ar

Ox O Ox O O ?

^ x ^^ ^ ^^^

fte^/j jaw deh ez suba

j>*
-^ ir^
tasha
U"*5
sas
<-i

nee
..I ckem
(**

nach
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ) 9

i*
> *s* J
Ian leb haw paj yuta fee
O Ox 1 x x *)
>>

(**
\ ' fV (<
"
c
'j' if*' $
hem haj may reka ghesh loo

i , > f

OO
mugh sheda las bak bad hun

tXJ
e*
/wda zuka suba sul jay sugh
~> f

L^ } } ^c.

sema kush lur lur oz eked

> -

oJ

goo yoo pesa hule befu nadu

zay tur ghema shaw s/iuva

keya

19. The sounds of the consonants, and the power of

the vowels, (according to the examples already given), being

perfectly regular and uniform in Persian, the beginner is

now enabled, by the perusal of the preceding pages, to com-

bine as many he pleases together, and, by supply-
letters as

ing them with the vowels as they are marked, form them
into words of as many syllables as he likes. He will do
well now to store his memory with as many Persian words as
he can, out of those which I shall set down for him, before

he begins to learn the parts of speech and the rules for the
formation of sentences. Let him first learn the Persian
numerals.
10 (I.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

OF THE NUMERALS.

Twenty-eight of the thirty-two

20. letters of the Alphabet
are expressed in eight words thus ; :

sd-ajds kalaman Hut-tee Hav-vaz Abjad

sakh-khez
V
Ckarashat
zazegh

21. These letters have their numerical values ; and, taking

the order in which they are now arranged, the first nine,
that is, from \ to \s ,
are the units ; the second nine, that

is, from c? to are the tens the third nine, that is,
,^0 , ;

from to ]a, are the hundreds ;

and the remaining letter c.
,j
is one thousand. By the combination of these letters,

according to their values of course, any number may be

expressed.

22. The Persians also use figures, which is a much sim-

pler way of calculating, having only nine units (as the

English) ;
with which, of course, combinations may be found
indefinitely. These figures are arranged, and calculated,

from left to right ; thus :

A
123456789
I r r f- c i v i i.

10

and they are expressed as follows :

,1 T, "> ~>
, \t
' * ^
2O &3 L_*-ljfc OA& ^j^, Jj

23. The following lines will shew how the numbers are

formed, both with letters and with figures, as well as how

they are pronounced in Persian.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ( ' '
) 1 L

5432
A
6
^
p

au
^
r
V
r

i
C
A
->
V
10 9 8 7

JU
1 6 if ir ir u
15 14 13 12 11

"J X

O^
]
^ ^-
r. M IA |v n
20 19 18 17 16

* "'
, s " '
-'-' ~"

/ V^ ^
rp rr rr n
24 23 22 21

O O

rA rv ri re
28 27 26 25

cr H? c
"J
rr n r. r^
32 31 30 29

C 2
12 (If) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

j>"
n re rr rr
36 35 34 33

P. n TA rv
40 39 38 37

44 43 42 41

yt VC <VC

Pv Pi Po
48 47 46 45

up -* o"
1. A. v. i. e.
90 80 70 60 50

>.. P.. r.. r..

500 400 300 200
Ox 0x0, OxOx Ox", x

!
i io

1* "
^ 4
"
i

1000 900 800 .

700
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. CO 13

24. The Persian Ordinals are expressed thus :

5th 4th 3d 2d 1st

, . 19? 1,1, If 1 , 1 ! s

lOth 9th 8th 7th 6th

1 a
^ 1->
1 ' ,1 s Iff! If, s 11,1

15th 14th 13th 12th llth

O .- O o * -") / O * ^ O "
O^x-3^- O ^ x OO
v
\.
.,.,.
>
frb$\ *j ^^O^^si^ A<^cXft-i^ .^^3**J V

20th *19th 18th 17th 16th

60th 50th 40th 30th 21st

^3j^ji O>
100th 90th 80th 70th

25. The days of the week are thus named in Persian :

Wednesday. Tuesday. Monday. Sunday. Saturday.

or

Friday. Thursday.

They are collectively called XxaA *\j\ .e. "the seven days
of the week."

OF SINGLE SIGNIFICANT WORDS.

26. I now proceed to put down a number of words, which,

as mark them with Vowel-points, as
I shall well as place
under each word its exact meaning in English, will serve the
14 (IP) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

double purpose of storing the memory of a beginner with a

good many useful and common words in the Persian lan-

guage, and of teaching him, at the same time, how to pro-

nounce them : and, in order to point out the words that are
of Arabic origin, they shall be distinguished by the letter (A).

The student is recommended, therefore, to learn and remem-

ber as many of these words as he can, before he goes any
further. They will be found very useful hereafter, in the

course of his study.

A. CiJio A.
(*V6I

Angel. a Leader in Prophet. God.

Religion.

A. A.

sky. creed. Religion, Angel.

Faith.

Hell. Paradise. Earth.

5 ,

brother. mother. father. woman.

girl, daughter. boy, son. offspring, child. sister.

A. A. A.

paternal aunt. paternal uncle. grandmother. randfather.

A. A.

bread. relation, kindred. maternal aunt. maternal uncle.

.J
butter. meat, flesh. water.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAK. (!o) 15

A. A.

fruit. drink.
grapes.

vegetables. milk. pear. apple.

gardener. fruit-garden. tree. flowers, rose.

A. A.
ur-jf
M
chair. room. house. flower-garden.

A. A. A.
^
pen. paper. book. college.

O O x-

A. +> A. I
j
candle. sealing-wax. inkstand. ink.

i - t

needle. scssors. penknife. seal, signet.

master. silk. thread. pin.

A. a-ils A. A.
\ ^
student. pupil. lecturer. teacher,
schoolmaster.

A. A. A.

prayer church, chapel, lecture. lesson.

mosque.

A. A. A. A.

advice. preaching. exhortation. supplication.

16 (II) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

A.

village. city. reproof. council.

A. A.
-x

king. dominion. kingdom. hamlet.

A.
f
scribe. counsellor. minister. queen

V
commander-in-chief. commander, soldier.
army.
a prince.

A. A. A.

wisdom. learning. science, knowledge.

philosophy.

dust, earth. wind. fire.

understanding.

A. A. A. A.

south. west. east. ar.

A.
v
under. right. left. north.

v
table. below. above.
upon.

o o

salt. host. table-cloth.

guest.

A. A. A.
basin. vessel. eatable. food.
 PKRSIAN GRAMMAR. 17

iujr
calf. lamb. sheep.

mule. mare. horse. camel.

hare. antelope. buffalo.

fox. wolf. leopard. lion.

desert. hawk. pheasant. partridge.

forest. lawn. meadow.

A.
JX
field.

sailor. ship.
V sea. mountain.

"> , o. o o o /

A.
\ X

torrent , river. captain, pilot. mate.

brook. stream.

A. A. A.
|
>
flood, deluge. lightning. thunder. hail.

>J or ~
i v

eye. head. foot. hand.

tongue. tooth. mouth. ear.

18 (I A) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

hair. face. finger. heart.

A. < ftT

thigh. arm. the palm (of the wrist.

hand).

breast. shoulder. neck. knee.

forehead.
e
brain. nose. beard.

the lip. chin. eyebrow. eyelid, eyelash.

liver. the lungs. the throat.

gall-bladder.

O xOx Ox P

A. &soj
&5jj
a star. nail of the hand the fist, the five bowels,
or foot. fingers.

O Oxx-C O O x O

A. ^uMxt or .-J A. v+3 or 3V/c A.

^* ..+.?.> or<~.

Mercury. the Moon. the Sun.

O x ? O^

A. (_? r->i- or i
i-^- r* A. ^yo or ,' ^J A.

Jupiter. Mars. Venus.

A. I >UU~J A.
U-O>^> A.,

warm. the planets. the fixed stars. Saturn.

5 ?? 00

sweet. bitter. cold.

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 19

slender.

A.
C5j3
strong.

00?

red.

O O x
20 (r.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

O x
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (M) 21

light. hog (wild or tame).

 PERSIAN GKAMMAR.

OF NOUNS.

27. The form and construction of the Persian Nouns are

extremely simple and regular : there are no varieties of

" " "
Declension," or of Articles ; nor is there any difference
of termination, to mark the Gender, either in Substantives or

Adjectives. All inanimate things are neuter : rational beings

00,.
have different names to distinguish the sexes
O s O^O f "is
; as, ^ "
man,"

^j "woman," ^j "boy,"y^J "girl,"&c. ; and animals have

" "
either the Adjectives, j male," and s^U female," affixed
Is O
or prefixed to them, to mark their genders ; as, jj* "a lion,"
s
" "
ajU^ a lioness
"
; $ soU " a cow," j^> a bull
"
; or, in
00
some cases, they have also their proper names ; as, ^/-x*

"an ewe," f "a ram," ^l)/ "a horse," ^^U "a mare,"

JJj/- "a cock," J,U*U "a hen," &c.

OF THE CASES.

28. The Cases are decided by certain Particles, prefixed

or affixed to the Noun : the Nominative never, and the

Genitive but seldom, stands in need of such addition : the

Dative is obtained by prefixing the syllable t_-> to the Noun ;

and the Accusative, by affixing the particle I, ; though some-

times it is affixed to the Dative as well ;
in which case, of
course, no prefix is used. The Ablative Case is formed by

placing the Particle jl, and the Vocative by placing the

o ,
Particle J, before the Noun.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (IT) 23

EXAMPLES.
O x

A Father." A Brother."
J*
N.&G. >,JoVX the father. N. & G. t the brother.

O X

D. ^joj
to the father. D. to the brother.

Ox x

Ac. l^jo the father. Ac. t 'le brother.

Ox
Ab. from the brother.
y ^' from the father. Ab. j^jtj*
Ox O x Ox O"
V. O father ! V. j O]j> tjl O brother !

A "
Boy." A Girl."

O^O f

N. & G. j**j the boy. N. & G. ^ii-J the girl.

i, Ox ?

D. to the boy. D. to the girl.

^*jo
s^ Ji&-&>
O^ OxO f

Ac.
J;/ *^
1 ^e ^y- Ac.
Jir**^
the girl.
x
Ox ' OxO fOx
Ab. fi" om ^e boy. Ab. jAi-J;!
from the girl.
j*"^;'
s
Ox
V. ^
Ox
,_jl
O boy ! V.
0,0 F Tx
O girl!

REMARKS ON A FEW EXCEPTIONS.

29. The above rules are quite regular ;
and general enough
for a beginner to be always on the safe side, if he observes

them in the formation of the different Cases of

any Persian
Substantive or Adjective, Noun or Pronoun :
but, at the
same time, he do well to peruse the following remarks,
will

and to commit as many of them as he can to memory they :

will be of great use to him in the course of his studies.

30. A Noun may be put in the Dative Case by affixing

the Particle \j
instead of placing the > before it ; as, for
24 (TP) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

" i "
instance, ..jjj^^ou I saw the boy," or J^^j I spoke to
o^
the boy"; the Noun j^ having the affix
1,
in both the
Accusative and Dative Cases : but when the Particle c_> is

prefixed, the Noun is always in the Dative Case, and never

in the Accusative.

31. When the Accusative is used indefinitely, the Particle

->s f O '
"
I drank wine," in-
J,
is altogether omitted ; as,
^Jo-iy _r (
<.

"
stead of *tU-J>y l I drank the wine."

32. A Noun may also be put in the Vocative Case by

o,.

affixing the long I

,
instead of prefixing the Particle J ;
but

this form generally implies supplication, entreaty, or some

OxTx 1"), ">

" /
such emphatic address as, }$<*j)j> the Lord,"
\fajjj> ;

"
O Lord " slwlj " the king," liltol " O king " ^LIJ J " a
! !

friend," ULy "O friend!"

33. When
two Nouns come together in Persian, in some
instances, the short vowel (') J^f is placed under the last
letter of the preceding Noun this takes place when one :

VO ." ,- s

Noun governs another, as in the Genitive Case ; as, ^i^j^Jo

" "
the girl's father," or the father of the girl." Here we
see the vowel (') placed under (,). the last letter of the
Ox ^ 0x0 f

Noun j Jo which , precedes and governs the other Noun j^t

in the Genitive happen to be a quiescent ,
: but if this letter

or a ,_y, instead of placing the (') under it, the short

Alef ("*) or the Hamzah is placed over it, and the \ and ^,
so accented, are, in both instances, pronounced "ye"; as,
' JxOx 1,, s,
the servant of God"; ^Jo <uLr^ "the father's house";
the fish of the sea"; &c.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ( rc ) 25

"
34. Should the last letter be an )
, as Ls-
place," or j , as
"
fragrance," the letter ,_$ either with the (') under it, or

with the () over it is added to the end of the word ; as,

Ox x 'J-'x S O ? O 9 f

^jo^U- or^Jo^U- "the place of the father,"

tj&jrjj
or J^usy
"
the fragrance of the rose." The latter form, however, is

the most common of the two.

35. If the preceding Noun, however, be a part of the fol-

? O o ^

lowing one, as itfyjj&Aw "a sword of steel," the Genitive

^s

may be obtained by placing the Particle j] before the second

Noun but in such; instances, the preceding Noun should be
made definite, either by adding the ^ of unity to the end of
) ?->s i "> ,
"
it, or placing a Numeral before it ; as, 4)Ji)|^A4U4< o sword
J>->x 1 1 ' f

of steel," or Slj>j\j^L*^ "two swords of steel," i.e. swords

made out of the steel.

OF THE PLURALS.

36. In Persian, Rational beings, whether masculine or

feminine, form their Plurals by adding ^T (awn) to the
f>' 1 "V T^
" "
Singular; as,
o ,
"
^ a man," ^b^ men"; ^
"
a woman,"

Jjj women ": Inanimate things, by adding la (haw) ; as,

OP IP

J^" a flower," l^" flowers": and Animals, either by adding

y/f,
as in the case of rational beings, or IA, as in that of
OT> OOx O^
inanimate things; as, <__-.! "a horse," JjuJ or l^u,l "horses."
It depends upon the taste and the choice of the judicious
writer which to prefer, as being more suitable to the occa-

sion ;
though I may safely recommend the learner always to

prefer the la in all prose writings, as is

generally done by
the Persian writers themselves ; but in poetry, the Muses
o o .,

are the best instructors. The celebrated bard ^yJ^ (Sddy)

himself has yielded to their
authority, and sacrificed at their
26 (n/ PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

altar :one instance (but I believe the only one in all his
in

writings) he has indeed been compelled, as it were, to form

the Plural even of an inanimate thing, by adding jT to the

Singular ;
a transgression, of which none but himself

(though only for once) could venture to be guilty and for ;

which, nothing but the splendid composition in which it occurs

could have secured him against the censure of the Learned.
It occurs in a beautiful couplet, in one of the author's most
famous poems on the Praises of the Divinity. The couplet
runs thus :

I translate it word for word, thus :

"
The foliage of the verdant trees, in the sight of an intelligent being ;"
"
Every leaf is a volume on the knowledge of the Divinity."
O Ox
"
The reader will observe the second word JZa-j** trees," in the
O Ox
"
couplet just cited, is the Plural of cs^> a tree," to which,
'j

in this instance, ^T, instead of la, has been added by the poet.

37. When a Noun, the Plural of which may be formed in

^T, ends in the Singular Number, in I or j, the letter ,_* is?

for the most part, interposed between such final letter and

the Particle ^T, in forming the Plural Number; as, 1^

" " "
Ox
*)9 ox
"
^ *3
.
-'

a beggar," Jy*r be gg ars an evil-speaker," J*jSV* '>

^.
"evil-speakers": and those Nouns that end in quiescent *
o

form their Plurals in ^ when the * is omitted, except they

be written separately, which, however, is seldom or never
Ox 0X0 ^ xx
the case; as, <ui/ "an angel," J~j> "angels"; <L^
> x x'
" "
an infant," ^i&s? infants," which are hardly ever written
xx
^-sr or
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (rv) 27

In imitation of the Feminine Plural of Arabic words,

38.
Q _

which is invariably formed by the affix cul, some modern

writers, of no great authority however, have formed the

i _
Plurals of a few Persian Nouns of the Neuter Gender in cul
o
also ; or, if the Singular ends with the quiescent *, in cuU- ;

as, ^jiy "a favour," tuLijI^ "favours"; &]>

"a letter,"
>
'
"
cytaEviji writings." The instances are, luckily, very few ;

and it is too vulgar to encourage imitation.

39. The Cases of a Noun in the Plural Number are formed

in the same manner, and by the same Particles, as in the

Singular.

EXAMPLES OF RATIONAL BEINGS.

SINGULAR.

"
A
V
Man." *
"
wj
A Woman." "An Infent"
i
Uf
A Beggar." "Evil-speaker."

PLURAL.
" "
Men" Women" Infants" Beggars "Evil-speakers"

N. &G.

D.

Ac.

Ab.

V.

E 2
28 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

40. OF IRRATIONAL BEINGS.

SINGULAR.

" " "

A Lion. A Lioness.
* 1

A Lamb."' An Antelope."

PLURAL.

N.&G. or ^
o >

or ,Jjfc

'^ %

D. l^jj
ab or .... I

or ... &c. or
r &c. J

XX o?
Ac. \jj^ r.
Ox
or or ... &c. &c. ...j
j

Ox J Ox S xxOx

Ab. }\
or )
Ox O
or .... &c. or ... &c. or . . . . &c. j
? o

V. or .)
Sli ^1 . . .

or .... &c. or ... &c. &c. j

41. OF INANIMATE THINGS.

SINGULAR.

'
Bread." The Sun." !
"A House." "ABaU." Wine."

PLURAL.

N. & G. liU

D Lpuo

Ac.
];lf)l!
o Ox

Ab. l^Ujl

V.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (
r ^
) 29

42. In conclusion, let the reader remember, that what has

been stated with regard to Rational Beings forming their

-
Plurals in ^1 , Jj, or J& , refers more strictly to poetry, and
the higher classes of prose compositions. In the ordinary

writings of the day, or even in refined conversation, it is

by
no means forbidden (or it is even better) to form all the
Persian Plurals, of whatever kind, uniformly in la .
Nothing
is more common in conversation, in Persia, than to say
' Ox '
" " " i '^ "
laj^o men," l$j; women," l^s; children," Wjs beggars,"
and numerous similar instances of U implying the Plurals
of both Rational and Irrational Beings. I shall only add,

that if a speaking good Persian, adheres uni-

foreigner,

formly to the use of the l& , in forming the Plural, he will be

much nearer the mark than one who attempts to put the
rigid rules of grammar into practice with regard to the
Plurals of the three different classes of Nouns ;
as I am
quite sure that the latter will many times oftener appear

pedantic, than the former will fall into a slight error of idiom.

OF ADJECTIVES.
43. The Persian Adjectives, whether of Number or other-

wise, admit of no variation, but in the degrees of comparison :

in other they uniformly follow the Substantive,

respects,
without partaking of the changes which the latter may un-

dergo in Number or Case excepting in the Accusative Case,

;

when the Particle [>

is affixed to the Adjective, instead of

being affixed to the Substantive ;

as will be seen in the fol-

lowing examples :

young." j*"old." jlJ>sick."

30 (!".) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
" ft
a good man." good men."
O f Ox
"
to a good man." i "to good men."
O O .<"
Ox
"
the good man." the good men."

"from a good man." from the good men."

IIP ox o
" O man "
O "
good !
good men !

In like manner, a horse,"

Ox
&c.

Simple Adjectives are frequently used in the Plural, to

44.
0^
"
Ox
express qualified Substantives as, ^j*- good men," ^Ija ;

" "
"bad men"; d l;)^ youths," ^l^L old men";
J,j;Ul
"
sick persons ;
but these Plurals (which, be it remembered,
O _
must always be formed ^1) invariably signify Rational
in

Beings, and, chiefly, those of the Masculine Gender. But

when Compound Adjectives are thus used as Qualified Sub-
o

stantives (though forming their Plurals in ^ I

), they are not
confined to any particular Gender :
they may be either
Masculine or Feminine, as the expression itself may indicate ;
xO
" "
as, jj]/^ the ravishers of hearts ; which is evidently
O x_ O "
intended to be Feminine ;
^1^1 JJ the bold -hearted,"
O x O x O
" and
heroes," which is obviously Masculine ; ^LCL*^ Jj
"
the afflicted in heart," which may belong to either Gender.

OF COMPARISON.
45. There are two Particles of Comparison in Persian,
Ox O x O,

J> and ^Ji. The Positive is made Comparative by affixing y,

Ox O

^
Ox~>
" "
and Superlative by adding ; as, A> well," ^I# better";
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (1*1) 31

" "
t "best"; Jo "bad," J> worse," worst ";
" "
young," ^Jjf younger," ^Jj* youngest"; &c.
" "
The Particle
j] , in Persian, is an equivalent to than

expressed in English after a Comparative ;

with this diffe-

rence only, that in Persian it

may be expressed either after
'V'VOOx O^ Os
or before the Comparative; as,
^jUjl^i'^I^^Jj "the father

(is) younger than the mother"; which may also be expressed,

The following are a few more Examples :

[N.
B. The reader will observe, that, in all the following

sentences, no Verbs have been employed : the reason of

the omission is, that the reader being supposed to be as yet

unacquainted with the Persian Verbs, I did not like to

introduce any, before he had received instructions on the

subject. He
can place any verb he pleases (as soon as he
has learned the Verbs) at the end of each of these sen-

tences, to make them complete.]

COMPARATIVE.
Ox O
/
_)
C5ju jl k._A5S Book (i.e. reading) (is) better than play.
^ s
O x,0 Ox O

J * j> (^ l5o\ j\ 4Xx& India (is) warmer than England.

OxO O^OxO^
J ,)-fcW . JjK^O The father (was) more ignorant than the son.

O O' x Ox O . -- O -;

'^
r> 2>\J\ (^u-JXjl England (became) more populous than Russia.
Ox Ox Ox O '
^,
y* \ J tiJjlj ijUj
Women (are) more delicate than men.
O x x Ox Ox O

Persian (is not) easier than Arabic.

OxOxO
Friends (are not) kinder than relations.
32 (IT) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

SUPERLATIVE.

God (is) the best of helpers.

Fidelity (is) the best of qualities.

Knowledge (is) the best of treasures.

The dog (is) the most affectionate of animals.

Avarice (is) the worst of vices.

The sweetest of fruits (is) the grape.

p 5.3 (^)V6\j5 ^jJ oo The worst of crimes (is) falsehood.

46. OF DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE NOUNS.

The Persian Nouns are for the most part generic, and
"
OO, O, O,
Definite in their significations. For instance, ^, ^j, s--^' >
O

c_>Uy, "man," "woman," "horse," "book": each of these

Nouns, as it now stands by itself, signifies its own kind in

general ;
and in composition, when used in this form, each
would a particular one, or, if used in the plural, a
signify

particular collection of its kind ; as in English would be ex-

"
the man,"
"
pressed, the woman," &c.

47. These Nouns may be made Indefinite, or, to express

O O,. J

unity by adding the letter

0,0, s
^ ; termed ^ou'^b
00,0,00,0 , the indefinite
'

^ ;
or
uyJsB-j^fU, that
of unity ; as, i^^/e, i^j, oy'? <^-^ >
"a certain man," "a certain woman," &c. If the Noun,
o,,
"
however, ends in the quiescent * , as me an infant,"
instead of adding the ^ , the Hamzah (* ) is placed over the t,
;
, f ,
"
as, &^ and pronounced bacha-ee," "a certain infant."
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (T) 33

48. Abstract Nouns are formed in the same manner ; as,

OO f IP x
" " "
a friend," J^jJ friendship," ^^ manliness,"
&c. An Abstract Noun is
easily distinguished from an Inde-
Noun, when properly pronounced.
finite In an Indefinite

Noun, the accent is placed on the last syllable but one that ;

Ox 1 ? O Ox O **

is, upon^c, and upon ^, in the words ^jdj* and <_*y : and
in the other instance,
o o
it is
placed on the last syllable ; that

is,upon j_yj and jj in the same words or upon Li and jt> in ;

the word
^Lwlj "a certain king or sovereignty": and, to
distinguish them in writing, it is better always to place the
Hamzah (*) over the final ^ in the Abstract Nouns; thus,
t o t o
" "
t.sj^i idleness," ^jl^* entertainment," &c. The quies-
cent * is changed for the letter tL/ in Abstract Nouns, instead
*
of placing the over it, as in Indefinite Nouns; thus,
xx ^xOx
&c.
infancy," ^Jjjn "foolery,"

49. Another use of this ^ at the end of a Noun,

o o
is to
"
denote connection or relation ; as, t^]/^ tul>- Haufez (the
O Ox x

Poet) of Shiraz"; ^jljoo^lJ;

"the women of Bagdad."
In this case, the accent is placed on the last syllable, that is,
O O O o O Ox

upon ^g)
and ^ in
^[^ and ^i)b*}, without the Hamzah

(') when they are used as Adjectives, as in the above

instance but when such Nouns

: are used as Substantives, the
*
(Hamzah) is interposed between the last letter of the Noun
(which must have the (') jj under it) and the final ^: and
the accent is then placed upon the (*) Hamzah, in pro-
o
"
nouncing the word ; thus, tjj]^ a certain person of
Shiraz," &c.

50. Although this _g,

(
termed e^x-J^Li, that is, of con-
F
34 PERSIAN GKAMMAR.

nection or patronymic, is purely Arabic, yet it is so exten-

sively used in Persian as to render it

quite necessary for a

beginner to understand the nature of it.

51. e^sbJ t^b the ^ is sometimes added to a Verbal

is^,
"
Noun, to express fitness, suitableness, &c.
O si?
; as, J^ fit to
"
be done,"' d*jf>- fit to eat," &c. :and sometimes to intimate
o o if
"
an event or circumstance as, the day //< or which,"
;
*$<j)y
'
*> Is
&c., itfj^j "the time when"; meaning, in both places, to
describe some event or circumstance. It is, in this sense,
O , f
called the cy/Lil ^b , that is, of Intimation.

but
52. This ^ has also several other little uses in Persian ;

they being either very rare, or purely poetical, I have not

thought it necessary to detain the reader in order to explain

them.

OF PRONOUNS.
53. The Persian Pronouns have also two Numbers,
Singular and Plural and there is no difference of Gender,
;

except in the Third Persons of irrational and inanimate

things. The Pronouns belonging to these two are the same,
and may also be used for rational beings ;
but such as are

peculiar to the latter should not be used for any other.

The following are the separate Personal Pronouns :

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
(I T
I."
"" We."
" "
Thou." You."

j\" He "or "She." They."

"
He "or "She."
It." They."
 PERSIAN GKAMMAR. 35

54. These are declined asany other Nouns except that the
;

letter ^ in the First Person, and the letter } in the Second

Person Singular, are left out when the Particle I, is added to
the Pronoun and in the Third Person of both numbers, in
:

the Dative Case, the letter may also be interposed between

the Particle <__> and the first I, which in some instances is

altogether omitted ;
as will be seen in the following examples :

N. & G. ^
36 (H) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

56. The POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS may be rendered in two

ways in Persian ; by declining a Noun before the Nomina-
tive Cases of all the Personal Pronouns, excepting the Accu-

sative, where the affix \j

is added to the Pronoun ;
or by

declining a Noun with the Personal Pronouns constructed

" " " "
as it were thus, My," d?! Thy," Jtl His," ^U Our,"
^
" "
JS Your," JA Their." The I in the three former is

omitted, and the Nouns joined only to

p, ^>, ji, excepting
(

when the Noun ends in quiescent * ;

as will be seen in
i, , ^ , i,
" "
the following examples : J <uU- My house," cyl *jl- Thy
house," &c.
SINGULAR.
1 , -
"
or My father." or
^j&J
" "
^ or J,Jo Thy father." or Your father."

"
11s '
"
or j; or His father." u lij]; Jo or jj>> Their father."

To which, also, the Reciprocal Pronoun may be added ; thus :

"
My own book." His own book,"

"
Thine own book." &c. &c.

"
My own books." Our own books."

" "
ur i
"My friend." My own friend.

or i brother." Thine own brother."

^ "Thy
"
or His horse." His own horse."

"
or J
My gardens." My own gardens."

"
or^Utft/li Your camels." Your own camels/'

&c. ^c. &c.

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (r"v) 37

57. The three Pronouns may also be used

together ; thus :

SINGULAR. PLUBAL.

It "
I, myself." ^U^kU We, ourselves,

'

ky "Thou, thyself." You, yourselves."

k.\ " He, himself." k u\-Lj\ "They, themselves."

58. OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

The following are the Demonstrative Pronouns.

O O , T --
.

"
_jj\
This" (rational, or otherwise). u> "That" (rational, or otherwise).

JO\ "These "(rational, or other wise). \j\ "Those" (rational, or otherwise).

O "> . --
" ' v
O^ These" (rational beings only).
^j\j\
These" (rational beings only).

These Pronouns may also be declined like any other

59.

of the preceding kinds, and with or without the Reciprocal

or Possessive Pronouns, or with the Reciprocals alone ; as,

EXAMPLES.
SINGULAR.

i-^jl This, him, her, or it self. These, themselves, &c.

or l^Jbl &c. I

'
_
> To these
'
To this, him, her, or it self. themselves,
or l^JbJa &c
| &c.J

s-^Uojl j
From this, him, her, or it self. , _,
\ From these, themselves,

u];] &c.j &c>

-> X < 1

J.)! This, him, her, or it self. These, themselves, &c.

J
or l^ijl &c.
 38 (TA) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

'

This h lm her
' - '
Or U Self" These, themselves.
or Ui*l &c. 1

'
*
J^i- ^J '\
From tl" s hi m ' >
her or '
*l self- t o, V From these, themselves.
Jbhl
&c.J

O ? _
That, him, her, or it self. Those, themselves.
p-,.,1
or U) I &c .

r)
/ To that, him, her, or it self.
*j) To those, themselves.
or k j
or

T.I From that, him, her, or it self. ' / From those, themselves.
j.
or l^J
Ihi &c.

That, him, her, or it self, Those, themselves.

>

*j^ T i

or U>| &c .

O x ? O _ "
That, him, her, or it self,
j
> Those, themselves.
i or (ail Sue.]

From that him, her, or it self.)

From those.themselves.
,
\ff\' (
"^ J s

" "
60. When ^1 This is
prefixed to a Noun, so as to form

one word altogether, it sometimes changed into J

is as, ;

" " "

This day,"
\
JJU This night," Jull This year," &c.
o
I do not, however, recollect any other instance in which ^1
is so changed ;
and I rather believe that these are the only

instances that could be cited.

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (Tl ) 39

61. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

The "
Relative Pronouns are two, in Persian : i$ Who,"
relating to Persons more particularly, but sometimes to
"
Animals, and to Things also ;
and *=- Which," relates ex-
clusively to Things. They may be declined with any one,
or all, of the Personal, Possessive, Demonstrative, and
Reciprocal Pronouns ; thus :

[N. B. It is superfluous to observe, that, to make sense of

these Examples, a Verb must be added.]

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

^yt I, who, myself. ^\/e3^k. &S \x We, who, ourselves.

- ? O ? . P

OJijifc.
&i J Thou, who, thyself.
^U^k&i l^ij You, who, yourselves.
-" f s

S He (or she) who, him- i

^ ''
.
A > ,,

^
\
J >
.
,\^j^ ^. &i .\JLJ1 .
They, who, themselves.
*? self (or herself). !*
'

,-?

My father, who &c.

My father, who, himself &c.

Thy father, who himself &c.

His (
w her ) father, who himself &c.

My brother, who - - to himself &c.

Thy sister, who - - to herself &c.

x
.

^
"
"
^^e His mother, who - - to me &c.

Thy friend, whom - - from me &c.

- X

iO i_JU$ My book, which - - he himself &c.

^jU ^o to
40 (1*.) PERSIAN GBAMMAR.

The house, which, - from my own father &c.

' '
That horse ' which ' from my brother
himself &c .

The horses, which, - - to yourselves &c.

^ JO V&Axi The books, which, - - from ourselves &c.

&c. &c.

INANIMATE THINGS.
t 9

3*^. 4OO &aC\ 7Via<, which, -- to himself &c.

, which, -- to themselves &c.

* _
C? t^ ^ ^sCi 1
TAa^, which, we ourselves --- from thee &c.

i
^s

VjO^ L+&
9 9 O

&at;\
*

T//O/, which, you yourselves - from him &c.

PI
, which, they themselves - to me &c.

L5 J ,.I .5iw
-

xjg\ TAa/, which, my father himself - - to him &c.

*jOO
iu
i V ^Mj \ \ -

^
. which,
from them &c.
thy brothers themselves

J ^^ *^
N
'
Ji-T ^Aaf, which
own father &c.
he, - from the house of his

62. When the Relative Pronoun < comes after an Inde-

finite Noun, the Noun, although it
may have the Indefinite

Particle ^, still will become Definite ; as, .Jbli^lj

"-
"A certain
o o Ox
king," a
( _s
tola4>U "That king, who," ^^ "A certain man,"
"
&*j The man, who," ^*>. "Any thing," kj^."The
thing, which": and the same in the Plural, &c.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (1!) 41

63. OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

T

The Pronouns and *- may also be used Interroga-

<*-

tively ; as,
"
Who 1" and " What?" In the Oblique Cases of
these Pronouns, however, the final x is absorbed before the
" " " "
syllable I,
; as, 1^
Whom ? To whom ?" or Who for V
" " " "
and \j* Why ? or What for ? And in the former of these,
o
the x
may be changed into ^ also ; as, ^ " Who," for per-

sons only and when reference ismade to more than one

:

O f IF
object, the Pronouns Jj^ or ^^Ij^ must be used ; as,

^UT "Which man?" J^^tof "Which woman?" I^W

" "
Which road ? " LV^jJjl Which house ? " In all these
"
instances, the meaning is which " particular one, out of

many things of the same kind.

64. The Interrogative Pronouns may be used along with

the others ;
as follows :

[N.B. An Interrogative sentence can hardly be rendered

perfect without a Verb ;

but as the beginner is
supposed to
be, as yet, unacquainted with the Persian Verbs, a vacant
-
place is left, thus , where the Verb ought to come, in

all the following sentences : the corresponding places in the

English, however, are supplied with Verbs, printed in

Italics.]

9 TOO.
(.)
i ,5 Who was that man who him-
self &c.?
I
y_-
t --^
/.y to i '^
^ Of whom didst thou purchase
this horse ?
"" T ^ T '

J\ii:' ',
4 yo I l
j^V^i Why did you to-day come to mv
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

^ Thou
J
~ than whom
^V-,bk
Ao_> N thyself, better
- ;
* arfthou?
O-' O O
- <k*. What do they wisft from us ?
lj\ ^,l-lJ\

100
Which of thy brothers did he
r beat ?
O O 9 m j,
Whom didst thyself bring to
my
house ?

What didst thou ask of her

brother ?
x If T
- -- io',\iw 5 \\AJO\
^

Of whom didst thou learn these

thins?
things?
was the man who dirf this ?

Which is better than these ?

What do </tey ca^/ this flower in

"'^
the Persian tongue ?
o ^ ^ o x o^_
!o , wi^^.\.^. ,.,, ,.,\ Why did not that woman herself
->s
"
^X^ _> J't ^-J) *-^ .1 n
say to thee f

Than whom is
thy father better ?

#
V .Joo'i^jo J ig\A g j>. (
Of the cities of Europe, which is
*? \ -T " -J*~--> the larger ?

Less than whom am I myself ?

OfTx '19 ? 1 _ o
- *
\j
O ix O &So\ \a^ What was that which thou thy-
self didst take from him ?
Ox,OOx-)x->x ?,

u tXJJo -T,\t,o
. .
, ,51 . Which road is nearer to London ?

N V^i X>--O w The man who saw you, who was he ?

O j O O x

5o \
,Lj L5\Jix-j\ Who <oo^ out our horses ?

^ x. ^ ^n thine
thou doing?
own house what wast

Which of these books is

thy book ?
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ) 43

65. The English Pronouns "Whosoever," "Whatso-

ever," &c., are thus expressed in Persian :

' "
"Whosoever." Every thing," or
"
Whatsoever thing."

Whatsoever." "
Every body."

"
"Whichsoever." Every place."

"
Whensoever." Every day."

"
Every night."
'
Wheresoever."
*>) "Both."
'
" "
However," or In
whatever manner." "Each."

"
All."

OF THE PERSIAN VERBS.

66. Before discussing the subject of the Persian Verbs

fully, the student will do well to learn by heart the Perso-

nal Terminations. No Persian Verb or Participle, of any

kind, whether Active or Passive, can be formed without

them inasmuch as by them alone the Numbers and the
;

Persons of all the Verbs and Participles are decided. These

Personal Terminations (as the name itself denotes) uniformly

appear at the end of the word, and are six in number :

three for the Singular, and three for the Plural ; thus :

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
44 (ft ) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

67. In composition, however, the first letter in every one

of these is omitted (except when the words ends in quies-
cent *), and the word prefixed to the remaining portion ; viz.

tO ,

68. The Termination, Third Person Singular, o- is

omitted in the Imperfect, the Pluperfect, and the Simple-

Preterite Tenses ;
and it is changed into J in the Future,

the Aorist, and the Present Tense, as well as in the Impe-

rative Mood ;
as will be presently seen, in conjugating the

Verbs.

69. Let us first join these Terminations to the Personal

Pronouns ;
thus :

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Os s is
I am." "We are."

"Thou art." "You are."

"
He (or she) is." t^l "They are.'
1

70. They may also be joined any Abstract Noun

to ;
~> ~> ,
" "
such, for instance, as <Ju~a existence/' ^Jli gladness,"
o
"
i_^x!o boldness," &c. In such cases, the final (_$ is
always
dropped ; and the remaining part, which then becomes an
"
Adjective, only, as i^Ia * "existent," Jli "glad," jib bold/'
is
prefixed to the Personal Terminations ; thus :

* It is a mistake to this to be the Present Tense of the

suppose
o , t

Auxiliary Verb To be" which in Persian is

^y> i.e. To be" in a certain

condition, manner, mood, place, &c. ;

and not
lir
XJ& , erroneously supposed
to be the Infinitive, a word which does not exist in the Persian
language.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 45

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

^x Jb I exist. ... \o~ft We exist.

> T - ' '

'v-.-fr Thou existest. You exist.

"

; '
i
He (or she) exists. They exist.

-i\_ij I am glad. *J.i\-j We are glad.

o o
j Thou art glad. You are glad.

*
He (or she) is glad. They are glad.

am We
A .jJ^ I bold.
^ .jJ^ are bold.

o O O

<_$ vj^ Thou art bold. Oo .jJi You are bold.

J*
O > O
He (or she) is bold. They are bold.

71. All the Persian Verbs are to be considered, in their

origin, as so many abstract terms, denoting certain acts or

states of things ; but the manner in which the act is

per-
formed, the time of performance, the agent or person who
performed and the object of it, are all determined by
it,

certain Auxiliaries added to these abstract terms or by ;

certain modifications which they must undergo, before they

can express their own meanings exactly and definitively.

It is necessary, therefore, for a beginner to understand the

What has been stated with regard to the Third Person Singular of
o^
the Personal Termination U^v*>', viz. to be left out altogether in some Tenses,

does not apply to these kinds of Adjectives. And the t in the Pronouns
O o s OO^
and Jol ,
in many instances of composition, may be omitted.
4G (^1) PERSIAN GBAMMAR.

nature of these Auxiliaries well, before he attempts to go

any further in learning the Verbs.

72. Some of these Auxiliaries are in themselves a species

"
of Verbs, and are called Auxiliary Verbs"; of some of
which the following are the Infinitives, or Verbal Nouns :

" "
^"Tobe," ^li To become," ^ib To have," ^/
"To do," JLljk " To will," &c. and these are the Auxiliary;

Verbs chiefly employed in conjugating other Persian Verbs,

Active or Passive.

73. The Persian Verbs have but one conjugation ;

and
the Infinitives always end in ^. The antecedent letter of

them, invariably, is either a t>

da, or a uu la, enunciated
">ff

with a (') jtj ;

as shewn in the Infinitives of the Auxiliary

Verbs already cited.

73. With regard to the formation of the different Tenses

of Persian Verbs, attempts have been made by some inge-
nious writers to lay down certain rules by which to deduce
all the Tenses of a Verb from the Infinitive.
Recourse has been had, therefore, to various complicated

systems of classification which, in their turns, have given

;

birth to so many exceptions, as to make the Irregulars

almost as numerous as the Regular Verbs ;

to the great dis-

couragement of the beginners of a new language, who, in

consequence, may, at the very outset, despair of ever acquiring

a competent knowledge of one of the most essential parts
of his task namely, the conjugation of a Verb.
;

This unnecessary obstruction seems to have been caused

by a desire to imitate the Arabian Grammarians who, ;

according to the genius of the Arabic language, which

 PEBSIAN GRAMMAR. 0^) 47

admits of such an arrangement, denominate the Infinitive

o Q ^

or source whence all Tenses and Moods flow.

The great beauty of the Persian language is its extreme

simplicity, and the admirable facility with which the different

Parts of Speech can be combined and understood.

74. The reader is therefore requested to observe, that in

the Persian language there are two sources, from which the
different Moods and Tenses of a Verb are derived ; viz. the

Infinitive, and the Imperative or Aorist. From the former,

the Preterites, the Past Participle, and the Future Tense of
a Verb are deduced ;
and from the latter, the Present Tense,
the Aorist, the Participle Active, and the Participle Present.

75. It is always easy to recognise the Infinitives, by the

final ^j, in the manner already described :
and, as an addi-
tional aid, I subjoin a Table, where almost all the Impera-
tives will be found alphabetically arranged.* The reader
will have only to look for any Infinitive that he wishes, and
he will find the Imperative directly opposite to the same.

AUXILIARY VERBS.
76. Now, we begin by conjugating the AUXILIARY VERBS.
"
First :
Oy Being."
INFINITIVE. IMPERATIVE.
"
To be." Be thou."
Jib
By rejecting the last syllable of the Infinitive, the Third
Person Singular of the Simple Preterite is obtained, and the

remaining Persons of the same Tense are formed by adding

the Personal Terminations to the word so obtained t ; thus :

* ^ See the Personal Terminations,

See the Index. p. 43.
48 (PA) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SIMPLE PRETERITE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
> o f

^ I was. *
We were.

Thou wast. > You (or ye) were.

? j>

-> He (or she) was. They were.

77. The COMPOUND PRETERITE is formed by adding the

,"9 f

quiescent * to the Simple Preterite ; as, from <v

v v ^

I have been. + &^jj We have been.

'

Thou hast been. jJ You have been.

/ *

J He (or she) has been. J

They have been.

78. The PRETERITE IMPERFECT is formed by prefixing _

Ox '

O '-
O f O
or ( _s
*a> to the Simple Preterite ; as, from ity ,

I used to be. We used to be.

Thou usedst to be. You used to be.

Ox'
He (or she) used to be. JO They used to be.

79. This Verb has no Pluperfect Tense. In other Verbs,

this Tense is formed by prefixing the Compound Preterite
O s~)t

to the different Persons of the Auxiliary jjy ;

and if this

Verb had a Pluperfect Tense, it would likewise be formed

O s f

by prefixing sJy, which is the Compound Preterite of the

Verb we are now conjugating, to the Persons of the Simple
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 49

Preterite of the Auxiliary ;

and the Tense would then be
as follows :

SINGULAR.

I had been. We had been.

J Thou hadst been. J You had been.

-> He (or she) had been, j

OO.3O Sty They had been.

in form as
80. The PAST PARTICIPLE is always the same Is f
the Compound Preterite ; which, in this Verb, is

81. The FUTURE TENSE is formed by prefixing the diffe-

o s

rent Persons of the Aorist of the Auxiliary Verb J**^ to

the Simple Preterite of the Verb ; thus :

I win or shall be. We will or shall be.

Thou wilt or shalt be. -^ iXxA. You will or shall be.

' ' '

<' V
A. He (or she) shall be. \ ^ OojJ>\jk They
will or shall be.

82. Excepting in Poetical writings, when a syllable often

will be found in the way, no Persian Imperative is ever
used without prefixing the Particle u_> in which case there :

willbe no difference of form between the Imperative Mood

and the Aorist, excepting in the Second Person Singular,
o

when the former has not the Personal Termination ; as, jjlL
O
"
or ^(M Be thou'": and the latter has it as usual ; as,

" "
or
^L You be," or You may be."

H
50 (0.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

83. IMPERATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR. . PLURAL.
o o / o o o o

or ^V.O
"
Be thou. \ oo^u or OUwj\jJ " Be ye."

84. The AORIST is formed from the Contracted Imperative

^
O O

by prefixing the Particle i_> ; as from , ^Uu , adding

the Terminations.
1 , (00
I be. *^W We be.

Thou beest. Oo^ijjJ You be.

(00,
ijjo He (or she) be. tXx^Uj They be.

85. When the Aorist is used as the Subjunctive, the Par-

ticle is omitted ;
thus :

Ox , O O

^T I may be. .
(^~
J
V We may be.
'}

V Thou mayst be. J^ V You may be.

.

ij\J He (or she) may be. Oo^jU They may be.

86. The PRESENT TENSE is formed by prefixing to the

o

Contracted Imperative the Particle ^; as, from ^b, we

have o or

0x0
lam.
I

^'* We are.

Thou art. ^^^V^ You are.

0^.0
owc He (or she) is. OsXisVjOvo They are.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (* '
) 51

87. There are two PARTICIPLES in Persian, in the Active

Voice the PRESENT, and the ACTIVE or SUBSTANTIVE PARTI-

CIPLE. By the Present Participle is meant, all those Parti-

"
ciples which in English end in -ing ; as, "writing," walkmg,"
" whom
speakmg-," &c., when the agent, to the act is attri-

buted, is, at the moment, performing the action : and by the

Active Participle, all those which end in -er ; as, "writer,"

"walker," "speaker," &c., when the agent may or may not

be at the moment performing the action.

88. The PRESENT PARTICIPLE is formed by adding ^T to the

T T
Contracted Imperative ;
as from ,^pb ,
^lib , adding the
Personal Terminations.
SINGULAR.

I am being &c. We are being &c.

j Thou art being &c. OuJij You are being &c.

, 5 > ,
.
l^Aj He (or she) is being &c. I
OooLiAj They are being &c.

89. The ACTIVE or SUBSTANTIVE PARTICIPLE is formed by

*;*
adding jJl to the Contracted Imperative ;
thus :

^j lam&c. ^OoJ^ We are Sec.

Thou art &c. Lb You are &c.

-

He (or she) is &e. U They are &c.

90. The reader will observe, that this Verb jOj? "To be"
is not quite perfect. Many of the Tenses and Moods
which I have here laid down, for example's sake, are forced,

and are not to be met with in the language ;

such as, the
"
'' i ^ f

the Active and Present Parti-

Pluperfect Tense ^^y>, and
52 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

ciples, xjjoib and ^Ulj but, as my object was to lay down

:

for the beginner a model for the conjugation of the Persian

Verbs in general, and had begun with one of the most
useful of the Auxiliary Verbs, I did not like to break off by

pointing out defects in a Verb which, in its nature, cannot

possibly be perfect in all the Tenses and Moods ; and as it
might lead a beginner to suppose that the rules I was laying
down for him were imperfect, since exceptions were stated
at the very outset. The reader will
however, the model find,
here laid down for him perfectly applicable to all the Persian
Verbs susceptible of the Tenses and Moods of the Active
Voice, Indicative Mood.

O , 9

91. The Verb c><^ " To become."

INFINITIVE. ,
IMPERATIVE.

i
"
Be thou." Oo> " Be ye. v

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SIMPLE PRETERITE.

Reject the ^ of the Infinitive, and add the Personal

Terminations ; thus :

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

I became. <*-> We became.

Thou becamest. cXJtXif You became.

) ,
\

> He (or she) became. OOcX They became.

92. COMPOUND PRETERITE.
Add the quiescent * to the Simple Preterite with the Per-
sonal Terminations ; thus :

3iX-> I have become. /% j\ 2cX> We have become.

j Thou hast become. You have become.

^ He (or
become.
she) has 'l\
OoUfcXi. They have become.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (of) 53

93. IMPERFECT TENSE.

Prefix the Simple Preterite with

^, and add the Personal
Terminations ; thus :

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
1 , ? ) 1 9

I was becoming. We were

^OJLx becoming.
(no<?o
j

Thou wast becoming. tXJtXL.x*c You were becoming.

O x .
Q

He (or she) was becoming. i>

OO(X*<a They were becoming.

94. PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Put the Compound Preterite before all the Persons of

' ' '
the Simple Preterite of the Verb ^$ ;
i. e. before L)^
.

! f ) , f

I had become. > We had become.

Thou hadst become. ij You had become.

He (or she) had become. They had become.

95. FUTURE TENSE.

Put the different Persons of the Aorist of the Auxiliary

Verb ^\f>- before the Third Person Singular of the Simple

{

Preterite of the Verb* thus ; :

wil1 w
i. I will or shall become. L Jjk\^. Wecome. sha11 be ~

.* Thou wilt or shalt be- You will or shall be-

come. come.
'
, . He (or she) will or They will or shall be-
shall become.
^~^ come-
\ <-*JM>J=*.

'
* " "
See the following Verb,
aj*Jj- To will," or To wish."
 (Of) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

96. THE AORIST.

Put t_> before the Imperative ; and add the Personal

Terminations ; thus :

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
1 x x , Ox
-~> become. We may become.
I may (-J**^

J Thou mayst become. You may become.

He (or she) may be-

They may become.
come.

97. PRESENT TENSE.

Put ^ before the Imperative, and add the Personal

Terminations ; thus :
'
'

O - - 1 I .
O x 1

^A^* I become.
pty~> We become.

Thou becomest. c You become.

\
T>J, 1

He (or she) becomes. OO *-!-> They become.

98. The PRESENT PARTICIPLE, corresponding in English with

I am becoming," is in Persian wanting in this Verb.

99. THE ACTIVE OR SUBSTANTIVE PARTICIPLE.

o^o,
Add *si\ to the Imperative, with the Personal Termina-
tions ;
thus :

I am becomer &c.* We are becomers &c.

Thou art becomer &c.

|
&->\ 3
JO^Sj You are becomers &c.

j-JOx^Txx
He (or he) is becomer. oo\ ioj^
| They are becomers &c.

* rrn_-
This termination is intended to give the Persian model, in which lan-

guage this form is considered a Participle ; though in English it bears the

character of a Substantive.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (oo) 55

" "
100. The Verb J To Will," or To Wish."

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.

k Wishthou. JJ&\^. Wish ye.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SIMPLE PRETERITE TENSE.*
TX O 1 --i 1

^- I wished. ^- We wished,

^- Thou wishedst. j^- You wished.

O x O

JU^. He (or she) wished. tXxx-.jU^. They wished.

COMPOUND PRETERITE.
& '

'? I have wished.

O

*ji
\
I
,

Xx-jUA.
O
I .

\\r e have wished.

Thou hast wished.

s
" ^ You have wished.
Ox x O
He (or she) has oJ\X>.Jk They have wished,
wished. i

IMPERFECT TENSE.
o

I was wishing. We were wishing.

(sJ;

Thou wast wishing. You were wishing.

O O O

L^. -..\.^^ He (or she) was wish- were wishing.

ing.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

~iyj S^J\^. i h a(j w s hed.

i We had wished.
O x O

A- Thou hadst wished. You had wished.

^. He (or she) had wished. >Wsh They had wished.

*
See the Rules in Verb p. 49.
^Oy
 ,,.

56 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.
(el)

PAST PARTICIPLE.

Xx^jui. Wished.

FUTURE TENSE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.

I will or shall wish. We will or shall wish.

You will or shall wish.

He (
sh a n wth They will or shall wish.

THE AORIST.

I may wish. We may wish.

Thou mayst wish. You may wish.

He (or she) may wish. They may wish.

PRESENT TENSE.

I wish. We wish.

Thou wishes! You wish.

He (or she) wishes. OOJ& ue They wish.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE.

I am wishing. are wishing.

Thou art wishing. You are wishing.

b i ^. He (or she) is wishing, j

They are wishing.

ACTIVE OR SUBSTANTIVE PARTICIPLE.

I am wisher &c. We are wishers &c.

> ^

Thou art wisher &c. You are wishers &c.

'

i. He (or she) is wisher &c. oAwiw They are wishers &c.

 PEKSIAN GRAMMAR. (cv) 57

101. The Verb To Have"

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
'
.

J
b Have thou. OO.O Have you.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SIMPLE PRETERITE.*

^
o o
o o o
58 (OA) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

FUTURE TENSE.
SINGULAR.
O O
"
k. I will or shall have.
A
k. We will or shall have.

ifc. Thou wilt or shalt have. xi3 You will or shall have.

u - He (or she) will or shall .

lj.\
* have.
Wa.. They will or shall have.

PAST PARTICIPLE.

Having had.

PRESENT TENSE.

I have. We have.
fOVM
o oo
You
^OOw Thou hast.
^ have.

He (or she) has. They have.

AORIST.
",
ytX)
I may h ave - o We may have.

CfAX) Thou mayst have. XJ .iitxJ You may have.

i,
J>\tXJ He (or she) may have. J They may have.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE.

I am having. oj\ .b We are having.

o o

,i\ O Thou art having.

tXXJ^jb You are having.

'\ \
...>uO He (or she) is having. OOO\jO They are having.

ACTIVE OR SUBSTANTI\"E PARTICIPLE.

,0
I am haver, We are havers,
?
o
3 .\.3 Thou art haver, You are havers,

3.O He (or she) is haver, They are havers, I 2

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 01) 59

102. eP/ " To Do."

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
> ->.>
,. Do Thou. OOJ6 Do ye-

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SIMPLE PRETERITE*

did. We did.

Thou didst. You did.

(or she) did. They did.

COMPOUND PRETERITE.
- T x O
'
\ V"
f We
\
,1 JO yt I have done. Ol 2(3 have done.
r
o ^ o <>

Thou hast done. tX)\ ^3 .i You have done.

*J
O Ox x O

>\ S3 p>
He (or she) has done. 35 .S
They have done.

IMPERFECT TENSE.
OxOX . 0x0
+35^0 I was doing. o3 yo- We were doing.

^SlS-^c Thou wast doing. x/ You were doing.

2j(*c He (or) she was doing. Ji .xjwc They were doing.

PRETERITE PLUPERFECT.
-Ox
.i .S I had done. We had done.
, ,

Thou hadst done. You had done.

He (or she) had done. jJ:y 3:^They had done.

See the Auxiliary Verb p. 47.

^yi
60 (1.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

FUTURE TENSE,
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
o o
i. I will or shall do. ^ .i .fc We will or shall do.

.
^- Thou wilt or shalt do. You will or shall do.

. He (or she) will

'
or
They will or shall do.
shall do.

PAST PARTICIPLE.

Having done.

PRESENT TENSE.
o f o

I do. ,^J^ We do.

Thou doest. tXx-xXx* You do.

He (or she) do. OOJiXxc They do.

AORIST.

I may do. j We may do.

Thou mayst do. J You may do.

He (or she) may do. JoJO They may do.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE.

o\jvi I am doing. ^jkJUS'We are doing.

7 _
^ You
,iuS Thou art doing. are doing.

Tx ?

He (or she) is doing. OoJlJo They are doing.

ACTIVE OR SUBSTANTIVE PARTICIPLE.

' r> '
I'-s' t 'S
i> JsJJS I am doer.
I \

^j\ ^ Juoi We are doers.

r"
Thou art doer. You are doers.

x T x ^, ' ^ '
*s
3ooou He (or she) is doer. i tXJoi They are doers.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (II) 61

OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND POTENTIAL MOODS.

103. As neither of these Moods could properly be ex-

pressed in Persian without certain particular Auxiliaries or

peculiar modes of phraseology, I have reserved the exami-
nation of them until I had explained some of the Ordinary
and Auxiliary Verbs, and laid down the rules for conju-

gating them.

104 By SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD is meant a thing represented

under a condition, motive, wish, supposition &c. and it is pre- ;

'V'
ceded usually by a Conjunction ; as, ^1 "if": by an Interjec-
" " "
tion ; as, JtK Would that ! or May it be granted!" &c. :

O
" "
r>,
"
or by an Adverb as, x-/l although jol
; ;
perhaps,"
&c. : and it is
generally accompanied with another Verb ; as,
T>^ > , 1f ~ "
If thou shouldst ask, he (or she) will do
J/jjblji-jl ^lyk/l
it":
j^^ji^fX&i},^^ "I shall not do this,

although he should kill me," &c.

105. It is not always necessary that the Subjunctive

should have the Particle i_>
placed before it. This is only
the case in the Aorist of the Subjunctive, as in the two

preceding examples.

106. The following will be a model for conjugating any

Verb in the Subjunctive Mood, in Persian. There will be

only one Tense of each of the Verbs given as a specimen ;

but the reader can easily supply the rest, or change the

forms according to his own fancy.

62 (If) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
FOR TIME PAST.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Had I been, or If I
.j
.

Jj Had we been, or If we
or
had been. had been.
1 ' Oxx O O 9 O x

,_$iV r>\
Hadst thou been, or A>t)k> $\ Had you been, or If
If thou hadst been. you had been.
>r
or <f>j>)
Had he, she, or it, been. or Had they been, or If

they had been.

or
Would that I had ! or .
Would that we had been!
I wish I had been ! or I wish we had been !

Would that thou jo Jy (ili" Would that you had

hadst been ! been !

^x T c O
or Would that he, she, or Would that they had
it, had been ! been !

Cl Althouffh I was or i
^i>*> &s~ 1\ Although we were or
or i

had been. had been.

i''
thou wast
j <t-.s! Although Altho' you were &c.
or had been.
x,
Altho' they were &c.
or t)j \
Although he, she, or it,

had been.

or Perhaps I was or *>t>*> JoLi Perhaps we were or

may have been. may have been.
O/ Ox O 1 f Ox
JoLi Perhaps thou wast or ^^"J Perhaps you were &c.
i^A+i ^.^tf
mayst
J have been.
- 1 ' o, O O x7 OxOC Ox
j
or JoLi Perhaps they were &c.
^Jo'Jy or
j Joli,
liy Perhaps he, she, or it, j Joity
was or may &c. !

107. The Particle

^ may be placed before all these
Verbs ;
or the quiescent * added to the end of all of them,
as in the Compound Preterite and Imperfect Tenses ;
or to

render the Pluperfect Tense in the Subjunctive Mood ; as,

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. on es

O-- T Ox-- o ''">''

x-
Tr.
1
<uJv-li ^* nave wished "r *jlSlXi^l
WC 8re 0?
"
DaVR

desired. become.
o o o o

fif Would that, or I wish jJLil ii-v ijSw Would that, or I wish

thou hadst done it ! you

3
were having !

OOx Oxx Ox 'OxOx Oxx

=^' Altho' he was doing. te^-jr*

'
Altho' they had done.

0x0 Ox
jl Perhaps I had done. i- Joli. We may have wished.

108. FOR TIME TO COME.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
OOx O Ox
O

5j$ ,JJ&!- Jo Li Perhaps we would do.

wish to do.
OOP O Ox OO^ OO Oxx

O.J Jb1.i-Jol Thou mayst wish i).j iXxifcLi-

^^l Altho' you would be.

to be.
o ?
f Ox
o Oxx O O Ox Oxx
JJb!.i- dto-jl
j 't-j
Although he, she, or e^b jJj&l.i-/!
j j
If they would have.

it, would become, j

109. AORIST.
O ', Oxx
'

I should do.
ib^il
If we should be.

Thou mayst be. Perhaps we may wish.

OOO x O
f^r I
Although I may or should Would that, or I wish
have be 611 -
i
&*-)}) they may become !

110. PRESENT TENSE.

Oxx

Although I do. If they are or should be.

If thou doest wish. Jli, Perhaps

wish.
|

jli I may perhaps have. Although we do become.

)
+*yitJ*< <s^*-J>\

111. PARTICIPLE PRESENT AND ACTIVE.

O, Ox
Although I am desiring.
JaJjjb
Jjli, Perhaps they are having.
Tx xOx OxX
If he is a possessor. If they are wishers.
>-r>\

1 Oxx
jt>li- Joli Perhaps thou art a !

'^J*> Although they are doers.

wisher.
64 (1^) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

112. The power and the uses of these Subjunctives, espe-

cially of the Participles,

will be better understood in Com-
pounds, when these Verbs &c. perform their proper offices of

Auxiliaries : thus, for instance :

o o

A_.?.-M txOul> Perhaps they are seeking justice.

f x Ox If
O^ T
or snouid
I\ vc
X/\\\N\
JOO >U) J\ \ Ai lie is, De, trie possessor 01
J ^^
I

wealth.

Although I may or should be killed.

113. The Potential Mood implies "possibility," "liberty,"

" " "
power," which are expressed in
will," or obligation,"
Persian by certain words generally placed before the Verb ;

Ox " " " "

O ,
" >

as, d ly possible," can," or may ;

e^Jly might,"
or "could"; lib "necessary," "must," or "shall";
" "
Lb ought," or should."

114. A Verb may be rendered Potential in various ways :

the Past Tenses may be expressed by adding the Personal

1 1 ^ 00
Terminations to u^Jly' or o*jb} and placing them before

the Contracted Infinitive of any Verb, with or without pre-

to either as :
fixing _s (
;

xO
I might or could do, or have
done.
Thou mightest or couldst wish,
or have wished.
He> she> 7
'
it( mi Sht ' or could

see, or have seen.

o o

The same with e>^ob X

115. The Separate Pronouns, in the Nominative Form,

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 00

may at the same time be placed before o^ly and

o o

and, in the Accusative Form, before c^*jlj

" and
as
IN THE NOMINATIVE FORM.
Ox Ox

O
**
O
!**J x x

^ (,5u<ju;
O X)^ T T x ^ *5 ^ OxO^
<y..M^-M<p\ or ^
' "'
3
V
^^ -' u^ ^'i ^
*i

or

? or

IN THE ACCUSATIVE FORM.

O O . ^ O O Q

or , >\JG*c\ ,

TO
(J?-~+J V' r*
O O Of O

or

or

or

or

116. The Possessive Pronouns may be added to

as,
"*
or

*v v . U >
L* 1
66 (11) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

if Q 1 ,

If we substitute ^ly for e^M*>ly in all the places, when

the latter appears
n, 1 1
in the preceding examples, and also

Job for e^swJj in the same manner, we shall have all the

Aorists and Future Potentials : in these instances, however,

we may also substitute sometimes the Aorist Tense of the
Verb (which is intended to be made Potential) for the Con-
tracted Infinitive ; as,

or
I -s I

*
'l
" -" I
"'\
I can, am able, or may speak.
j or
^iy ,*->y^> ;

jyc or <->^
' ' ' OU can> are a ^ e or > may have.
or

When no Personal Terminations, or Pronouns of any kind,

/ 5 "3 Sx
are added, the Verbs are termed Impersonal, JcUJljH ; as,
TOO x

One could, or, it is possible to, see.

It is possible to, or one may, wish.

i^VXXc or tX>U One must, or ought to, do.

117. A Verb may be Potential and Subjunctive at the

same time ; as,

l\
'
. '.\ -. H If l should be able, or if I can, I will

give you.
-r
Sk. o l
Although we might have done.
f O ^ O ,
.. , ^ s

Zsj $> OoO\3Ui \\ ^)/-y^ ^^ Perhaps they can take this from us.

I wish I had been able to see thy

father !

O ^

^ if thou art able, take a ride.

JA/ To-day,
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. Ov ) 67

)
Although I was sick, yet I could have
,' . . .-:

j gone two or three steps.

*J J J
Iji^*

OO3J
'
"
M \ V"' V
<$OOOOU\*i jSyi (^-"-^ (Would that they had never seen us,
\f-
'
, , / , o
" . so that they might not be able to
'

<!

do thus !
(^

sJul3/. re\i
wouldst not hear it from me,
*~^-^
(Thou
) although I told thee a thousand
\'o^\\ I
times that thou couldst never see
that.

OPTATIVE MOOD.
118. In Persian, when a person wishes another either

good or bad luck, or when he blesses or curses, he inter-

poses the letter Alef (I) between the penultimate and final

letter of the Third Person Singular of the Aorist, chiefly of

one of the following Verbs ;

viz.
l^J "To do"; ^ifi "To
O s 1 O O ^
" "
become "; ^^^J To cause to become "; ^Jb To give";
T sW 1,9 -~)ss Os ">s Ox Ts 9

and gjjjt/'lb be": thus, Jdf, j^, and

become
O^O^O -' O O^
Jolj/,
1
jjbJ,

and they
J^-j

JUJ", jl^i, jUlj/, jUj, and iil^,

or ob ;

are then thus joined to a sentence, or a phrase.

EXAMPLES :

O O O xO f
^ y ur

My God give thee fortune !

'
15

May the mercy

'
of God be upon
him or her !

Ox O

)\J May good luck assist him, or her !

jj

is, or her, fortune be reversed !

68 A) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

May the hearts of your friends be

May the abodes of our enemies be

/esolate ,

May Heaven grant them blessings !

May you never receive harm from

the revolutions of fate !

f /

ijV^i
\t>o. May God give you good health !

o ^
^
\A* C-vSi May good fortune help us !

119. by no means necessary, however, that these

It is

forms of the Verbs should always be employed in expres-

sions of this kind : the Aorist alone, without any alteration

or addition, may be, and is much more frequently, used

:
indeed, except in Poetry, and on occasions of
optatively
it is rather pedantic to say
particular formality,
T , O s

lily;
&c. ;
and the Persians generally employ juib,
o s os
the context being of itself quite sufficient to
jJlj^, &c. ;

shew that it is used in an optative sense.

OF NEGATIVE VERBS.
120. The formation of these Verbs is very simple. The
letter d put
,
before any Tense, Mood, or Person of a Verb,

makes the same Negative; excepting the Imperative, to

x

which the letter * must be prefixed as, ;

.
"
O Not to Speak.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
^ > ^'
Speak not thou. ^-^ Speak not ye.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (ll 69

I spoke not.

Thou hast not spoken.

He, or she, was not speaking.

^ O P O ,- O ^-x

A^O J &j&j We had not spoken.

-> o
^ T ^

JlxAi tXxA\a^ You will not speak.

.
?
jkJ Jow^J They do not speak.
&c. &c. &c.

OF THE PASSIVE VOICE.

121. In the whole range of Persian Grammar (easy and

simple as it is), there is no part perhaps so easy and simple

as the formation of the Passive Verbs. The student has
Active Verb (which
only to place the Past Participle of any
Past Participle is to be formed, as already stated, by changing
the of the Infinitive into before the different Tenses and
^ s)
"
Moods throughout the Auxiliary Verb ^jui To become."*
T Is
For instance : let us take SAJ^, the Past Participle of
O ^o 9
"
the Verb ^J^j To ask," and place it, first of all, before

the Infinitive of the Auxiliary, and we shall obtain the Com-

O ? ^ ? , sl
"
pound Infinitive ...xi *Jou. y
" ^"
To be, or to become, asked ";
1 , 1 s T '
"
next, before the Imperative, and we shall have _yi '^^> !! Be
OO , Os "> ?
"
thou asked/' Jo^i '^ji.
Be ye asked."
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SIMPLE PRETERITE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
"if
I W as asked. We were asked.

Thou wast asked. You were asked.

*xi s
AJ^M^J He (or she) was asked. They were asked.

* See the
Auxiliary Verb .jJ-i , p. 52.
70 (v.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

COMPOUND PRETERITE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
O f

I have been asked. We have been asked.

Thou hast been asked. You have been asked.

He (or she) has been ,j They have been asked.

asked.

PRETERITE IMPERFECT.

r^ I was being asked. .ji4Xi*x We were being asked.

Thou was being asked. You were being asked .

He (or she) was being p They were being

asked. asked.

PRETERITE PLUPERFECT.

I had been asked.

fi^ji
*'^~' We had been asked.

Thou hadst been asked i^ty You had been asked.

jy*^ He (or she) had been They had been asked.

asked.

FUTURE TENSE.

I will or shall be We will or shall be

asked. asked.

> Jfcl.- 8Jou<ij Thou wilt or shalt be You will or shall be

asked. asked.

He or she will or shall They will or shall be

be asked. asked.

PRESENT TENSE.

I am being asked. We are being asked.

Xx**^ Thou art being asked. rJ You are being asked.

1 ,, ~> i , > '

Xy-^j He (or she) is being They are being asked.

asked.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 71

AORIST.
SINGULAR.

I may be asked. We may be asked.

j
JSJj-^j
Thou mayst be asked. j You may be asked.

He (or she) may be They may be asked.

asked.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
xx O x x Qx O TO
With J>\ , ij*-j>\ , joli , or
^j and ^J^^ ;
and also with or

without .
-.
Ox 1 , ! 1
We may have been
r I may have been asked.
asked.
O Ox Ox O ?
Thou mayst have been
asked. asked.
O ' Ox f O . O x Ox O.
j 5 J*
JkXujyj
He (or she) may have x*,J They may have been
been asked. asked.

POTENTIAL MOOD.
,
With ^ly, or ; and also with or
without o.

r
v* 7 x vi i can or could be can or could be
IMM il
J*-"y
6LXXAW.J.

asked. asked.
O^ Q xOx O/
iXi, ji) J SiXu,-) Thou canst or couldst
ou can or could be
be asked. asked.

He (or she) can or -Uu_fJ They can or could be

could be asked. asked.

All other forms of Subjunctives and Potentials can now

easily be imagined by the student himself.
72 (
V T) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

OF CAUSAL VERBS.
V f ~>

(1^AwJUJjJ) and Intransitive

o ,

J*0 Verbs, there is also in Persian a species of Deriva-

" '
^ "
tive Verbs ^jxiMoJ*v, which may be termed Causal," as
the agent is forced (as it were) or caused by others to perform
the action. In English, such meanings are expressed by two
" "
Verbs ; as, I made him bring it"; He caused me to give

it up," &c. In Persian, generally, though not always, they

are expressed by a single Verb ;
which is derived from the

Present Participle of the Primitive Verb denoting the action.

The Second Person Plural of the Present Participle of the
Primitive Verb is, then, the root from which all the Past

Tenses, the Past Participle, and the Future Tense of the

Causal Verb are derived ;
and the Present Participle itself

of the Primitive Verb (without a Person) is the other root

from which the Participle Active, the Present Tense, and

the Aorist, are formed the first, with the final ^ attached
:

to it, is the Infinitive and the second, the Imperative

; :

and from these two, in the same manner as has already

been stated with reference to other Verbs/ the reader will

proceed to form the rest ; thus :

"
1 To fear."

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

/to > Fear thou.

The Present Participle, as we have said, is formed from

3 o ox
" "
the thus ^Ly
Imperative, by adding ^T Fearing
;
:
;

* See the Rules for

Conjugating a Verb, p. 47.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 73

" "
JLy" I am fearing "; ^Ly Thou art fearing "\
00 Ox
"
'''

He, or she, is
fearing "; *JoL/ We are fearing ";

'You are fearing." This last word, by adding the final ^,

x x
"
becomes the Infinitive of the Causal Verb ^juy'Ly To
o Ox
" "
cause another to fear or to frighten," &c. ;
^L^J
"
Frighten thou," is the Imperative.

INFINITIVE.
"
"] To frighten."

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.

M>J> Frighten thou. Frighten ye.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SIMPLE PRETERITF.
OO O Ox
I frightened.
j ^JAxiLy We frightened.
O O Ox
Thou frightenedst. You frightened.
0x1 O
j He (or she) frightened. They frightened.

COMPOUND PRETERITE.
Ox x O O

I have frightened. We have frightened.

Ox
Thou hast frightened. You have frightened.

He (or she) has They have frightened.

frightened.

PRETERITE IMPERFECT.
O O O Ox
I was frightening. ^o We were frightening.
O 00, O O O O

^c Thou wast frightening. >x You were frightening.

0x0 Ox
x He (or she) was JU They were frightening.

frightening.
74 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

PRETERITE PLUPERFECT.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.

I had frightened. We had frightened.

O O <"
Ox O Ox
Thou hadst frightened. J You had frightened.

JXJoyL^i' He (or she) had i They had frightened.

frightened.

PAST PARTICIPLE.

Being, or having been, frightened.

PRESENT TENSE.
>

X I am frightening.
>x We are frightening.

x Thou art frightening. ou> You are frightening.

He (or she) is They are frightening.

frightening.

AORIST.

j I
may frighten. We may frighten.

Thou mayst frighten. You may frighten.

He (or she) may i They may frighten.

frighten.

PARI-ICIPLE ACTIVE.
oo ,

I am frightener. We are frightener*.

If O , Ox
Thou art frightener. You are frightener*.
>,

He (or she) is 3
They are frightener*.

frightener.

Causal Verbs have no Present or Substantive Participles.

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (
v ) 75

"
The Causal Verb, from OoS To run."

INFINITIVE.
3 To urge, or To cause to run.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
f O O x

Cause thou to run. j

<>jo\i Cause ye to run.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
SIMPLE PRETERITE.
SINGULAR.

\ S\ If he, or she, made me run.

'
-i "
O If he, or she, made thee run.
2>\
^ J JS\
I

.
O f 1f "> --
x\ ^\
*\
Jl jui \ \
i J>\ If he, or she, made him, or her, run.

PLURAL.
x ^ -

OOOoo^.i \ .V* ^l-lJ^ Sl If they made us run.

''OxT x >1 ^ ^^
OO JoJ\j If they made you run.
^l^i c; l-lJ\^S'\
T-T , ~>
00 O Tx-x

c ,\JLj\ Jl If they made them run.

^\y\JLi\

COMPOUND PRETERITE.
SINGULAR.
Of Ox Ox
Perhaps I have made him, or her, run.

3 OOO\ 2>\\ \ 5 tXil^j Perhaps thou hast made him, or her, run.
- o x 0? ">
x x
Pei>haps made him,
^ ^JJ \(_5"
he, or she, has or
- ~J joV^j -
her) run
PLURAL.
' ' ' ' ' '
I I
JijsJU it w ^jLlJi OoV^j Perhaps they have made me run.

3 x ? "> ^ "5
x

)\O\
j jj^5 < .
\^j
A.-.v. .A tX)V^J Perhaps they have made thee run.
oo
Perhaps they have made him, or her,
run.
76 (vl) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

PRETERITE IMPERFECT.
SINGULAR.
"
1\ I.\ ., H Although he, or she, was urging me to
J J* ^T run.

.M Al\ J x ^ ^\ Although he, or she, was urging thee

" ' "
> ^ to run.

he > ^ she was

- "giog him .

or her, to run.
PLURAL.

tXJu tX./u\/c
&a*.j^\ Although they were urging us to run.
* t,,
i
&afc.jT\ Although they were urging you to run.

T^X
A1 though they were urging them to
,\
run.

PRETERITE PLUPERFECT.
SINGULAR.
O ; O ^ O

? ^ t^-'\J -^ V i^H'j I wish I had made thee run.

T^T ^ ? T

itX-Ju ^ul^C ,jl\^ I wish I had made you run.

">
, 9 1 , , 1 t ">

3\J \-lJ\ /iK I wish I had made them run.

y o*^ i w * s^ ^- ey ^ ad mac^ e tnee run -

T X O x ? O
JStX-JU ^ul^\i
(^^a I wish they had made you run.

JftX-Ju y\ JulJl ^i\i I wish they had made them run.

FUTURE TENSE.
SINGULAR.
s O ? O ^
<XJ\.i\ J ^*^*^. 4^V^i Perhaps I will, or may, make thee run.

Ferha P s l will > w may' make him - <w

her, run.

PerhaP s J wi 'l <w may. make him, or

her, run.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (w) 77

PLURAL.
1

yjL^A/e OuubLi. <xA^J Perhaps they will, or would, make us

run.
, PI, i *

\.i\.l^C Oooi\^. OoVij Perhaps they will, or would, make you

run.
o n o ^ o ^

k O0\^j Perhaps they will, or would, make them

run.

PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR.
1, - O fi

,S| If I do urge thee to run.

ff
If I do urge him, or her, to run.

.
' ?'
-,

(_J1?
fc

V}X?jM If thou urgest him, or her, to run.

PLURAL.
^
J 1^ If we do urge him, or her, to run.
^Vcjjiy ^Sl
s T
^ Q^x
4X^0 1 .T\ If we do urge thee to run.
^-J 1^ >y
" si Q
TO^j-
,*-J
i^ tX-wo^yuljl
J> \ If we do urge them to run.

AORIST.
SINGULAR.

i sl1 tnou wouldst make me run.

wouldst make him or her

run.

I wish thou wouldst make them run.

PLURAL.

I wish they would make us run.

* ' w^ sn tne y would make you run.

O

I wish they would make them run.

78 (VA) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

The reader cannot fail to by the foregoing

observe,

examples, what an infinite variety of Subjunctive Verbs

could be formed in Persian, by the aid of the Particles, the

Pronouns, and the changing of their positions.

s ,

The Causal Verb, from i^j^'c^ " To pass.

INFINITIVE.
x 1 ,
'

jOoJA.ixS'
To cause to pass.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
'ause thou to pass. OOO Oo I Cause ye to pass.

POTENTIAL MOOD.
SIMPLE PRETERITE.
SINGULAR.
? O ^ O ^

*'
\ 7
w \\-j I could, or might, cause him, or her, to
\

"
pass.
O O y *- O O O x

tXJ\ O-S"\ \ <U*J^3 Thou couldst, or mightst, cause him, or

(
'
' -^ her, to pass.

\ LJ. J^*J
^ e> or s ^ 6 ' cou ^' or might, cause him,
)' or her, to pass.
PLURAL.
t ^ > ^

<XJ\ .OS^U/.jl-lJ\ "v...\\.> We could, or might, cause them to pass.

You could, or might, cause them to pass.

could, or might, cause them to

pass.

IMPERFECT TENSE.
SINGULAR.

I could, or might, have caused him, or

her, to pass.

Thou couldst, or mightst, have caused

him, or her, to pass.

J\ ti^Ai \ \
^e ' or s ^ e> cou ^' or
might, have caused
him, or her, to pass.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAB. (
v ^) 79

PLURAL.

Lv_. >\ .
<_vS . _,j..jju-^
;l
v
,;fc
^
A-S-J^
^e could, or might, have caused them
to pass.
0-_
\ Wj\ ^ou could, or might, have caused them
to pass.

j\ .txTt>lJu-J\L- \ UJT Thev could> or mi ght, have caused them

to pass.

PRETERITE IMPERFECT.
SINOULAB.
O O
T ou Sht to have caused this (thing) to
_.*.CV V . >
L)\
I
'
J^ pass.

Thou ou ghtst to have caused this

(thing) to pass.
O O

Ji*-J\j\ Jo\ He> or she> ou g ht to hav e caused this

,
L* r^ '^r^
(thing) to pass.
PLURAL.

lJ We ouSht to have caused these (things)

to pass.

\ .WlJ\
You ou Sht to have caused these ( thin gs )
J to pass.

M.y
U "
They ou ght to have caused these
, x (things) to pass.

PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR.
o o

utXo ^ux-^cUJ I can cause thee to pass.

^_y
^ ^ '
^.\
'.
?* ^.
\
?.
\
~

O>-JijOo
.11
ys-^ i-o >>
Thou canst cause me to pass.

O ^^Qx^T O^
\ .OO OO\4iL^\ .Ui \ He, or she, can cause us to pass.

PLURAL.

\y e can cause you to pass.

wJ You can cause us to pass.

They can cause us and you to pass.

80 (A.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

AORIST POTENTIAL.

SINGULAR.
x O x O s '

\
*
OO\J Os 5\ .J
Jfi
^y brother
pass.
can, or may, cause me to

"
*"-3 brother can, or may, cause thee to
^jj^.) $\ \

,
y- -^ \-J -F pass.

His, or her, brother can, or may, cause

you to pass.
PLURAL.

U. tNJ They can cause my father to pass.

tXlJiyj ^V^lji

x .

s
^L)^ OOVs JCJ-^W> <MUiJi
^^ They can cause thy father to pass.

1
.^ji .tXj o*l*Ji3 ^uLji They can cause his.or her, father to pass.

FUTURE, SUBJUNCTIVE, AND POTENTIAL.

i.\y o\jJ .S\ If I can, I will cause thee to pass.

t, thoti wouldst cause me

to pass.

J\4jJ .M
^ be or sbe cou ^> be or sb e wou ld -

*3/ cause me to pass.

PRESENT, SUBJUNCTIVE, AND POTENTIAL.

iJ oVx.** can cause thee to pass.

^j \.OsG
I
&^-jM Although
. c. -'
> ,
'if >'
U/c /iVj>-^
&a.jSi
l
Although thou canst cause me to pass.

Although he, or she, can cause him, or

ui w\Ji*^-/
J~ (Xa^-o i

JJ i^ her, to pass.

AORIST, SUBJUNCTIVE, AND POTENTIAL.

'\
"
\ \ '\ * They may perhaps be able to cause us
to pass.

\J They may perhaps be able to cause

,^J IwXJ l_\--M-'
^ J \^J (_XJ
'

I .
-
> you to pass.

may perhaps be able to cause

them to pass.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (
A 81

PRETERITE PLUPERFECT.
O x >

I wish I had been able to have caused

thee to pass !

I wish thou hadst been able to have

caused me to pass !

I wish he, or she, had been able to have

caused him, or her, to pass !

PRESENT TENSE.
'
-. . .. .
f?\
*>\*) ^tXXJUOo \J To cause thee to pass, I can.

C?f ll To cause him, or her, to pass, thou

-MOu -*^
\

canst

* To cause us to pass they can.

OF INTERROGATIVE VERBS.
123. Thereno particular form employed for the pur-
is

pose of putting a Verb interrogatively in Persian. In the

English language, in which the general rule for the Affirma-

tive, in ordinary Verbs, is, that they should come after the
" " "
Nominative, as, I did," You will," He shall," &c.,

by order, and putting the Verb before the

transposing this
"
Nominative, the Verb becomes Interrogative as, Did 1 1" ;

"Will you?" "Shall he?" But in Persian there are no

such forms ;
and Interrogatives are differently expressed.
A Simple or a Compound Adverb of Interrogation (such as,

1^. "Why?" ^ "How?" j "Perhaps?" ^'"When?"

/ "Where?" (J "What place?" &c.*) is very often
employed to express the query.

124. The context very often shews the Verb to have been

See the Index, for Persian Adverbs.

M
82 (A f) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

interrogatively put: for instance, if I say to a person in

Persian, j^!joL (_s

jJiIU "You know English?" if he is a

Persian himself, or knows the Persian language, he perceives

at once that I am asking him whether he knows the English
language or not.

125. The third mode, and by far the most general, of

asking a question in Persian, is, that the speaker softens his

voice and expresses the Verb in an accent quite peculiar to

the occasion, which leaves no doubt on the minds of those
who hear him that he is asking a question :
this, I believe,

may be done, and is

perhaps done in all languages, whether
there be at the same time any particular form for expressing
a Verb interrogatively or not. But in Persian, the Inter-

rogation may at the same time be rendered quite complete

0*
and decided, by adding "
*>b or not" (a Disjunctive added
to a Negative Particle) to the end of the sentence ;
thus :

Is O ~>s O. f s
Did your father go there, or not ?"
9
" "
Do you know [or speak] Persian, or not ?
&c. &c.

126. We now proceed to conjugate a Verb Interrogatively

"
with the Adverb ]#. Why 1"

INFINITIVE MOOD.
" "
^JJjf To Say," or To Speak."

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
OOP O O* 1

"
,_yj Say thou."
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 83

INDICATIVE MOOD.
SIMPLE PRETERITE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Why said I? we ?
^- Why said

Why saidstthou? said

Why you ?

Why said he, or she? JJiifll

\j&- Why said they ?

COMPOUND PRETERITE.
IT f
J <Ual 1
.a;.
-^ y Why have I said ? -
Why have we said?
f# s

hast thou said ? have you said?

-
Why

<Uo Why has he, or she, <Ual Ls- have they said?
^a- i!
Why
said?

PRETERITE IMPERFECT.

Why was I saying ?

\j. Why were we saying ?

Why wast thou saying? j^ Why were you saying ?

Why was he, or she, j^- Why were they saying?
saying?

PRETERITE PLUPERFECT.

Why had I said? Ls. Why had we said?

Why hadst thou said? \j- Why had you said?

ajul \y>- Why had he, or she, Why had they said?
jj \j&.
said?

FUTURE TENSE.
o o >

or or we
Why will, shall,

say say?
\^j& ^>\f>-\js*. Why wilt, or shall, thou Why will, or shall, you
? n ^
say? say?

Why will, or shall, he, UlMASiXAfcl Why will, or shall,

ilji- l^a- they
or she, say ?
say?
84 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.

fj Jx \j&- Why say I ? >-

Why say we?
T / *3

i_i*x jj- Why sayest thou ? Why say you?

s
),ir i
iJx |^s- Why says he, or she? &. Why say they ?

AORIST.

Why may or should \j>. Why may or should

ju^o
I say? we say?
o 9

Why may st or shouldst JoJo K- Why may or should

thou say? you say ?

Why may or should Why may or should

he, or she, say? they say ?

PRESENT PARTICIPLE.

Why am I saying? Why are we saying ?

Why art thou saying ? Why are you saying?

Why is he, or she, Why are they saying ?

saying ?

ACTIVE OR SUBSTANTIVE PARTICIPLE.

Why am I sayer? J\ JiiJU^ \j~ Why are we sayer#?

Why art thou sayer? Jol Why are you sayer?

OOx s~>,"l?

Why is he, or she, Jo! Why are they sayer*?

*J>^) ]/
?
sayer

[N. B. When the Interrogative Particle

]^- is
placed before
a Verb (as in the above instance), the Disjunctive Negative
Ox
&\> cannot be added to the end of the sentence.]
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (
Af> ) 85

OF COMPOUND VERBS.

127. The Persian Verbs are very often compounded with

Nouns, either Substantive or Adjective ; with Participles ;

1x f "> - '

with Prepositions or with other Particles M

; ; as, ^p ^S
(

"To speak" or "to utter words;" ^ily^b "To seek

justice"; ^J^^M 'To do good," or, "To exercise

Tx^OO " 1 ,1 1Z?
virtue"; ^J-i^Ujo
To become sick"; ^.yLs-L.,^ "To make
O sO T_ O s '

" " "

happy ;
^iasrul i^JJj
To mix colours," or To be de-
1s 11s 1 X Ox ?
" "
ceptive";
? x P O ?
^.x^ J^t^ To be," or become, a searcher";

c/i^ "To be walking" or "travelling, in quest of";

" "
jjL To sit smiling "; ^Hb To go up "; ^l
"
To come down"; JjJ^j To rise"; &c. &c.

128. The Persian Verbs of Arabic extraction are always

Compounds of an Arabic Verbal Noun, Participle, or Adjec-

tive, and a Persian Verb, which, in all its inflexions, is

joined
to the other ;
the former expressing the meaning in abs-
tract ; and the latter deciding the Mood, the Tense, and
the Person of the Verb. The Arabic words so compounded
undergo, of course, no inflexions.

129. The Verbs chiefly used in these combinations, espe-

cially when Arabic words are adopted, are,

To do, or To make. vfij

To bring.

To devour, or ,jtU/ To draw, or

To suffer. To undergo.
To have. (J**^" T make.
> slf 1,

To strike. ^ To order.
o xmx '' s ''
* s

To come, or c,jjJ;i, c;xio, c|Jii To be changed into,

To become. or become.
86 A>1) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.
(

o ,o,
To bear. i> To take.

O xO
To shew. iJlj To find.
O X O )>

i- To wish, or To ask.
ij-^?-
To search, or To find.
Oj> O xO x
To be. .-*^ To sit.

EXAMPLES.
O x O xO O
To complete. ^bi^Sj}j>\ To expect.

To return.
cJ ^ iW-
1 To envy.

=- t*a. To be grieved.
^jxilt)
jlsJc! To believe.

To apologize. U^J)^ ff^ ^- assau^.

To be astonished.
^j 'c^o^o To strike.
O x Ox O O O xO _
To be beneficent. jj^ol J^3 To appear.

To take

To find fault. ,.|J^ , .ai.^ To be sick.

* To be sorrowful.
^yUL)
To find (others) dis-
|._j/sr

appointed.

130. The student will observe, that, in forming these

Compounds, he need not always be restricted to special

Persian Verbs in combination with any particular Arabic

s9 ^ o x-o o ^ T x o^- o >.

word ;
for
^^^M ,
^ii-L^Ui', jjyy.Li all mean "To com-

plete/' as well as jO^US and ;

in the same manner, as
1xO^"5 *3
'

T^O O *3 OxTO^'^x')^ O x^ ? ^ x T ^ OxOx' ^O^ 1

^d^ttfiil, ^al^JjjBfiyuj j yjjjJ^tiLo, ^JtS**, l

.
r
UiJ ^u< r , as
Ox x") O
"
well as ^jjyt^UaiJl would signify To expect "; as would
O xOxO '^ O x --_ o OxT^O O O XO x- O
alike signify
^^jUIcl, ^a^TalSXcl , ^j^jUicI, ji*.bi>Uicl all
(

'
OxxO ^ 0.x- "x-' ^ x' Oxf "
- ' '

To believe"; just as
.

-^s*, and U 'V.^/ V^^j all may mean

"
To wonder," or To be astonished": and so with the
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (
AV) 87

rest, &c. In fact, these Persian Verbs, when united with

any Arabic word so as to form a Compound Verb, in many

instances completely lose their own primitive meanings, and
serve merely as Auxiliaries, to shew, as already observed, the

Arabic Verbs to be in the same inflexions as themselves.

131. The following exhibit a few examples of the Com-

pound Verbs of both kinds, Persian and Persian, and
Persian and Arabic united.

COMPOUND VERB BOTH PARTS PERSIAN.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
" "
To Watch," or To keep Watch."

IMPERATH'E MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
o
Watch thou. i^U Watch ye.

INDICATIVE MOOD. ACTIVE VOICE.

SIMPLE PRETERITE.

I watched.
{j"\J
We watched.

JO
l< j j Thou watchedst. l^~lj
You watched.
o

He, or she, watched. I^U They watched.

COMPOUND PRETERITE
si x J )

<Ui!o I have watched. ,j <Uib (j*b We have watched.

x O O

Thou hast watched. j! &Vu>b |^/~u You have watched.

'V xO O

He, or she, has Jl <JXib (^U They have watched.

watched.
88 (AA) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

IMPERFECT TENSE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
0x0 O O OO O O o
I was watching. ^~lj
We were watching.
o
Thou wast watching. ^/~b You were watching.
O O O 0x00 O

*Ai He, or she, was They were watching.

watching.

PLUPERFECT TENSE,
o

LT b I had watched. ,[ We had watched.

'->,- O ')

Aiito Thou hadst watched. ,b You had watched.

(ji
ox o o
>

Mib , .
He, or she, had
JoJy .b They had watched.
watched.

FUTURE TENSE.
o o oo
I will or shall watch. *JJ*U- i
*[>
v
We will or shall

watch.
o o oo
Thou wilt or shall
b *bV You will or shall
watch.
watch.

He, or she, will or vb They will or shall

shall watch. watch.

PAST PARTICIPLE.

vb Having watched.

PRESENT TENSE.
">, O O o o o
.b I watch. We watch.

.b Thou watchest. You watch.

,b He, or she, watches. They watch.

AORIST.

b I may watch. We may watch.

-b Thou mayst watch. You may watch.

1 Jo .b He, or she, may watch. They may watch.

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 89

PRESENT PARTICIPLE SELDOM USED.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.
O 11 o

(j*U
I am watching. f^l/^
M,(J We are watching.

y*\j
Thou art watching. wO You are watching*.
o

tt*h He, or she, is watch- )*u They are watching.

ing.

PARTICIPLE ACTIVE.
oo
L I am watcher. 1 ,i*, We are watcher*.
r*-

lj Thou art watcher. J You are watcher*.

.b He, or she, is watcher. ~U They are watcher*.

The Verb To Hunt."

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
COMPOUND PRETERITE.
SINGULAR.
O ^ x
O^, O

Jb\j**j>j Perhaps I may have hunted.

O O x ^O
. J^Vj S.i ,i l$C^ &i" *i Perhaps thou mayst have hunted.
<^? ->> ,

PerhaP s he - w she - have

hunted.
PLURAL.
O1 Ox Ox 1 ,, Ox
.Xljl.) J(3 .S^.Vxij \^ O^V^j Perhaps we may have hunted.

J &5 j^l5C) &j OoV^j Perhaps you may have hunted.

o -

25 &i OO\i Perhaps they may have hunted.

N
90 .) PERSIAN GRAMMAB.

PRETERITE IMPERFECT.
SINGULAR.
*1

have been hunting.

Thou mayst have been hunting.

o ^ o o ^ *'

j^j w 4XijU
.So-c He - or she >
may have been huntin s-
PLURAL.

We may have been hunting.

You may have been hunting.

They may have been hunting.

PRETERITE PLUPERFECT.
SINGULAR.

Had I, or if I had hunted.

r^' _ .

Hadst thou, or if thou hadst,

hunted.

Had he, or she, or if he or she,

had hunted.
PLURAL.

Had we, or if we had hunted.

(**>'
1 - O j O O ^'

Had you, or if you had hunted.

Had they, or if they

had hunted.

FUTURE TENSE.
SINGULAR.

Jb \ak ^-tj ^ Although I would or should hunt.

j>

Although thou wouldst or shouldst

hunt.

Although he, or she, would or

should hunt.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. '
) 91

PLURAL.
Althou gh we would or should
hunt.

Althou s h y u would w should

hunt.

Although they would or should

hunt.

PAST PARTICIPLE.

>
Although having been hunted.

PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR.

\ If I do hunt.

_x
^ Xj \ If thou dost hunt.

If he, or she, does hunt.

PLURAL.
5 -,
?, 1 >
T->
*.XAXJs<i S\ If we do hunt.
j^Cj
' O )
0_x.'

^c If you do hunt.
O O

If they do hunt.

AORIST.
SINGULAR.

That I may hunt.

That thou mayst hunt.

That he, or she, may hunt.

PLURAL.
O T f O

oJvj ^-ll3 That we may hunt.

That you may hunt.

That they may hunt.

92 (If) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
SINGULAR.

I should, or may be hunting.

^j\J ijUi yxi>
^
i . s~ i / Thou shouldst, or mayst be hunt-
U^ J A

\ ing.
^- e ' or s ' ie> si 101*!^ <"" may ^e
^Vi^^ l^-*v
, hunting.
PLURAL.
Q Q O
^,0
o^ij\J /.jlJo ^li* We should, or may be hunting.

You should, or may be hunting.

s ,
OOi_i-u (^uS j^wl) They should, or may be hunting.

PARTICIPLE ACTIVE.
SINGULAR.
'" ''''!'''{/
+*j itXxjo .iSs-ij I
may become a hunter.
O s O ^ O
^.
Thou mayst become a hunter.

Y> <XuS .^2-> He, or she, may become a hunter.

PLURAL.
">'
r>
'?'>.y
*J4^j 2(oJoS .\^i) We may become hunters.

Jo -j ^OooS i\i~ij You may become hunters.

^/
.^ij They may become hunters.

"
The Verb J &*\J To tor^e a Letter."

POTENTIAL. MOOD.
SIMPLE PRETERITE.
SINGULAR.

"v w \\.") a^Vj I could or might write a letter.

\ *

Thou couldst or might write a

letter.

He, or she, could or might write

a letter.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (\ P) 93

PLURAL.
11 OO O sis
s"
*
\ s
>
V ** We could or might write a letter.

j
'J O

tXxL-J^
1 'IS
o

1
^
sis

XT,.
You could or might write a letter.

OxL-J^f &*U
3
They could or might write a letter.

COMPOUND PRETERITE.
SINGULAR.

.! I have been able to write a

jy
*s '
Xx-Jy *
&^,\j letter.

Thou hast been able to write a

letter.

He> ^ she> has been ab;le to write

a letter.
PLURAL.
si,
si
j o & &*,V!>
We have been able to write
letter.
x, You have been
Oo\ xL-J^J ^\j able to write a
letter.

x3 le >r
letter.
ha
have been able to write a

PRETERITE IMPERFECT.
SINGULAR.

I could have written, or

might be
writing, a letter.
Thou couldst have written, or
might be writing, a letter.

He, or she, could have written, or

might be writing, a letter.
PLURAL.
' 1 - 11s
We
lxiy oo J\JOw Xlj
could have written, or
might
be writing, a letter.
1 1 > s 1 1 s
You could have written, or
l^y JooL^jWjLfo x,\j
be writing, a letter.
might

j They could have written, or

might be writing, a letter.
94 Ot ) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

PRETERITE PLUPERFECT.
SINGULAR.
could, or might, have had writ-
ten a letter.
o o ^ o .

Thou couldst or '

mi ght have had
.

written a letter.

\ J X\J He, ^
sne could or might, have
> '

had written a letter.

PLURAL.
We could -
g mi ht have had
written a f
letter.
-

&*U You could> or miSht> have had

iaj \lijJ tXxi J\*5
-F written a letter.

3 &li)3 Ood-3\J ftU The y could '

w might, have had
^ <7 written a letter.

FUTURE TENSE.
SINGULAR.

.i ^,. ...\\.l ub\^.

3\3 jji>\&. J0c\j
&<l3 I shall be able to write a letter.

Thou wilt be able to write a

letter.
O -5 1 1 s 1 ' "Is
\\
rT -11
He, or she, will be able to write
1,1
a letter.
PLURAL.

XV!> We shall be able to write a letter.

Xl3 You will be able to write a letter.

lO'-i-j 3 y!V--W> 4\x&u^. Xu They will be able to write a letter.

PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR.
'
'\r I can write, or am able to write,
a letter.
O O s ^ 1 s
Thou canst write, or art able to
write, a letter.

\ He, or she, can write, or is able

to write, a letter.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ) 95

PLURAL.
O x O o
We can write, or are able to write

* \
( t \j. x^j
\^\^T^* You can write, or are able to write
Jr a letter.

ite, or are able to

write a letter.

AORIST, POTENTIAL.
SINGULAR.
s OO O

._,_.
> . V> txA-> &/\J I must, or ought to write a letter.

Thou must, or oughtst to write a

letter.

He, or she, must, or ought to

write a letter.

to write a letter.

You may be able to write a

letter.

^^.ww *J
i i i l\\ "\ x'\\
CXA-? V* iVic ^
'
They may be
,
able to write a
-^ letter.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
SINGULAR.
o .

I must or should be writing a

letter.

Thou must, or shouldst, be writ-

ing a letter.
o o o
He, or she, must or should be
writing a letter.
PLURAL.

3 We could be writing a letter.

OoOUJ ^jl
Ji &^\J You could be writing a letter.

They could be writing a letter.

 96 (1l) PERSIAN GRAMMAR

ACTIVE FARTIOItB,

^t*\J &<U ,. ^ 3<j>>x..i..'w' Jw V" v

* I must be the writer of this letter.

Thou must be the writer of this

letter.

X_ VO xXc \^
v .
-
vJ
> \
. Js.v \
' v Mvj>
J O.;
'<
^
\
M- <"" S ^- niust be the writer of
*"- ~J .
'* this letter
PLVRAL.

Vo"
^^ :" ""s*'
'"
been the writers of this letter.

A They should, or ouijht to haw

v,,_..J .>V *< ^ \.*.
been the writers of this letter.

The Verb ^.N ^ ^. ,

"
7'or V .

. ^iXi To be, or to become, envied.

1NPUAT1VK MOlMX
SIMPLE PRETERTTK
MAHAL.

enned. j Jj:
v^j klX^. We were envied.

^-J-l
Jj CJLt; Thoa wast envied. Jj jJ^ sJ^ s^JLl^ You were envied.

J-i *J^CXiy .
He, r she, was envied.! ..vj^i
s^CJLl. They were envied.

OOMPWSn rRETERTTE.

I have been envied, We

i Thou hast been envied. ._ . You have been envied.

He. or she. has been _v h)ii .... _ They have been

envied. BHM '
 PKRSIAN GRAMMAR. 07

IMPERFECT TE*M
SINGULAR PI. I UAL.
Ox f O O xO? <
^ OOf O O xOf 00 x

*/ I was being envied. J^Cl; We were being envied.

>O f O OxO 'OOx

A*LIdi!2' T"1011 wast b^B You were
envied. envied.
OxOfOOx
He, or she, was being They were being
envied. envied.

PRETERITE PLUPERFECT.
OxO'OOx O OOfOx- f OxOfOOx
.L.V' > Ai iLtjfLZ
I had been envied. We had been envied.

i lOJtCfti
T11011 hadst been
You had been envied.
envied.
x ' Ox
tuj He, or she, had been They had been envied.

envied.
FUTURE TENSE.
f Ox OxOfO Ox
*>j I shall be envied. We shall be envied.
O O OxOf 1 O x
i
(_$*'.>* ^j^j Thou wilt be envied. 4\JAi^i- XJ^ALiy You will be envied.
OOx OxO'OOx
He, or she, will be They will be envied.
iJJ&Iji- Si^Ji^iy 'j{*~t>j

envied.

PRESENT TENSE.
T3 X ') ') ff
.

iLZj I am being envied. r**j We are being envied.

^Ciy Thou art being envied. &MJ You are being envied.
, , O -.xOfo Ox OOx x O 0x0 ^O O

i^AxJy He, or she, is being They are being envied.

envied.

AORIST.
,, 0,0f00x Ox "xO'O
.

8i)^jbvi; I may become envied. We may become

envied.
O x xOf '
x O Ox O xO ""O O x
'
ajj^i,
Th u mayst become You become
Jjv may
envied.
envied.
Oxx Ox")fOOx OOx x OxO f O O
i; He, or she, may be-
iy They may become
come envied. envied.

PAST PARTICIPLE.
x -.ff o T X

sJ^ C-Liy Having been envied.

.
 98 PERSIAN GKAMMAE.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PUIRAL.
1 s f

Perhaps I was envied. >

)j**j Joli, We may perhaps be-
come envied.

Perhaps thou wast You may perhaps be-

envied. come envied.
x

oli Perhaps he, or she, They may perhaps

was envied. become envied.

OO * O O
Perhaps I was being If we are being envied .

envied.

If you are being

Joli Perhaps thou wast
envied.
being envied.

lioli
Perhaps he, or she, If they are being
was being envied. '
envied.

&C. &C. &C.

The reader will have now no difficulty, according to the

models before him, in forming any Compound, whether of
Arabic extraction or otherwise, as he pleases.

132. AN ALPHABETICAL SERIES

OF
VERBAL NOUNS, OR SIMPLE PERSIAN INFINITIVES,
WITH THEIR RESPECTIVE IMPERATIVES.
INFINITIVE. IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. IMPERATIVE.
O * '>

To stitch
ki....
To create

To offend To warn

To repose <Li To stuff

To disturb To stain

To excite To come

To steep To learn
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 99

NFINITIVE. IMPERATIVE. ( INFINITIVE.

 100 (I..) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

INFINITIVE. IMPERATIVE.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (I.I) 101

NPINITIVE. IMPERATIVE.
 102 (i.r) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

INFINITIVE. IMPERATIVE, INFINITIVE. IMPERATIVE.

xiki
tlJ
To sow jS
 PEKSIAN GRAMMAR. 0P) 103

COMPOUND ADJECTIVES,
AND
THE NATURE OF THEIR COMPOSITION.

133. This is a very extensive and useful class of Com-

pounds in Persian. They are formed in three ways: By
placing a Substantive before a Contracted Participle
"
(Active
o O s^ o 9 O s^
" "
or Passive) ; as, ^Jl ^U-=- world-creating ;
^j I
being a
* f '
"
contraction of *.XJLW/| , Creator," the Active Participle of
^Q '_ "
To create." prefixing an Adjective to a Sub-
jj^T 1,00 By
stantive; as, J^.j^j^ "sweet-tongued": or, By adding one
o - O^O^-
"
Noun Substantive to another ; as, _/jo ^^ fairy-formed."

134. However susceptible these Compounds may appear

of unlimited extent, they must still be restricted within cer-
tain bounds. We must not attempt to form new and
arbitrary Compounds ;
but be content with the use of such

only as are already to be found in the works of writers of

authority (who are, after all, our best guides in all languages),

or with those which are in common use among the educated

Natives of Persia.

"
135. It is a mistake, to suppose that these Compounds
may be,
multiplied without end, according to the pleasure and
taste of the writer." Those who hold this opinion have,
indeed, attempted many new formations, of which they have

given long lists in their works ;

but the beginner must be very
cautious how he adopts any of them, for they cannot safely
be relied on. Even in the selection of Compounds unques-
tionably legitimate, some judgment is required in their ad-
aptation to different occasions. Many of them, though com-

posed of different words, imply the same meaning ; and the

104. PERSIAN GKAMMAR.

writer's taste, certainly, must here be judiciously exercised.

Ox ,, T^ OO^ Q^^TOO O O O O O
P TyOO
For instance, li-a
O xO,x
V^y ^u^- /^trf Jt) u>J~>

j./aj^i &c. &c., are all Compound Adjectives, employed to

express sweetness of mouth, the beauty and the elegance of

manner which an admired object joins in discourse but
in ;

they are not all indiscriminately and equally applicable to

every occasion study and experience can alone guide the
:

selection.

136. These Compounds may be formed with two Persian

words, two Arabic words, or one Persian and one Arabic
word. Of the last-mentioned kind, are all those that are com-

posed of an Arabic Noun and a Contracted Participle ;

for

the Participle must always be Persian : and for distinction

sake, we call these "Compound Epithets," of which the

following afford a few Examples :
they are by far the most
extensive class of Compounds in the Persian language.

137. COMPOUND EPITHETS.

11^1
..xx- World-conquering. Assembly-adorning.
>V$.^.
1 1 ,1 f X

Enemy-enslaving. Soul-refreshing.

Pearl-scattering. Heart-soothing.

Amber-scented. Fault-forgiving.

Hero-overthrowing. Delight-increasing.

\ \3 Heart-afflicting. Town-disturbing.
.\j

i i, i p^.

-\_'*\ VS Rose-scattering.
Being covered with
dust.
1 X'

Shame-stricken. Blood-shedding.
**J
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (l.o) 105

Heart-expanding.

World -illumina-
ting. Perfume-diffusing.
. o

Fear-increasing.
IjW Soul-creating.
O 9

Dread-inspiring. *^ Sweet-singer.

Battle-seeking.
World-brightening.
'
'V Darkness -
dispel-
3 ^^^
Early-rising.
ling.

Self-indulging. I '_
Rank (of battle)
-breaking.
Light-spreading.
C5O V Grief-dispersing.
-
Stranger cherish-

&c. &c. &c.

COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
38. Adjectives compounded of two Nouns-Substantive,
both Arabic, both Persian, or one of each ; thus :

\ M..W Fairy-faced. Of noble birth.

Angelic-disposition. Kingly-pomp.
O

_j^j Lion-hearted. Justly-disposed.

1IC \^ Generous -disposi-

tion.
.
^ Melancholy mind-
ed.
-

Rose-bud mouthed. Jessamine-scented.

x OOP 5

j Ruby-lipp'd. Perspicuous in
I <- speech.
o o^
mi a aa
Army numerous as II. \

stars. ij^*s YJ^ Resembling the sea.

k. ;*J^J Eloquent in discourse. &c. &c. &c.

106 (1.1) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

139. Adjectives and Substantives together forming Com-

pound Adjectives :

9 O O f

Handsome-faced. CJ Sweet-tongued.
-j

Pure-hearted. C \ Red-faced.
r
Q 9 >

,^)j ,*>!-*) Simple-minded. Grey-haired.

Ill- (lit. crooked-)

j^>^. Well-disposed. -tempered.
O T
:

j^-
^ _jj.W Right-minded
nevolent).
(be-
->
Bitter in speech.

^
.' Pleasant - chanting
(warbling). Sharp-witted.

(Jjj Ocij) Ugly-faced. Swift-footed.

O O O ^,0 ^

J^ Cn^*-J Hard-hearted.
*
Ill-mannered.
s
^ 9^s ^99

y\ (^Jb
3 Sour-browed. Pure-natured.

Pure-minded. Of good-morals.
x
Good- (^. pure-)
VjLc. Clear in judgment.
-natured.

Black-eyed. Broken-hearted.

&c. &c. &c.

140. The vast number of Epithets and Adjectives which

are capable of being combined after these three forms, and

which are often used, especially in the Plural Number, as

Substantives, without any Noun being expressed, renders

the Persian language exceedingly rich, and particularly
adapted to poetical writings.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (
I
v ) 107

NOUNS COMPOUNDED WITH PARTICLES.

141. There are several significant Particles in Persian,

which, when prefixed or added to Nouns, form another ex-

tensive class of Compounds.
" "
The together," or
Particle with/' prefixed to
(1)
" " "
^ "
Nouns, implies society/' fel-
intimacy/' sympathy,"
lowship," &c. &c. ; as,

Being in the same house, or fellow-lodgers.

associates.
^& Being
o ^ o ^

* tX^A (tt.) Breathing together, i. e.

being intimate.

>j<X*J& Sympathizing ; (lit.) Feeling the same pain.

Being in the same school together, i.e. school-

fellows.

Having the same secret, or being confidants.

U~,X+j} Lying on the same pillow, i.e.

being bed-fellows.
&c. &c. &c.

The "
(2) Particles li
"not/' ^ "without," and ^ little,"
are placed before Nouns to denote scarcity or privation ; as,
-, -> o

Ignorant. Irreligious.

3-flcU Unmanly. Careless.

o
With little experi-
iA)\j Unclean.
ence.

Senseless.
\^j Jf Of little value.

x^
Without discrimi-
nation. tr Thin- bearded.
Jj
T^ 1 , n

Useless. Of little resource.

&c. &c. See.
108 (I. A) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

NAMES OF AGENTS.
142. The modern Persians have very extensively taken
their names of Agents from the Arabic in precisely the same
form as used by the Arabs, of which several instances are
is

to be found in the list of the simple significant words at the

beginning of this work*: but the Persian names of Agents

are properly formed by prefixing Nouns
to Contracted Par-
i > r ) f i ~ *>
" "
ticiples Active ; as, (J>^j^ a seller of roses ; j-j
^ I

"
a cooker of broth
1?

"; j^ (J
1

^Is
"
a shoemaker "; j^.jsK
O<> f

" " "

a cap-maker" or a hatter" ;
jL,^- a saddler"; &c. &c.

143. These Contracted Participles are sometimes cor-

n o
for instance
rupted ; :
^b, a corruption of ^U, contracted
x
?' " "
from a remainer with," or
aJoJlo waiter upon," is added

to many Nouns
"
a gardener "; ^b.o
"
a porter ";
00" as, ^Lwb ;

3f
"
Jld<bj
"a jailor." In the same manner is both," cor-
o
^
rupted and contracted from ft ; which itself is here a part,
or contraction (as it were), of the
*)* Ox *"3
Compound Participle
Active
"
ss^&ft a worker," and is thus added to Nouns ;
o^o
"
a goldsmith"; Jj&\ " an iron," or " blacksmith";
TJ-V
as, Jj)
"
a potter"; &c. &c.
y*j}

NOUNS OF PLACE.
144. The Persians have also adopted this Noun from the
O Is
Arabic; as, Jcs"** "a mosque" or "place of worship";
O O " OxO ^
" " "
(j^jlc
a station," or place of descent "; y** a ford
over a river," &c. : but still the genuine Persian form is

*
See p.
21.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 109

frequently used ;
which is, to add ^ , meaning both time
o
" " "
and place, to the Noun ; as, xUolyi- a bed or place of
O Q s f 1 O ^

sleep"; *!jji "a "a throne-

resting-place "; slices:
"
chamber," and sometimes the capital of the empire," for
o o
" "
the throne rests there ; sUUU. the evening," or the
^ o
" "
night-time"; xlCu untimely," or out of time"; &c. &c.

o o is , Q o o
In like manner,
J3*,,jlj, *<* , ^b, ;L, ^J, added
145.

to Nouns, all denote the

places of any thing of which the
Nouns bear the name ; as,
o o _.
A penholder, or
^u u A rose-garden. inkstand.

^ A. thorny place. A candlestick.

}
A sa i t.desert, or
x A mountainous
-.
I a salt-mine. country.
or j
A rough stony
^~> An idol-temple.
c } OO
place.

'
^ .O ^ pl ace haunted by
y"
A fire-temple. 'C.
-
evil spirits.

&c. &c.

146. Adjectives implying possession, plenty, mixture, or

colour, are formed by prefixing the Nouns to the Particles
OO oo

- Sorrowful. Fearful.
o o _~ o -

Bashful. Ashamed.

Hopeful. Emerald-coloured.
't

-\
* Learned.
Black-coloured.

k Wise.
Rose-coloured.
Poisonous.

&c. &c. &c.

 110 (! I
.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

147. Adjectives denoting similitude, or fitness, are formed

_ *>x 1

^ }'_ "3

by placing the Nouns before L , LI, ,

*J I
, ^L , ^
&c. &c. ; as,

Like magic. &3\J Fit for women.

U- 1 -XA Like ambergris. Demon-like.

o o o o o

Resembling the Resembling the

moon. O v

sun.
'
Prince- like, or
Manly; and a/so,
-' Fit for men. Fit for kings.

148. Some Adjectives, when intended to express

fulness,
entireness, completeness, or variety, are repeated, having the
"
letter (I) Alef interposed between them as t-JW brimfur';
OOF 'T^
;

^s ^

j^l^
"
"
entirely/' or
"
from one end to the other"; ^^
of various colours "; &c. But the instances of these two
or three classes of Adjectives are very few, almost confined,

indeed, to those above stated.

149. From the Compounds above mentioned, or any

other Adjectives Compound or Simple, Abstract Substan-

tives may be formed, by adding the Particle ^ ;
subject to
the same conditions as already stated, when speaking of

Definite and Indefinite Nouns*.

150. Another class of these Abstracts is formed by placing

the Third Person Singular of the Simple Preterite of a Verb
before the Imperative of the same Verb ;
or before the
Third Person Singular of the Simple Preterite of the same,
or of another Verb.

See the Rules on Definite and Indefinite Nouns, p. 32.

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ' 1 1 1

The Conjunction sometimes placed between them

j is ;

which is, however, never fully pronounced, but only serves

Peesh on the preceding word
'
as a ( )
last letter of the ;

o 9 ? o f r>? P i ? *)? ? ^ 9

as, ,_s)^*s or jLjJil "conversation"; ysiw*. "search";

Vf >)>?>), T ?0<> x _
"
or ^yjj^s- buying and selling ;" yi*\ or
"
coming and going," or "frequenting"; &c. &c.

Others are made, again, by adding j\ to the Third

151.

Person of the Simple Preterite of a Verb ; as,

if " Singular ->, >

J2s speech"; j&j "motion" or "behaviour"; &c. &c.

OF PREPOSITIONS.
152. Prepositions serve to connect words one with an-

other, and to shew the relation between them. They are,

for the most part, set before Nouns and Pronouns ; as,

O T^O *V Ox O x ,
"
oj^lw sjf.j\ ^AJ My father went from home to the market."
QxO? '> TOx "
I gave this book to him.

153. Prepositions are of great use in all languages ; but

in one particular they are of greater use in Persian than in

any other language not similarly constituted ; inasmuch as,

in Persian, they express all those relations some
which, in
languages, are chiefly marked by Cases, or the different

endings of Nouns.

154. Prepositions are Separable or Inseparable. The Se-

parable Prepositions are those which may be used separated

 112 (HT) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

from other words; as, Jib

"upon," or "atop," "aloft";

^ "down"; j]/',J5j "above"; Jj "below," or "beneath";

"
dj/
"
down"; ^
" "
before," or in

"side of";
front";

after," or "behind"; ^"towards,"

Jjf.
"
between
"
;
^ "
by the side
"
;
oji ,
"
*iL$ near
"
;

^jj,
"
"vicinity," "neighbourhood"; ^J,
OOf O x 0_
"
J>
^ "for,"
on account of "; ^.^ "out"; ^jJl in." To which
may be added these four, borrowed from the Arabs ;

jli "before"; 1^ "after"; J^. "toward"; CjU- '

"side."

155. The Inseparable Prepositions are those which can-

o*
not be used separately; as, jl, j "from," "by," "of";
j, jjl "on," "upon"; Ij, ^ "to"; b "with"; jo "in";

]; "for," "to," "of." Some of these are often used

two together, so as to form Compound Prepositions ; as,
V O^'V 0x0,
Jlbjl, j>jj}
"from above," or "from top"; j\j>j\
"from the
"
height"; ^1%! ,
Jjyl, u-J$ from below," "from beneath,"
O^Ox' ' Q^T^ O^
"from under"; (j^jl
from behind"; j'^/^, or
"
"then," or "afterwards"; Jsojji from before";
"
"from"; ^LuJ! from the middle," "from the midst,"
O?O yOx T 00-*^
"from amongst"; ^J\ "from the side"; ^J^l "from
near"; uL->,X J^l, vl^Jl "from"; ^jl, jjl "for,"
O ^ O OOx
"because of," "on account of"; ^j+tj "from without":
1

"
^JA^l Ox"from within"; jljli "before"; JllL' after."

Taking jl away, __> (to), may be prefixed to all the fore-

o^ ^oo x oo^ oo^
going Prepositions, except (j~-y*., ,_j^, ,-^j, JA* and J*j.
00
jJo is very often used to signify "out-and-out," "clear-out,"

"quite out." j is no more than jl contracted, and therefore

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

may be used instead of it, but must always be prefixed to

the Preposition : the use of it is, however, chiefly, if not

wholly, confined to poetry.

OF CONJUNCTIONS.
156. There are, in Persian, Simple as well as Compound
Conjunctions. The following are the Simple Conjunc-
tions: 7 "and"; ^,> "also/' "likewise"; J\ or

J "if"; L,
"or," "either"; >- "except"; "unless,"
"rather"- '
If ' <L- "for," "because," or "whether."
, -

157. Compound Conjunctions are of various sorts. One

T sss Iss
"
sort is
composed of two Conjunctions ; as, _^lj or_f^ and if";
' ," T '

Lj "and or"; ^ij which latter is also

Ulj, abbreviated,

thus viLij, J }
"and but," "nevertheless"; kb "but
" " "
rather," or perhaps ; **.J\ ,
i^j> ,
*?J\3 , *$ although/'
"and although," &c. Another sort is
compounded of a

This Conjunction is borrowed from the Arabs, and is

pronounced

j
va ; but it is not always distinctly articulated in Persian. Very often,

when coming between two words, especially when such words have a natural

affinity or any other relation one to another, the

j is used as a vowel ;
and
it serves only as \j~-Q ('), or the vowel u in English, as if placed on the
>, ' ,
"
of the two words;
as^iiU^Jj the father and mother";
last letter of the first
o , ~>9 OO^ o^
"
^.^jtjjj "day and night"; <3juij+J> warm and cold," &c. ; which are not
" "
usually pronounced "Pedar va mandar," Rooz va shab," Garm va
" " "
sard"; but, Pedaru mandar," Roozu shab," Garmu sard," &c. &c. The
w Is O

following Conjunctions are also borrowed from the Arabs : L! , (Jj , ,.XjJ
<*J ~
~,,

"but"; Jj" rather."

Q
114 (III ) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

3 ' Ox

Conjunction and a Preposition; as, js?, "excepting"; *$j,

^, "together"; &c. &c.

158. Other Compound Conjunctions are formed by the

union of Adjectives, Prepositions, Adverbs, Pronouns,
^O^O^ O T x ,, x o x Ox O O x Ox
and Conjunctions; as, J^i^/fcj iXxs-ybj,

"although," "notwithstanding,"^.; Jjjju,

T ^ OO>- O^OO 0^x0 Ox " "
t r ^A
-uil;! ,
jj-Ly , uil;l because," therefore," &c.

159. A Preposition alone is sometimes used as a Con-

Ox O

junction; as, u^ "then"; j. "without": and sometimes

a Noun also; as, x\f>- "whether"; &c. &c.

160. Conjunctions and Prepositions being equally essential

to discourse, since they form that class of words called
Connectives, withoutwhich there could be no language ;

some further remarks, joined with a few examples on the

nature and the use of Conjunctions, may not be unaccepta-
ble to the learner.

161. Conjunctions are principally divided into two sorts,

the Copulative and Disjunctive.

The Conjunction-Copulative serves to connect or to con-

tinue words or sentences, by expressing an addition, a sup-
position, a cause, &c. ; as,

He and his brother reside

in London.

I will go, if he would give

me permission.

A-.
JjJOs* &^9 J^J ^3
-
r *JJ t-'
1
->-, ^ J did n0t
afraid.
%' becaUSe I WaS

&c. &c. &c.

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. O'O
162. The Conjunction-Disjunctive serves also to connect
or to continue words or sentences : but instead of connecting
their meanings, as the Conjunctives do, they disjoin them, or
set them, as it were, in opposition ; as,
/ f
Gave me a cup of
.
J
,

tea,
.,, ,
without milk.
TT 1 T-J
He 1
asked every body, ez-
me.
-.. i.ihe
.tJifc.
My' servant went, but
I, , did not return.

These two kinds of Conjunctions may further be sub-

163.

divided in the following manner.

Conjunctions that unite both sentences and their mean-

ings they are either Copulatives or Continuatives.
:

The former may join all sentences, however incongruous

in signification ; as,
, o o o

Sady was a fine Poet, and India is

very hot.

The latter join those sentences

only which have a natural
connection ; as,

No verdure is found in the fields, because there has been (come) no rain.

Listen to the advice of thy father, for he is thy well-wisher.

164. Continuatives are also of two sorts,

Suppositive and
Positive.

The former denote connexion, but not actual existence ; as,

>\ls\

The Sun will scorch thee, i^thou goest abroad.

116 (111) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

The latter imply connexion and actual existence at the

same time ; as,

Thou art a God-fearing man, since thou lovest thy parents.

165. Again, Positive Continuatives are either Causal or

Collective. The former subjoin causes to effects ; as,
'
'-i V
^b &^U> *^Ui1
I .r i \ i
"
He from the tree because the
fell

i^jbo ^^j^\ branch could not bear (him)

The latter subjoin effects to causes ; as,

' '
He is a fool, ttere/ore, he does
not understand /
&c. &c. &c.

166. Disjunctive Conjunctions, which unite sentences,

while they disjoin their meanings, are either Simple, which
Ox O Ox Ox O __

merely disjoin; e^vJ i^^Jb^l 'That as, j>\>_ is either a

horse or an ass"; or Adversative, which both disjoin and
OOxX OxOO O OxO__
mark an opposition; as, e>j/- ^ c^-JJ v-^^l^l 'That
is not a horse, but it is an ass"; &c. &c.

167. Adversative Disjunctives are divided into Absolute and

O ^x^ixOx^O OOX
Comparative: Absolute, as when I say,
ui^ ji'Ul ^^^M ^
"
was awake, but thou wast not."
I Comparative, as in this
O O x_ Ox O x O Ox O
"
example ci^wJIjI/Jl^ c-^J ^1
: This horse is swifter Mew

that"; &c. &c.

168. Adversative Disjunctives are further divided into

Adequate and Inadequate :

Adequate, as when it is said,
Ox O OOxxOx^Ox ?
"
^(ijliMjLi J^T jsftlji. j!
He will come, M^/ess he be sick";
that is, his sickness only will be an adequate cause to

prevent his coming. Inadequate, as in this sentence,

0x0 O Oxx
00^
O x x "> 0?x It
<!(>
^^Cvo &-j} i\ft!jflC J^jj' jl
"
^ '
He will not accept (it),

although he be poor that ; is, his poverty will not be a

sufficient or adequate cause to make him accept it ; &c. &c.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. O'v) H7

OF INTERJECTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.

169. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts

of a sentence to express the passions or emotions of a

speaker. They may, however, be termed Exclamations when

they occur at the beginning of a sentence; that is, when
the speaker begins his speech by uttering one of these
Is , 1 s" Z? TO? 0^0 r>,

words first; as,

^l^e^^uyy^^^'^U.AjtiJ.xijI "From
extreme illness, a/as / that I have not the power of moving."
i ^ O s O? Os OO-PO^
or, iti&^UjpjC/forf^jwywjl
"J/as/ that death gave him
"
no quarter ! &c. &c.

170. The Persians have borrowed most of their Interjec-

tions from Arabic ; in which
language they are pretty
latter

numerous. They are not, however, a set of words without

definite meanings in themselves ; as, "oh!" "ah!" "hem!"
"ho!" &c. : on the contrary, they are all of them
but,

significant words, and some even short sentences, used as

Interjections because their very meanings express the pas-

;

sions or emotions which the speaker intends to express.

Nor are their uses always confined to these modes of expres-

sion but are otherwise employed as Adjectives, as Sub-

;

stantives, as Verbs Simple or Compound, just as they

happen to be. Similar instances are numerous, even in

English. What are, for instance, "O misery!" "Death!"

" "
Shame ! &c. but significant words, used as Interjections,

as well as otherwise 1

171. The following is a list of the principal Interjections

used in Persian ; which are, with the exception of those
marked p., all Arabic :
 (I I
A) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

172. Interjections expressing regret or sorrow are,

"
" " " " "
P.
ts
p - Alas ! t
-S*- Pit y ! *T p - a

173. Those which intimate grief, distress, or want of

" "
help, are, JJ , Jxlo O quarter \" i^ P. Cry \" S\SM p.

" " " " "

Injustice \" Tyranny CJb O Lord ! !

174. Such as are expressive of admiration, both real and

O O_
ironical, are ^ I

* Welcome "
P.
"
create !
"
(that is, O Lord, let
"
us have

more !) U=^ &\ C^> alii kJJUJ God is

!
,

" " "

mighty ! jSil 'LtU God has willed t\ 1\ ,
3 3 &>*>,*) , !

" " " "

Heigh-ho ! or Bravo &c. &c. !

"
175. Of aversion, or disgust : 1 jlx, p. May it never be
or come to pass!" aJJUJUc, il!UJyo "God protect us!"
" "
God forgive me ! &c. &c.

J )s
176. Of lamentation, mourning, &c. :
^Us p.
Jj>i)
p.

" " " " " " " "

Lament ! Oh ! Alas Jj , !
fy O misery !

'
"
O loss I" "O pity ! &c. &c.

Of hatred and contempt " "

177. : uJl Fie ! &c. &c.

178. Of a call of the attention: tiJJu>! p.

Ja>p. ^
" " "
Lo ! Behold " Hark " ! ! to all of which J\
"
O !
"

also may be prefixed.

179. We may now give a few examples of the introduc-

tion of the above into sentences.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. '*0 H9

To-morrow, please God ! I will

&X) i

i\j\*o\*j.>5
\fCi L_W*I How well, as God willed yester-
o .9 / day, did your horse run ?

>
Z - x x x

A<O OtXl-J &J />*9M51 ^^y J^V ^v brother, I regret, is very

ill.
seriously

3\J \
&^=>V4_xJ\J .4^ &-*A f.\ \\ &\ Alas ! for all those kindnesses
which he exercised towards
A' thee !

_Jt. >^O .Xs* /.y\ ^^ ^ '

B' ess thee! thou hast written

t ,
this page very well.

Fie ! how much useless trouble

thou gi vest!

O misery ! the people of this

city all died of hunger !

&c. &c. &c.

OF ADVERBS.
180.Adverbs being parts of speech which express some

quality or circumstance respecting what are called Verbs,

are, in Persian, chiefly Nouns, Participles, and Prepositions ;

or are derived from, or made up of, different combinations of

these parts of speech, with or without Particles, in the fol-

lowing manner :

" "
(1) Of Number :
as, ^b, or ]\Z once"; jly twice ";

thrice"; &c. &c.

120 (IN) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

"
(2) Of Order :
as, IjILi , ^' , *r-? $> or u^? >
first "'>
O O ? 9 OPf ^ ? 9 OO .?

"
.^ejJ, f)<*,
or LJlj , secondly "; .,JA- ,
^ , j-^v* , **>/

or L*^' or
IxJtf, "thirdly"; ^.^L^. ^U^-, , <H4r (V

"fourthly"; &c. &c.

(3) Of Place: as, Isru! "here"; y-ij', s***^i' u-iAvJ,

&c. "this way," "this direction," &c. ; lacT, ^JT, &c.,

" "
there," that way"; &c. &c.

(4) Of Interrogation: as, / "Where?" L?, U-^

-i>Jl^, &c., "What place?" "What way?" "What
direction?" &c. JJU- "How many?" jy^ "In what
manner?" ^ "
How ?"
^"Wherefore?" L-^,
^Jl, *^4"*?, &c., "Why?" "On what account?"
" "
For what cause ? " Jli L. How much ?" " What quan-
tity?" &c. &c.

(5) Of Time Present: as, ^\ ^, , SU., "now";

^Ui^l, ^U; ( .jMa>, wy^l^, &c., "just now," "this
" " "
instant," this very moment "; j^ to day ; ^^,\
"tonight"; JLJ "this year"; &c. &c.

(6)
OOOx-
Of Time
OOOxO
Past :
as, Jjj\J*, ^ &
OOOOx , "before this";

' '>

"
^'y^i' "previously":
Ox- ^^ , ^
'" O O
"anciently";
T

yesterday"; i-^ijj "last night"; ^L JL,U "last

year."
O^
" OTO^--?^OO
(7) Of Time to Come :
as, \<^ to-morrow "; Jjtyj ,jyjj>&
"
the next day "; t_^il
Ox
jj
"
*?x
to-morrow night"; ^ ^z
"the next night"; li> ,/* "the day after to-morrow";
i - ~>s i, 1,1
L-^iljy^^j "the night after to-morrow"; ^JtjjjU "the
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (
I f I
) 121

next year"; Ji^> U> "the next month "; o^iis "the
O s^*^ fs^s ^' <_
next week"; or xjoiT <UftA , sJoil *U, s^'T JL "the coming
o ox Ox o ,,

or approaching week, month,, and year." ^1 A*J, ,,-ju.,

uLiT, J$l,jlj "henceforth/' "in future," "hereafter/' &c. ;

1 ,1 ,
> O? O x ->,->),
" ''

i]^ by-and-bye," presently, &c. :

jjfto..f,
" "
immediately," instantly," "directly," &c.

no o
Of Time Indefinite: as, &. "
(8) I^^J^yUl^/^UwJ "often,
O
" 'f " " "
many a time/' oftentimes ;
^btfx^
-
occasionally ;
OOxO OOJ' T^-O ,,

i/3yi>
">~
"
"sometimes";
~> ' Ox ^^
^ Tx
"soon";
"
^J.J "very
" Ox IxTx
seldom";
"
^oLi rarely "; xij^Jt>, X;!^ always," ever"; <uyu con-
^9 O *"V a, x Ox ^

stantly"; ^l^o "continually"; jjj^u*^ *^*ji, *-^ "every

" "
day," "daily"; *JLyb every year"; lilxJL yearly";
Ox 9x Tx T 1,1,'),
.utl^ft 'every month"; <KJluU 'monthly"; xJUayb "every
O 'Ox
week";
OxOy
.X^Ajb "weekly";
Oo^OOOx- ^
OxOx
"every moment";
momentarily"; p tt .Jap.*j*J& "again"; &c. &c.

" " "

(9) Of Quantity cJjl little much ";
:
as, ;
u^
"rare"; Ju^ "greatly," "a great many"; ^J,
"abundantly";
00 ,
^"sufficiently"; ^ "enough," "only";
"even," "even this only."

(10) OF MANNER OR QUALITY.

181. Adverbs of Quality are the most numerous :

o ,_

they are generally formed by adding the termination t->\

" "
(which answers to the English ly ) to an Adjective,
O -- o
whether Simple or Compound; as, *J1^> "bold-(/";
R
122 (Iff) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

"
<sJLjli> learned-/^"; &c. Every Compound Epithet,

therefore, with very few exceptions, can be thus used as

an Adverb*.

182. Participles Present are also used as Adverbs :

they
may be Simple ; as,

O T *, O

ji He spoke to me lamentingly.
O r
f O s Ts 1 ^ s T

He asked me smilingly,

or Compound ; as,
> , > it jj e came con tenuously, or in a manner evidently
C> ~J^ L^" Jv seeking contention, i.e. to pick a quarrel.

"'.
'
ft f
s '=^ He went weeping to the
, .
gate of
CUSj 2SUj
(Jp\j~ij5j> ^Ui tej> the pa ace O f t h e king. i

183. Compound Past Participles are likewise employed as

Adverbs ; as,

r%b SOuSdii He returned broken-hearted.

In fact, every Noun which describes a Quality, Manner, or

Attribute, may be employed in Persian as an Adverb.

" " it
(11) Of Doubt ; as, I*lft perhaps "; lib may be" or
">, s if
"may happen"; jJly "possibly"; <tfy "peradventure"; &c.
s

(12) Of Affirmation; as, GUa>, <uolyt, "certainly"; <LxxJI

"
verily"; i^J, viliJ, tiliS*, *-^A^, undoubtedly";
'
?i t.
.i "without any doubt whatever"; A-L^IH^ with-

out artifice."

.See the List of the Compounds, Adjectives and Epithets, p. 103, 4.

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ^O 123

"
(13) Of Negation; as, never "; & "no," "not";
- 1 9 s, OO TO/-
ISiko, bol, "not at all"; "not any"; "at no
OQOO gft e^j^s>
OOx-O
time"; jj^^jt "nothing whatever"; ^ysu^j "in no
O ^ O O x O
" " " "
wise ; . I ^
#p none whatever j j AS> no person
"
; (
f
;
o o^
b "on no account;" &c. &c.

(14) Of Comparison ; as, t^Jb;, y^, ^\ ^, "more"; ,

" "
jj**i much-more"; J^jJ, t^J&.Jfi, most";
" " "
Jif , less"; J^j least"; o> \kfj, , small";

JjkijL/, "smaller"; JA," alike"; Jp,Ll "equal";

^9^)9 O .c O ^

"parallel"; j^, J^l-c, ^JW*, "opposite," "face to face";

O P TOxOx

t^j'r '
tti;j(**>
"of the same weight."

184. Prepositions, or even Adjectives, singly, in some in-

stances, become Adverbs, by their application merely, without

suffering any change ;

as in these phrases :

fAj>AL. cAi (^ e time of) our departure is

\
^ near (at hand).

;,
dost thou complain of
me?
&c. &c. &c.

185. The following sentence will better explain the man-

ner in which Adverbs are used in Persian :

I went to see him once.

" "
186. When the Adverb once is
employed in English,
"
it
may mean indefinitely ; namely, once upon a time."
 (I
ft
) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

In Persian, in such instances, the Indefinite Particle ^ is

added to the Adjective jb ; as,

S^)V Once upon a <ime, he went to see him.

It may be used without any emphasis being intended ; as,

" went to see him."
Once I Either of the two foregoing

phrases, in Persian, may be employed here ;

when the con-

text will do the rest.

187. It may, in English, mean " one time only," i.e.

neither "more nor less." Now, in Persian, the Adjective-

o "

Adverb ^
the other Adverbs in
"
sufficient/' or

manner following
"
only," must also be used with
:

cJ* I went to see him, only once.

Ox OJ
J
p
-

J* iO (.* v Cl^C- w^ ) He was on^y too Aour* with me.

O Ox O O Ox x'

j 'tX->^-
^j^*^' j' (_5*^
^ ne ^ ^em was smiling only.

188. Sometimes the Adverb II ^A, the Adjective (&

Tx
" "
alone," or the Adjective-Ad verb
Ox
^M singly," are used

with ^p*), or employed instead of it ; as,

/Ij. OOw- j t^*^ ,USo

J '
>
Jo^A H e asked me only once, and
no more.

i
l^JJ ^ L c omplain of thee alone, and

cXJOO J .j
L/* j^ -^ l
--!?*^ **'J ^ou a8 ^ 6 ^ f me alone.

They alone were speaking, and

no one else.
OxO O x

^^ Listen to me now!
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. O r
&) 125

did not ^7 thi s horse, for

several reasons.
O ^ TOO CX
l--:A .jo&Xu\
-
^ ,\
}
Firsf, that it is old.
J=v

or ,*j3 Secondly, that it is lame.

-i
"-"v/> that it is of a bad
f ^
^~-j
7
or \jJ\J
, colour.

&c. &c. &c.

5\s *A^ Where hadst thou gone yes-

ferdoy?

Why dost thou ask ?

Because Iknocked at the door

toice, and no one gave me
an answer.
19 Q^

J d>>^ &Sk time was it ?

J do not e*c% recollect (it is

not exactly in my recollec-
'
tion) :it might have been

189. The learner will observe, that the Adjective e

"
"perfect" has here been employed as the Adverb exactly/'
without having suffered any change of form : so he may
Q O?
"
also remark with regard to the Adjective i .
>j- good," or
"
well," in the following sentence :

Think M)eW/ i4; mav

come into thy recollection.

recollect ( r it is

come into my recollection) ;

. it was an hour after noon

(one o'clock).
 126 (Id) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

Whence came it into thy re-

j^
collection ?
-

O c-^lc^ id
IJIMV^JXB j From
i
(seeing) the common
labourers, who mostly go to
(their) meals at one o'clock.

What has this to do (what con-

nection has this) with your
knocking at the door yes-
terday.
** was re-
because just as I
^r^- Why,
ox o^oxo ox Ox x, x f
turning, disappointedly, from
^U \^r \

(_y*-*^- +*~^!*jl H& the door of your house, I

>\j>
oxo o x saw a number of them in
&^.S
vV
the street.
rOtO

i^>\ This can never be considered

(become) a proof that you

?
^ t^Jo i^g.L-i came
at one
to the door of
o'clock.
my house
x x O ,

Why not ?

O Ox
'..jit &JL.x~tjb sA^" &i e \x-i /.jJi j>
For this reason, that the work-
men do not always, and every
a to (their) meals ex-
at one o'clock.

- ,\-x
J^^tj &. For I have o/ten seen them
eating their food at two

to see

oo*xo
>

^XOX o a number of workmen in

JyJ\ &S s"-
1
--_-'* A-Xj^iOJi ^jOOi the street, is by no means a
x o ? o o proof that, positively, they are
to eat

It is enough, now: you are a

wry jrood [ironically used]
logician.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. rv ) 127

But tel1 me v(speak),

\

,
U
"\ p
wilt thou be at
Really,

, row, or not?
ItX^. God onfy knows.

Unless thou shouldst say

thou wilt come, and dost
come accordingly.

ifA -*
,1 JB \\
jviJsJ u I promise that I will come,
without fail, an hour before
noon -

? Very well :if thou canst, come

earlier even there is no

:

objection (lit. harm).

OF DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
190. This class of Nouns has a very extensive and pecu-
liar application. With a complete knowledge of the pro-

perties of a Persian Noun, and of the changes which it

undergoes by grammatical inflection, the mode of imparting

to them a diminutive signification would appear to be

simple and obvious, and scarcely of sufficient importance to

require separate illustration ; especially when we consider
the vast power of expression, and the unlimited variety of

epithets existing in the Numbers of the Persian Adjectives,

and their susceptibility of almost infinite combinations with

other Parts of Speech.
The fact, however, is, that, in the Persian Language,
these Nouns constitute quite a separate class, and their
forms are of a very perplexing nature ; contrary to that
general uniformity and simplicity which characterizes the
128 (ITA) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

grammar of this Language. One cause of this peculiarity,

o ^ o x o

perhaps, is, that the Affixes (four in number, cJ, &$,&-, *)

which being added to a Noun at one time express

simply smallness of size, at other times impart to it other

meanings ; such as, tenderness, pity, contempt, artificial things

in imitation of nature, nicknames, &c. &c.

Hence these Particles are not exclusively appropriated to

one particular purpose, but vary their office when added to

different classes of Nouns and a foreigner may experience
;

some difficulty in duly comprehending the use and applica-

tion of these Affixes.

The difficulty, however, will in general be experienced

by the Student only in writing Persian ; for in reading any

respectable Persian book, he will always find the context so
clear, that, if he understands what he reads at all, he will

readily comprehend what a Noun, having any of these

Affixes, is intended to express but in writing, if he cannot
:

knowledge of the idiom, he need not make use

trust to his

of them to express any of the different meanings above

mentioned. Some Adjectives, Adverbs, Epithets, &c., may
equally be, and are, by the Persians, universally employed

for that purpose, as already stated.

191. I will now proceed to explain, as clearly as I can,

how Diminutive Nouns of various kinds are formed in Per-

sian, by the aid of the four Particles above specified.

 PERSIAN GBAMMAB. (">) 129

192. OF THE DIMINUTIVE PARTICLES,

WHEN ADDED TO
THE NAMES OF RATIONAL BEINGS.

(1) The Particle t^J, when added to the names of Rational

> sis
"
simply denote Diminutiveness a
Beings, may O
; as,
Tx X
cJj^o
Xx
small man"; ^Jjj "a small woman"; ^j^> "a small
O xO ?

boy"; cJ/s-J "a small girl." In this sense, however,

unless jestingly, it is seldom used.

(2) When added to a Noun of this class, and not intended

simply to express Diminutiveness, an Adjective must be

added, to define the meaning, which, in this case, however,

O xOx
"
is not always of a favourable nature ; as, U,U cJo^ a good
O Ox xOx
holy man"; j>jk <^>/<> "a wicked man"; &c. &c.

be used in an endearing sense, to imply Pity,

(3) It may
Tx 1 1 x xO
"
Affection, Regret, &c.; as, o^Uoj CJlak My poor dear ^
child is sick"; &c. &c.
o

(4) With the letter * added to the cJ, so as to make it

o *-

s$ , it may imply "contempt," with or without an Adjective;

" " "
as, t&^' O thou/e//o; / &j J\ Why, this woman";
&c. &c. But this is restricted to Grown-up persons ; for in

the case of a Boy or a Girl, the y alone (also, with or without

an Adjective) is
quite sufficient to imply the contemptuous
Oxx O xO 7

sense; as, ,*.>

"a naughty boy"; x/i-j "a good-for-
OxTx jx x

nothing girl": or, ijjujm "a profligate boy or youth";

x O JxxO f

a shameless girl"; &c. &c.

193. The Particle to- is never added to the names of

Rational Beings.
130 (if.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

194. OF DIMINUTIVE PARTICLES,

WHEN ADDED TO
THE NAMES OF IRRATIONAL BEINGS.

'i S ' f >ss

In Persian, we may say tLUJ, cJ^-, &c., signifying "a

"
small horse," a swa// ass," &c. &c. ;
and the Adjectives
i ? i r

cX-j or iJ,i-
"little" or "small" may at the same time

be used; as, fciU/tiUJ "a little horse"; >>-C^ "a

small ass"; &c. c.

195. It may also be added to this class of Nouns, to

imply pity or compassion, &c. ; but in this meaning it is

i "i

generally accompanied with an Adjective ; as, (iJ >f*M> C^-

' ' '
" ^
</<e
poor wretched ass"; *Ju-tiJ 5 l5 "the poor tired ox";

&c. In both these senses, however, it is more usual to add

i

the Particle cJ, icith or without an Adjective, to the Generic

T r> , ~>, f)
"
Noun, jj^s- or ^y U- Animal," for Beasts of all kinds ;
and
1 19 ~l s 1s
"
to
f^> Bird," for Fowls of all descriptions ; as, CJJ!^ "poor
1 s^ 9
" " "
little creature," or merely
O ^ O x
little
x Ox
creature ; ^J^ poor
little bird"; &c.; or ^_w- CJJl^io-
"the poor jaded beast";
T O x xxO
ijjui
iJ;yl- "the weak miserable animal"; &c. &c.

5 Ox
196. It is at the same time to be observed, that ^^ is

chiefly to be used for Domestic Animals, Quadrupeds, and

0x0
Fish ; while ^yl- applies to Wild Beasts, Reptiles, and Vermin

of all kinds.

Ox Ox O

197. The Particles <6 , <**-, and x, are never added to this

class of Nouns.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (
' H ) 131

198. OF DIMINUTIVE PARTICLES,

ADDED TO

INANIMATE THINGS.

O Ox
The Particles cJ and <te- are most extensively used, in

Persian, with this class of Nouns :

O xOx
"
(1) To indicate Smallness of Size ; as, CXc^ a little
"
?
pond"; <W=b "a small garden." But in this sense the affix
Ox
&- is mostly employed.

(2) To imply things made in imitation of nature, or other

works of art : and under these heads are to be included

toys, and all those things which are made for pastime,

resembling, or having a connexion with any thing really

useful or important.

199. The however, most commonly em-

Particle cJ is,
' * ~
" "
ployed in senses such as these L e. eXJ a little image ; I

O x_ Oxx t
"a man ") "
(from *4> I
;
^Ltijyc a little insignificant pic-

ture/' scratched, as it were, upon a piece of paper, or

00 Ox
daubed upon a wall ;
(j>ya being the proper word for a
"
regular picture," and
both derived from the primitive
OxOC
Arabic Substantive
" " "
jyc a form or a likeness.") In 'i

O^x-
like manner, cJJiU" means a "kite" ('a fictitious bird/ as
o ^

Dr. Johnson terms it, 'made of paper'); *& being the

Persian for "paper"; &c. &c.

(3) The Particle cJ is again added to the Noun, when

the intention is to express the application of it to the per-
5 x O x

formance of an action out of its ordinary use ; as, cX**io-

O xO x
'
a significant wink of the eye"; cJJJ clapping the
132 (Iff) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

hands for mirth or applause ;

cXiy listening, by stealth, to
O^ O 7

what is going on ; tiLLJo making a somerset, so as to

OOx TO TO?
p

fall
upon the back ; &c. &c. (c^>, ^/, and o^, mean-
ing the hand, the ear, and the back, respectively).

200. Many additional instances of the use of these (so-

called) Diminutive Particles, with still more numerous modi-

fications of their meanings, might be cited ; but it will pro-

bably be thought that quite sufficient attention has already

been bestowed upon this comparatively unimportant part of
the Grammar. The reason of my having dwelt upon it at

so much length, is, that the Persian Language, being con-

stitutionally poetical, is usually very figurative ; and, not-

withstanding its simplicity and regularity of its general

construction, it still abounds in pithy and concisely subtle

expressions, chiefly perhaps arising out of these little things.

Now, unless a foreigner for whom, after all, Grammars are

written obtains a competent knowledge of phrases and

idioms of this nature (I speak from experience), he can
never master any language. He may indeed go on reading
ever so much, but he will never satisfy himself; or write
ever so many books, but he will never satisfy others.

201. The between two friends may,

following dialogue
after all, perhaps give the best idea of the mode in which

these Diminutive Particles are employed in Persian :

T O.OXxOx "> --

Who is that fellow? d* OO &S

2yo c ,\
1.

Of whom dost thou speak ?

Of that person, who, with

the small box under his
arm, is standing yonder.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (""O 133

Knowest thou not Hasan,

the goat-dancer ? He is of
^
some celebrity in this town. ^ U <^"> a^,

I had often heard of a .

'^ ~ JOOsLL ',"A
.

"monkey -dancer"; but a

!\J.
-> '^'
\

\
JJJ- 'A-> ,.,**>
**&*-
1-

"goat-dancer" must be some-

new.

O, don't mention the name

of the monkey for it is a !

creature.
disgusting
Do not say so for it ;
is a
wonderful little mimic.

The extent of which is,

that it grins, or winks, or

makes a somerset.

Perhaps this wonderful

goat of yours, then, performs
some magic ?
There is no magic in the
case ;
but this little animal
exhibits several tricks that
are very surprising.

Describe one of them: let

us see.

For instance : its master

has several little round pieces

of wood, all of the same size,
and each about a span long.
First, he places one of them
on the top of that box upon
the ground the little goat
:

jumps upon it. He then

puts another on the top of
that: again the clever goat
jumps on the top of it :

and so on, to the number

of ten or twelve bits of
wood: and the goat, stand-
ing on the uppermost of all ;
 134< (in ) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

at one time moving its beard,

and at other times shaking ^
its head, in a manner to kill \

one with laughing.

Enough of goats and mon- \jfc -Aj

^o\ ^ i^jJb
.
,., ^ 5V '^ <r-> 1

keys ! Each, in such sort of

a perfect little devil.
tricks, is L
..
/^ M
Nowme, How is thy
tell -^"?
boy to day? Is he any
better ?

Poor child! his back is

very painful : last night he

could not sleep at all.

His pedagogue must be

a strange petty tyrant !

He himself is not so bad :

his wife, too, is a good sort

of woman : but as to that

vile he is
assistant of his,
worse than any thing thou
canst name !

Why, this wretched youth fr^-* iXjU &3uJi <^V

must be insane, to behave
thus to the children
OoSo^, AlJ
!

He is not quite so insane

as you imagine,
Art thou aware of
neither.
his cun-
o o _ ,,, ,,-,
ningf contrivance, by which
he frightens the little b irds,
that they may not go near
his orchard?

J/p Ox.^-0, O^O^O^x ^^.T x

. v
IIhave
,,,,
never heard (of
1

,
./"
tXXXX*
I/
J
.

*isk. x w I
-!\ Jit^XX^J\
.i A
C -J3
it). What does he do ? *
Y ***
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. Cr ) 135

He
has taught the boys *^
some of these low vulgar
songs: and, several times

daily, he sends them out

into his orchard, saying,
"
Let one of you sing these
little verses out loud, while

the rest join in chorus, and

^x CTUO 6+>y
, ' ' ' ' '

clap their hands."' See what (J^>

low morals this dissolute fel-

low teaches the poor innocent

children ; besides hindering
them from (prosecuting)
their regular studies !

'^J

Profligate (call him) as

much as you will ;
but this
clumsy contrivance of his
can never prove that he
possesses any cleverness ;

for one boy, with a bird-

no rj ,jj,

from ,. _.

"
wood ),
would be sufficient
for the purpose and if the
:
f ,

boys, each in his turn, [were ^\

to ggo and] shake the ford- ^',
,

clapper, there would be no ,A\ ^ ,J

.

occasion for any of them to

neglect his ft/e 600*.

What you say is true ;

jfy^
""
^ CL*-J\ C^-jU Ooo^Gw \^i &a\ 2.

but a wicked wretch, for the

sake of (saving) a cup of
water, does not care if a
y^
-^ ',
"l^-^*% JjVtiL,^
-^ ,
whole city burns. That > ~> >" -> , >'>' ->*.-),

<jW ^-V^- ti/

clapper he must buy !
thou understand me, or
Dost ^J^. <*j V'j ^
not?
 136 (tr"!) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

Very well ;
but if the
(J>jb LJJ% W^ f' **o'

boys, at play-time, should "

kites in the gar- 1
fly (their) ^'' J?-^ t*Jj>K &-
den, no winged creature ./ tlT
would dare to fly near that
place :
[thus the object
would be gained] without , , , ,__
any expense on the part of LfA-df.-/ ,-,\ < S us j\
that miserly fellow.

This is also true; but

also is not
[this scheme]
without danger.

Whence [arises] the dan-

ger?

Perhaps, when they are

O>3jcX.x/o_j
playing and running about,
they may break some young
tree, or trample upon some
little plant (or what is)
:

worse than all, they may

now and then finger a little
fig,
or handle a small apple,
and so on but when they
:

are altogether, chipping their

hands, they cannot attend to
other little practices.

According to my notion
(of justice), the punishment
of this worthless wretch
would be, that having tied
him to a post, in the public

gardens of the city, there

they should leave him, in
order that, at one and the
same time, the birds may
be frightened away, and
other assistant schoolmas-
ters may take warning.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (ll~
v ) 137

OF SYNTAX.

202. It is usual with Grammarians, on finishing the expla-

nation of the different Parts of Speech, to treat of what
" Grammar which
they have termed Syntax/' or that part of
"shews the agreement and right disposition of words in a
sentence." to this definition,
Syntax, then, according is,

of a Grammar ;
obviously, one of the most important parts
inasmuch as without a correct knowledge of its rules no

language could be written or spoken correctly.

But, to illustrate a living language, in which idiom con-
tributes so essentially to the perfection of a sentence,

Syntax must embrace, not only "a right disposition of

words," but also a developement of idiomatic phrases ; and,

in this point of view, it becomes doubly useful, and indis-

pensable.
I

203. The plan hitherto pursued now speak exclusively

(I

of the writers on Persian Grammar) for teaching this

important part of the Grammar, has been, to propound
general rules, and illustrate them by quotations from diffe-

rent authors.

Instructive, however, as this plan unquestionably is, I do

not think (though I speak with great diffidence) that it is

the best, or, at all events, the easiest mode of teaching a

foreigner how to speak a language. To quote an isolated

passage, or a verse, from a poet who may, after all, have
licentiously strained an expression, to answer some of his

prosodiacal whims or to cite from an ancient writer, whose

diction may now be obsolete is not the best method of
T
138 (IT/N) PERSIAN GRAMMAB.

giving a beginner a correct notion of the existing phraseology

or idiom of a language.

204. Another, and perhaps still

stronger objection to the
ordinary scheme, is, that, in its manner, it is
repulsive, and,

consequently, seldom studied with requisite attention. The

beginner, by the time he has arrived at this stage, is
pro-

bably already wearied of a study proverbially dry and un-

attractive ; and, as his eagerness to begin the grammar of a
new language may have induced him, at the outset, to reject

a long preface, his anxiety to get at something more inter-

esting in it
may equally prompt him to disregard what
he may, however unjustly, consider an unnecessary appen-

dage namely, a long series of minute and complicated rules,

;

" "
under the denomination of Syntax thus losing the :

opportunity of making himself acquainted with a most useful

and instructive portion of his grammar ; namely, how to

arrange his words in a sentence, so as to express himself

correctly, and according to idiom.

With regard to the Persian Language, I am inclined to

think that a different plan may be successfully adopted. In

a series of Dialogues, in the shape of conversations on
general subjects between different individuals, occasion may
be taken to explain the Rules of Syntax in such a manner
as to afford the learner an opportunity of making himself

acquainted with the proper idiom, at the same time that he

is instructed in the Persian Syntax : and as a literal trans-

lation of each individual speech, in these conversations, may

be placed in juxta-position to the original Persian, the
Student will possess also the advantage of having at once
before him a multitude of idiomatic phrases and expressions,
which, with a little judgment, he may arrange in various
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ( ' ^ ) 139

other ways, so as to express different ideas, and convey

different meanings and the practice of writing the Persian

:

language will also be facilitated by means of these exercises.

205. I am
aware that Dialogues of this description are

generally dull, and uninteresting but this, I fear, is an;

insuperable evil, to which a beginner of any language must

necessarily submit. In adopting this plan, however, I have

endeavoured, to the best of my ability, to make these Dia-

logues as little by diversifying them as

tiresome as possible,

much as is consistent with the principal object of works of

this kind ; in which, however, more regard must be had to

instruction than to amusement.

206. Where any passage, phrase, or word, which may

appear to me to require explanation, occurs the first time,
such explanation be given in a note at the bottom of
will

the page ;
and the note will afterwards be referred to,
wherever the same passage, phrase, or word, again occurs in

the course of these Dialogues.

207. The English Student must not, nor can he reason-

ably, expect to find the English idiom and phraseology

always strictly preserved in the translations of these Dia-

logues : the object being, to make him acquainted with the

Persian idiom, by rendering it into English as literally as

possible, consistently with the preservation of the sense,

which would often be lost or perverted by too strictly verbal

a translation. He should, therefore, be satisfied if the English
translation is sufficiently clear and intelligible, although not
such as an Englishman would use in expressing the same
idea in his own language.
140 ( 1 1
) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

208. It is also proper to observe, that in the course of

these Dialogues, excepting when absolutely necessary, I shall

discontinue the use of the Pronouns "Thou" and "Thee,"
&c. &c., when addressing a Second Person Singular ;
as they

sound too stiff and formal, and are never used in common
conversation in English. Indeed, even in Persian, they are
seldom used, except between familiar friends, or when a

superior addresses one much

inferior to, or dependent upon,

himself.

209. In polite society in Persia, the rule for one person

addressing another is briefly this :

Amongst persons moving
" "
in the same sphere of life, You" is used instead of Thou"
" Between intimate either
and Thee," &c. &c. friends,

"You" or "Thou"; but the latter is more common. From

a superior to an inferior, "Thou"; but if the inferior be not
a dependent, say, a small tradesman, a poor neighbour, &c.,
it shews better breeding in a gentleman, in Persia, to say

"You"; though he might, with propriety, say 'Thou"

"
and Thee."

210. Kings are always addressed in the Third Person

Singular; and "His Majesty" is uniformly applied
to them;
"
never Your Majesty." Sovereigns, also, when speaking
of themselves personally, even say "His Majesty," and
never "I," or "We"; except in writing, when
"We" is
uniformly used.

211. Great personages upon intimate terms,

also, unless

address each other in the Third Person Singular as, "His ;

and so do their depen-

Lordship," "His Grace," &c. &c. :

dants,and persons inferior to them in rank, in addressing, or

speaking of, them.

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 0^1) 141

212. I do not know how it

happens that Persian children
are taught in schools always to speak of themselves in the
" "
First Person Plural ; as, We" Us," &c. &c. ;
unless it be,

that preceptors suppose "I" and "me" to be expressions of

too bold and decided a character for a young scholar to use,

and to savour too much of egotism.

213. Now, as to the plan of these Dialogues English : An

gentleman (A.), during his travels in Persia, becomes inti-
mately acquainted with a gentleman (B.) of that country,
who, having been in England some time, has acquired a
tolerable knowledge of the English language. The English
gentleman speaks Persian fluently but not altogether free ;

from occasional imperfections, as to the idiom and grammar.

He has therefore begged his Persian friend to set him right,
whenever he commits an error of that sort promising never ;

"
to be offended, except by injudicious pedantry in the presence

of company," when such marks of affection are, certainly,

not very agreeable.

DIALOGUE I.

B.
OOxx ?

To-day, the air is very C

pure and soft do not you:
->>

wish we should ride ?

A. > > O ) ^ Ox OOTx

Why (not) ? I wish (it)

very much. At what time

shall we ride ?

'

( ) See the Compound Verbs, p. 85.

 142 (1^0 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

B.
Whatever time ?/ou think oo

proper. jo _
A. (\)
Two hours after noon '

(two o'clock) ?

) O 7 O o

Very good : in the mean X , tX\3 ^ ^^.XJ ^J'jJ c_Jaw jv.x~.j

while, I willgo as far as the
College, and return. O JLx/ .J.
/} j^

A '
. 7 1, ?
s 1 1 9 '

I have also two or three U ,-~Jj-XJ .jO tXC-K \J X-3 ,,

letters to write: I shall ,,.,0 -,'

-.,0 ,o T

write till you come: but ^~ > i &-$O.-x_3 4 W^ . JJO^ Vni

:
-^
f L/_."
when <//e Worses ore ready, _ ,,
i
"^ ' \
'
\ . M
do you inform me. Oo.j^ ..x,a.i .^ v^i tXJi

B. ( V )

O, certainly But if you

had said, " wAen //orse is
!
^=^XJJ Q
j
'
4
^-i?^
*S r\' "\
J*J*T W1
'

'
\

ready," it would have been

" 2*'
'
5 *''" ' > >'* ~-

nearer the idiom. 3*j .j^Oi'J ^ iW*^ O*~-\ 3^W

(') From i*Jb, properly, "To know." But this Verb is

frequently used,
llJ
" To " "
also, for think," To deem," To believe," &c.

3
( ) This IS, which may be termed expletive, is frequently used with the
Numerals : it
implies unity, or individuality :
so, the literal meaning of
o ^ o o?
"
the expression j>c1 IS
<u^J is, two or three individual letters."

4
( ) jjj^y*^ literally, signifies "To command"; but in polite conversation,
"
as in writing, it is often employed metaphorically, to signify To speak,"
"To honour," "To regard," "To condescend," &c. See the Compound

Verbs, p. 85.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. O^O 143

A. 0)
"
Is not the word horse"
singular?

B.
Doubtlessbut a word in :

the singular number does

not always imply merely '
r,x
" 4XvX.
unity."

A. ()
what I said
Nevertheless,
cannotbe(altogether)wrong;
for we, at least, have occa-

sion/or <;o Worses.

B.
"
Yours is an apology
worse than the fault." [Per-
sian proverb.] What you
first was only out of
said

idiom; but \+^jL& t which

you now say, is, moreover,
wrong, even according to
""

\ C \

(the rules of) Syntax.

Ci~l aJS-

A
If you will do (me) the
kindness to explain this

point distinctly, I shall be *~* j U*

very much obliged to you.

(*) The proper meaning of this word is "unless": it

may also mean
" "
perhaps," rather," &c. : it is likewise employed very often to express a
Verb interrogatively. See the Interrogative Verbs, p. 81; and also the Ad-
versative Disjunctives, p. 116.
6
( ) This proverbial expression, in Persian, implies that the excuse is unsatis-

factory ; and, in fact, it

puts the pleader still more in the wrong.

* See the
Adjectives, p. 29.
 144 (It !*) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

Most willingly: but we

B.
-
( V )

^'.2* '.
''\n i-fr
have no leisure just now: *-**-**J ^jW ^-*-^ W\.l
when we are riding together -> o T , ? T o^ >>,>>* >,

(literally, go riding), if you (^M-^ (jp

wish it, we will converse on
this topic. 3 .i _x&W^.

A. (\)
You (have) said well (well
said) : be it so.

DIALOGUE II.

A- O)
You have not forgotten > >
'^' >/ ^ lo* ^ OT^^O^T
(your) forenoon s promise.
**?' *
^c-^>*^ j^ C^? ^ i fcX
l? J^

Apromise.madetoafriend -

like you, can never be for-

g tten -

B. (^ )

It is well in my remem- >, >

"'-MI ^( '\
*!*->' 3
brance. Now, listen to the
^A* \)*&> f^r ^^
l
ri>
conclusion.

(') .j?/^; literally, means "on the eye," or, "on my eye"; a metaphor

in Persian to express extreme willingness; as are also

frequently employed
O z *>
f
"with
Ci^Xo^l^ "with gratitude on my soul"; J^cJ?! (all) my
".'i , , 1 1 ^T- I '~>s
" on the "
heart and soul"; top of my eye"; /*^*^J Jt/t/? u P on
f-*j.^-.tnj

my head, and upon my eye"; &c. &c.

(
*
) This word, as well as several other Compounds of the same class, have

already been fully explained. See the Compound Nouns, pp. 110, 111.

(
'

) See Note 8. Dialogue 1. .

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 1*5

' ?
'

In the first place, you know X^. U^uJ

\-
JOfiJ &= tXx3\tV -\ \
\<U)
2 \\"\

^1
what part of speech the ,, _ ^ f , .

word "Horse" is.

Yes ;
it is
A.
a Substantive :
_^ ^ ^J
' _0)
"J\ \^\
"
but if you will do (me) the
V
T,.TT_--5J'0 ,
kindness to explain (the

matter) in English, I shall

understand it better.

B.

Nouns Substantive, in Persian, of any denomination,

whether Simple or Compound, may be classed under three
heads Specific, Generic, and Nouns of Multitude.

Specific Nouns always imply unity, or individuality, in

their significations; and are, in themselves, definite as to

the things or beings they represent. Under the first of

these heads are considered to come all proper names of

O ^ T ^

persons, places, seasons, countries, &c. ; as, J^ss-l the proper

OO Z'l'
name of a person ;
AJU& of an empire ; <ul of a city ;

5 ,

^Lgj (spring) "of a season/' &c. &c. Nouns of this class may,

however, be rendered unspecific, or vague, in their applica-

tion, if used for the purpose of expressing the character or
o^ o?

quality of some person or thing. For instance : when Ju^

(the Eastern Hercules), the proper name of a hero, is meta-
o ^
"
phorically used to imply bravery ; or, ^Lgj spring/' to

signify freshness or cheerfulness. The Verbs, of which

Nouns of this description become the agents, must strictly
O , _ T ^O x

agree with them in number; as, JwoT.x.o.t "Ahmad came";

2
( ) See Adverbs of Order, p. 122; and also the Examples, p. 125.

U
14-6 PEKS1AN GRAMMAR.

"Hassan went"', Vj^ tl^*=>"j

>xo-l "Ahmad and
Hassan are going"; &c. &c.
Nouns of Multitude always imply plurality in their signi-

fications ; as, j&' "an army"; "a flock"; &0. The

Verbs belonging to this class of Nouns are better always to
be in the Singular Number excepting when the Nouns
;

themselves are used in the Plural Number, in which case

->s_ ),*>'
the Verbs of course must agree with them as, Jo I

if , Girls') ri,
;
J^^CiJ
"the army * coming"; jJj^c^CU ^/& "both the armies
are going"; &c. In other respects, they are to be consi-
dered as Generic Nouns.
Generic Nouns are those which designate whole genera,

species, classes, or the like, of beings, things, or events ; as,

vl~J "horse";
"
^T "man"; JJ^ "tree"; JU^
entertainment"; &c. They may be considered as definite,

so far as they distinguish the genera, &c. But they may

further be defined, rendered vague, or indefinite, as the
circumstances of Case, Number, or any other grammatical
O Is
"
construction, may decide ; for instance, c_*J horse," has
an abstract meaning when used merely as a Generic Noun :

it
implies that species of animal, without reference to any
number, or any circumstance under which the animal may
appear. If we would express the idea of any, or one, in an
1 s ') .. I 11 Is
indefinite sense, -we must use the cua^-j^b or^j^JJ; as,
o

(jvJ "a certain horse," or "any horse." Any particular

number expressed before a Generic Noun will make it

definite ; as,

In my stable there are two ..-..._, . .X . N ..i..^

In his service there used to be

tv}SJOwc J J &
-7-"\J J -?
i L ^ .^
>
<Aree seri'ants. __ _
 PERSIAN GBAMMAH. (U*^) 147

The various Cases in which a Substantive is declined will

render a Generic Noun definite, as well as when used in

the Plural Number*.

In the following expressions you will observe how a
Generic Noun (beginning with its abstract meaning) may be
rendered definite in various ways.

(A) horse cannot pass over

the sea.

Both horse and sea are here used in the abstract.

Once upon a time, a horse fell

'(- -M
'

into the sea. ^*''\

ib , .iiJ/ cuJ \

..

All three, l^J, <"^vJ, and e^j, are here used indefinitely.

My horse to-day forded

this river.

Here all
*)lo^, j^, and L_^.!, are expressed defi-
three,

nitely by the modification of the several Cases in which

T ,
these Generic Nouns respectively appear ;
the first, t__~J ,

being in a state of construction with the Personal Pronoun

T ' O T ^ J>

^, and at the same time Nominative to the Verb o-i>J^ ;

though either circumstance would have been sufficient to

have made it definite: and the second and the third,

, x OO 9 To ?

&j\oi3)j andjy, are also each doubly defined; the first, by

o
the demonstrative J (this), as well as by its being an
Adverb ; and the second, by the Demonstrative ^ (this),

as well as by the Ablative Particle j\.

With regard to the agreement of this class of Nouns with
their respective Verbs in point of number, all I can tell you,

* See the Declension of

Nouns, p. 2z.
14<8 (If*) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

as a general rule, is, that with Nouns of rational beings,

the Verbs, whether in the Active or in the Passive Voice,

must strictly agree in number.
With other animate beings,
this rule is occasionally relaxed when the Verb is in the Pas-
O OxO x

sive Voice : for instance, you may say, in Persian, *_~J,Uj-

'? 9 Ox O '

&&*, "four horses was killed/' However, this phraseo-

logy is an affected innovation of modern origin ; and I would

; o^ ? 'i s ~*
" o x o ,

advise you always to say <*J&jJ^(~r~\j(jt-- "four horses

were killed/' But if you happen to be speaking of two or
more animals of distinct genera, the Verb must, under all cir-

cumstances, agree with the Noun ; as,

The horse and the ass are not

of the same genus.

A horse, an ass, and an ox were

killed.

Respecting Nouns representing inanimate objects, except

under certain circumstances (which experience alone can
teach you), you may, if you prefer it, put the Verb in the
Singular ; though in putting it in the Plural, to agree with its

Nominative, you will not be wrong grammatically, nor quite

out of idiom. But in this particular you must closely
attend to the general conversation of educated natives as
well as to your books,and form your own judgment for I ;

can hardly point out any rule, on this point, which may not
be subject to various exceptions. All I can say, however, is,

that you are never obliged to use a Verb in the Singular

when your Noun is in the Plural : at the same time, you
must observe, that it is frequently done, both by eminent
writers and by the most correct speakers amongst the natives
of Persia, especially when the Verb is expressed in the Pas-

sive Voice : for instance, you may say, either,

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (I Pi) 149

O P O x
'
The houses of the people, & ^>\^~ ,
was destroyed/' or,
oox r o x

jjj^i,
s-JJ/s-
"were destroyed": but in the Active Voice, you
should always give the preference to the Plural, when the
OO xx O?O O OO x Is x

Noun is in that Number

AJJjf.^JLjMtt+A^jA^QJk- "The ; as,
"
houses of this city are very small though some would say, ;

O O x x O? O O
"
e^v-^s-^bwj zs
very small/' Although, in bringing toge-
ther several Nouns of distinct classes so as to form the

Nominative to a Verb, the Verb must then be in the Plural,

Ox Ox Ox O ? O'_?
as, jJolj^loJli-j^^Jiljt and earth, are of jl "water, fire,

opposite natures"; yet, when they partake of the same

quality or class of things, the Verb may, with equal pro-

priety, be put either in the Singular or Plural Number : for

O O O O* OOx *"0*"v Ox
1

instance, you may either say, c^Jb L^^J^-XST! j^^Jl U 5jj,J

Txx T x
"
i>yu>J In our garden, grapes, figs, and apples, is not to be
Oxx x O

found/' or jJ^i-xr' e^jb "are not to be found." In like

OOx? Ox* Oxx? ^ Ox Ox Ox OOx
manner, you may either say, J^^>*^^>^b^ fcli
i^>*'>*fcjil;*
3

Ox_O Ox OxS? "

jjj ^o fSJjjjL* At this season, snow, rain, hail, thunder and
'

Ox_ O Ox

lightning, frequently comes together," or duuT -Jtb "come

together." But
governed by Substantives that
if the Verb is

have no tangible or bodily existence, such as, time, day,

night, joy, grief, &c., &c., the Singular Number is

commonly
OO^OOx"--'?-' 1O O

preferred ; as, *jJ^*- ^_^U *a>U ^ c^^L^JL '''

It is (now)
' Ox' O x

many years since we were school-fellows"; >f/rj^*>tj*c

O ,-_ T^'J'Oxy'Oxl '

jjT
-*lj*.jl* JjJj "Grief, joy, death, and life, all come*
O x O O Oo
<"
'^' 99 O x O x >'

God " " tlt

from ; .xiC^ Uiil j.^U CSJ^^DJ ^'irT 'j- Manliness

and generosity makes this demand/' &c. &c. Now, gram-
matically incorrect as this idiom appears to be, it
may still

be defended, in some measure, by the following chain of

reasoning. A Verb indicates an action ; an action naturally

150 (Id.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

implies either power or volition on the part of the agent,

which power or volition is not possessed by inanimate objects ;

and therefore they cannot always be considered in the light

of real agents of the Verb. To this may perhaps be
ascribed the origin of the grammatical incongruity in the

Persian phraseology, which I have been exemplifying, and

its subsequent continuance.
As to the situation of the Verb with respect to its Nomi-
native, the latter is uniformly placed before the former ; as,

jjlj;'^"! went"; ^TUA "You came"; jjUj-iJl

"They said"; &c. &c. You must except poetry, of course,
in which a poet often deviates from this rule, to adjust the

measure of his verses ;

or in translations, from the Arabic, of

the sacred writings, where a strictly literal translation, even

as to the position of the words, is thought to be indispensa-

ble. The Arabs, uniformly in their language, place the

Verb before the Nominative.

I have wandered too far from the point which led me into

this long dissertation : I resume it. Now, in the first place,

I have to remind you that Generic Nouns, in Persian, may
be rendered strictly definite, so as to represent one, or more
than one, particular individual of the same genus, in various

By declining the Noun, or adding any of the Parti-

ways :

O 11, "
Did you see
cles which decide the case ; as, ^J^ c_~J
the horse?" By expressing the Noun in the Plural Number ;

O OTx^ OO^

as, ^JoJoujj Ijl^JuJ "Did you approve of the horses?" By

bringing it into contact with any other part of speech with
which it may form any grammatical connection ; as,
t^J
O O * OxxOx - x
"
i
c-^J^'ji-H
**
^ Mi/ horse is better than your horse":

placing any of the cardinal numbers before

so as
or, By it,
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (!*>')

express one, two, three, or more; as,

T X O xO

jjjo^lxo "Four horses were drawing his carriage."

1s s s P 1* s ,

Now, when you first said to me ^Ai-l^oU^ Jo! xjUl

'
>>*
" "
Juu, your expression meant When the horses are ready &c. ;

because you expressed the generic Noun in the Plural Num-

ber. But in Persian, they never say "the horse," or "the
horses," unless it is intended to express some particular

horse, or horses, respecting which there is some understand-

ing between the parties who are talking on the subject.

You know that we were not speaking about any particular

horses at the time nor was
any understanding
; there

between us with respect to any horse, to which your expres-

sion might allude we merely wanted to ride on horseback,
:

not on the back of the horses ; and, to convey this meaning,

O Q^
the Noun c^vJ "horse," would have been quite
generic
sufficient. You were, therefore, out of idiom, in so far as
you preferred a definite Noun when you ought to have pre-
ferred the generic But your expression, grammati-
one.

cally speaking, was perfectly correct in itself and any per- ;

son, not listening to our conversation at the time, would

discover no defect, even of idiom, in it. But in your second
Q O If , 10..T? m ,

expression, -^b^^c iy_$jUjt)ii'l Ux^l^, you were wrong,

both grammatically and idiomatically ;
for your expression
(understood in connection with the preceding sentence), if
"
translated literally into English, would run thus :
For, at
the fewest, we have occasion for the two horses."

You were incorrect as to idiom, for the reasons I have

already explained respecting your first

expression ; that is,

in having used the Noun definitely, by adding the Accusa-

tive Particle
\j
: and you were also grammatically wrong,
 152 (I Of) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

if
"
because, either the cardinal number ^ two," alone,

placed before the Noun as you used it, or putting only the

Accusative Noun in the Plural Number, would have been

quite sufficient (if necessary at all) to render the generic

Noun definite :
you made use of bad Grammar, therefore,
in using both ;
that is, placing the cardinal number before

an Accusative Noun already in the Plural.

A
But in English
use the cardinal
we always
number with
.. ^ ,_, ^ ^
a Plural ord (Noun).
JU*l
B.
I am aware that in En-
glish they say two horses;
but every tongue has a (its)
peculiar idiom. It is now
grown late. Come, let us
|o back.

DIALOGUE III.
A- M)
Peace be unto you !
(Good
morning to you !
)

And upon you

B.
be peace, ''"..
(^
'..''
**'
and the blessing of God !
**^y (*

A. ( \ )

I was dreaming strangely

last night.

(') There is no word, in common use, in Persian, to correspond exactly

O, O ->, O
with the English word "To dream"; but
^joj t_)l^i-
or ^JjJ i
'Iji-
" To dream.
both mean, " To see while asleep," or
"
To see in sleep," t.e.
 PEESIAN GKAMMAR. (' C O 153

B.
May it tend to good
What were you dreaming OOwVcXx/c c-M*^. &$-\ > tXj U **
about ?

A.
I dreamt that I was stand-
ing in a very spacious plain
full of horses; and several
*
persons on foot, each by
turns having separated a

single horsefrom the great

herd, shewed it, first, to a

personage, apparently their

chief, who was standing
close by ;
and afterwards,
on a signal from him, having
made the same horse pass
in review before me, they
allowed it to return into the

herd : till, from amongst

them, a vicious horse, be-
coming excited, kicked me
in such a manner, that I

started out of (my) sleep.

B.
.

And found, that you had

fallen on your back 1

A.
T\
Friend!
II i^J T
started up, I say.
J
How could I have fallen on

y back ?

(
2
) A common Interjection, or ejaculatory expression, thrown out by the
Persians on such occasions, or when one sneezes in
company. It is also used

frequently on occasions of surprise, or when any sudden or unexpected event, of

a doubtful tendency or appearance, takes place ; pretty much the same as when
one says in English, " What is the matter ?
"
"I hope "
all is well ! &c. &c.

X
154 (UP) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

B.
Then the danger was, that
you might fall on your face ?
(JvA-O J t^^tf &2\ ^
o o^o? o ^ o:^xx o
x*3 ^ '

Joking apart come, and

tell me, if you can, what is >"
;
^^ -7; S^- -^ f
'
jf,
'

\
7
^ '
\ \ ^ U$
-
, \-

of this O'
the interpretation "J
u^ ^,",\ l \\
dream !

B.
You know that I, your
humble servant, am not the

Prophet Joseph. p***-^

A.
(\ :

\ , , , ,
Still you are jesting:
and let me
~\^
"
',
^'X %*J J^L-\
^
, (_5LC>- t ^^'^
speak seriously ; \

know (/if. see) what can be

the cause of this dream.

B " .
'

My dear fellow ! the jest OoW>

seems on your part : other- ,

wise, I can hardly believe J*

you to be really ignorant of

the cause of your dream; for

^ ^
^T Sr
"

^ "T y.
'
>

->,
^
O
.

TOxO >

it appears very obvious. .V.X J

t>jVfOw ^JcX>

A. (\)
With all this, I still wish 0,^0 < ^-
x'
to hear (lit.
that I may hear) *j>^ \&j\
*&
>

**})*&* LT
*^ C^ \\

it from you.

B X
( ^ }

Yesterday, for nearly four L,

hours, we were on horseback
^>
together :
just before riding,
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (loo) 155

O O ff "}*) 9 *J x Q T ,, O O ^ '

a discussion had arisen be-

^J-*^
&^= ^j &_LJ\^ .j
^jjCji-LT
tween us, the origin and the x ,,
subjectof which was "Horse.' j\? L$yj~>
1 ''

CA-O J^J i

Whilst riding, we returned oo.,, T>O, > o < >

to the same discussion, and

(the mention of) Horse, and

flbrm, in various forms,

passed between us, in our '

i
*>*'*'*>'>
grammatical illustrations.
&-*A \4Jj\
>^ txo <xoJ*.j c?
<*J 5

Now, after all this, if the i .

c_>U^ ,i
idea of Horse, even when *

you were asleep, again pass- .

ed in your mind, ought we '

wonder at it ?

A. ,

No my wonder is at
;
but
jOU^ixS .A-J /.w
uyia
the details, and other oc-
currences which could have
*t_j
7
had no connection at all with Sr
the subject of our discus-
sion.

Our dreams are not always

composed of elements which,
in the same connected form,

3
( ) See Note 8. Dialogue 1.

4
( ) The Persians, in polite conversations, seldom make use of the plain and
Ox T O s
" No." " a common
decided Negative tj k_i- Good," is substitute for that

expression. Several other ejaculatory expressions are likewise employed for the
*>,!,? O^J'Oxx
same purpose; such as, l\jj Jo- "God
t
forbid!" <d!l.aXL<! "^ pray God
"
for mercy ! &c. &c. Many of the Adverbs also answer the same end ; as,
f xx *xT ' O ),
" " " For
I jjl , ls,\ia< ,
jji> Never," Not at all," ever," &c. &c. But these last

expressions are Emphatical Negatives : the former is only a Simple one.

 0<1 ) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

may have at any time taken

,.

place in reality, or have

passed in our imagination U'

>
" r
-i\ j * \ 'A f\ u
*
when awake. Coherence, J*J '^ vJ ..

consistency, exactitude, and

order, do not necessarily
enter the train of ideas which

pass in our minds when

dreaming. Nevertheless,
thisdream of yours is the
' '
most coherent of all the < ^
t ^.^'
dreams of which I have ever \
Jfyr
heard ;
for there is not a
single part in it, the con-
nection of which, with a par-
ticular part in that discus-

sion of ours, might not, after

a little reflection, be traced.
And I am rather pleased
at this circumstance, be-
cause it shews that my ex-

planations have made some

impression on your mind.

A.
I know what you are about
to say ;
the extent of which
is this that I may suppose
that spacious plain to have
been the long chapter which
you repeated on grammar ;

and the crowd of horses in

that plain to be, either the
"
representation of a Noun
of Multitude," or of "Horse,
in the abstract." But what
part of our discussion can
point to those perons who, in
that regular order,
passed
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (l& v ) 157

the horses in review before

me? ^^^
B.

Perhaps the different go-

verning particles, with which

they transfer a Noun Sub-
stantive from one gramma-
', case into another.

A.
You do not jest badlybut ;

can you give me any idea

(lit. can you tell me at all)

what relation that respec-

table personage, to whom

they presented the horses

and afterwards, by his
first,

direction, to me, can have

to the subject of our discus-
sion?

B.
Since I see that you are en-

joyingmy joke, there maybe

no harm in my saying (lit. if
I were to say), that that re-

spectable personage might re-

present your humble servant;
who, having first examined,
and properly weighed those
examples in due order, pre-
sented them to the consi-
deration of your honour.

A 3 -T < O O Tx x >?, o , T O x T
This, also, is not (lit. was \X~ ^.jji j
I
V<| J> jJoo AxJ j ,.
'
not) very bad. Butyoucan ,^ '
* '^ '?/,
with difficulty get out of <Ais.
^ &= jj jj^x- Jff L5'y ^ . ..j
 158 (ISA) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

Tell me, if you can, what

might be that ricious horse
which inflicted upon me so
tremendous a kick ?

B.
The eraspemto* animal
whom you originally goaded
with the <Aree grammatical

A.
The truth of the matter

is, that I wished to know to

what extent you were a be-
liever in dreams but now :

..^ ^
I see that you, like myself, Vl, *AV<& &_i -x.J ,50*^. \_^c\

have no belief in dreams

at all. O

(
B.
I do not understand what

you intend by the word "be-

lief." I do certainly believe

this that several events,

which I can now very well

remember, have passed in

my imagination when I was

A. ( \)
You again
agai evade the ques- 5

tion.
ion. I mean to say, that *^ ?

(an Arabic Verbal Noun) means, "To feign ignorance," from

" He was Whenever a Verb
ignorant." is expressed in this form in
-"' " ~
Arabic, it
generally implies Jiction ; as,
ijoro
"He was ill"; rXJ;l<"
"He
ftigned illness"; &c. &c. The Persians have taken many Verbal Nouns of this
son from which they use for the same purpose
the Arabs, ; and, with the aid of
the Persian Auxiliaries, Verbs are made of them.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 0*^)

it
appears to me that you do
not believe (lit.
are not a
believer in this), that the
events which we see in our
dreams can have any con-
nection with the future ; or, ^ ^

in other words (fif. other C_$.^\ V3.ljjtJ\J txLij\J Sa^j^ LJu

phrase), those events do not '0^,0x00
inform us beforehand of A x a\ C.(j, \
/ji-J \ .V _jO
what may happen to us in , ,o ^,
'

, ->/ o, o o
6 o^
>J V_^
'

time to come. cXij tx3\ *JJ^lc.jLX*J&a2\

-^' ; ^

B.
Would that it were so, in-

deed ! and that those events

really gave intelligence of

the future !Then I would
never rise from bed, except
to welcome a promised hap-
piness, or to ward off a
threatened evil. In this

world, I would not wish for

any other Paradise !

A.
I, too, (would act and feel)
in the same manner
but I ;

fear that we might not find

that Paradise in such a de-
lightful state as we now
fancy ;
and that, after two
or three dreams, we would
pray that our visions might
all arise,either from fulness
of stomach, or from lying

(falling) upon our back, i.e.

when asleep.

O O x
6
( ) This elegant expression, i__;Li- vji^-v, , is not susceptible of a literal

translation. The "

nearest, perhaps, is
Apparatus of sleep."
 1(50 (M.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

B.

Why, and from what cause ?

A.
For this reason ;
that if

there be really any good

coming to you, it will doubt-
less come in due time what : *
^ TT;
V>
'
<
-*

more (would you) gain, if

you were to know it before- iJ~jj-* ^*
} ^ "^ *^ VJ
hand ? As for me, it is better
that I should not know (any &XAJI
*
..x&J /.yes
* *
^^/ _J
(X*M
*
t>o^ ~A*/ v-^ >
'^
^l J
^^^ y ^J
thing about it) for accord-
;

ing to the degree of the plea-

sure which I may have an-
ticipated while waiting for
it (lit.from the expectation
of it), same propor-
in the
tion my enjoyment, from the
actual possession of it, will
have been diminished. And
if the interval between the

dream and its realization

may have been prolonged,
then, perhaps, I shall derive
no pleasure at all from it.

On the other hand (side),

if the dream foretells (gives
intelligence) of a calamity
or a misfortune, see what
great misery it is to know
it beforehand ! And in the
like manner, if the calamity
be great, or the interval long,
our reason in the mean-
while may give way, from
the intensity of grief, or
ourselves be altogether de-
stroyed.

* See Adverbs of 120.

Time, p.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

B.
Your statements are true ;

but more truths (other

.

truths also) may be told \ ^^j^ lowc i_)b

on this subject. You only
detailed the disadvantages <^ (J ^ (** LJoj
of the proposition, and said

nothing of its advantages.

* ' m ~
But as the subject leads
"*

(us) into Metaphysics, we

.
1 , i 1 ,

had better not plunge into

- .

it
(^ J
any deeper. i

A. ( n
now
Particularly
comes into my recollection,
as it ^
*^= 'T > 6
'\
W ^
\ \\\

that I have an engagement

somewhere, and must take -ysA.w OO\_J fj'^ itXCj <i^ (vj-
/

my leave of you (/i/.

be permitted to go).
you honour my lodgings to-
must
Will
^ "-^
Ij \.j
v-
x^
^^J^j b-^J 1^6 x
' ^
I
&
v
morrow ? (/#. bring honour "r-
into your servant* lodging.)
-

V> J

B. ( V)
God ! T wil1 wait

A. (\)
At ''i 2
breakfast-time, at din-
ner-time, or both ? J^ ^ 'i
. ,.

tlO,
7

* See the
Interjections, pp. 81 84.
O Ox
(') ..Li.
or
iL^J, literally, mean "morning "and "evening" respectively; and
the Persians apply them to the two meals which they take in the course of the

day and night. The general mode of living in Persia is briefly thus: The peo-

ple get up in time to say their prayers before sun-rise. Soon after prayer, they

partake of something very trifling, just to break their fast part of a biscuit, with
a small cup of coffee, or even hot water with a little
ginger and sugar, &c. &c.,
O x O x O
" But between
and they call this Ixili to break one's fast."
^LuLi , literally,

eleven
 1 62 1 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

B.

B(
To dinner, I am engaged.

A.
Then, let it be at break-
fast-time.

i *
. \. ^r '
)

'
May your
diminish !
kindness never
\"*'\ ^ V L^J^

A- (\)
You will do me honour .> . .
< TO. -50

(/z<. you will make me ho-

noured). Adieu!

B.
God be with you !

A.
At breakfast-time, I shall

expect you.

DIALOGUE IV.
( \ }
A. (calling his Servants.) \ ' /

Boys ! Who is here ?

eleven and twelve they make a substantial meal (hot and cold), which they term
O Qx O

il^i ,
but not quite so substantial as the grand meal at night, called ..li . The
time for this meal varies according to the season, for it is never taken until an
hour or two after sunset. This, however, is the habit of the better and more

Shop-keepers, and those people who are obliged

fashionable classes. to go early

to their work, make a hearty meal at once, every one according to his means,
O
before going to work, which they call liiLJ "fast," or "breakfast"; another at
O

noon, which they call ci^iil- (meaning also the time of the day); and a third at
O

night, i. e. the .,li , which, however, they take generally earlier than the higher
classes, who are not anxious to go to bed so early.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (I IT) 163

A SERVANT.

Yes Sir! '

A. O)
am to nave
aui have (/if.
I
i (in. iI nave;
have) I % I \

some guests at breakfast- [*J

u^-*-&-** jM ' *

time to-day. Be very at-

tentive (i.e. have every thing *A-\JijL> &j^ .j^ t-i.^
properly arranged).
o o > o

SERVANT.

Very
you command
well, Sir.
us to prepare,
What do ^
besides the ordinary things ?

A-
(V)
Let there be both a pelaw
andchilaw; several kabawbs
of fowl and lamb and what- ;

ever else you yourselves may

think of may come into

your minds). the

cook to be very careful about
the
(lit.

But tell
^^ (S^ ^^ , ..
^
cookery (see Note 2),
and to make good dishes.

(') i_^o.L *
(an Arabic word) literally means "a companion"; hence, the
if

master or owner of any thing. The Indians apply this term to the English ; and
the Persians have borrowed it from them.
o
2
( ) j^^ola- (of Arabic origin) means any thing present, or always ready.
' '1,9
With regard 1 "
to eatables, it is employed in contradistinction to ^jJaC things
to be cooked," and implies all sorts of preserves, sweetmeats, cream, cheese,
butter, fruits, &c. &c., as they are always ready, and may be had presently.

(*) There are several words in the above passage which require explanation,
"^ ^^ P O s O f O

-;U, (jyf*~ an ^ Pilaw, I presume, is familiar to

tjoasr t
<
> j^s- > $$
the English reader : it is made of rice dressed with meat, butter, spices, &c. &c :

a dish
 164 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

SERVANT.

^ ^^*^*
'

The tailor is here: he -

'^'., '^ >. .>
S C*-Aas
says you had ordered him *J*J*
to come (lit. that he should

come).

A. O)
Tell him to come (lit. say
he may come) to-morrow
afternoon : I have no leisure
to-day. M\ 14X5
o o^ o
SERVANT.
The horse-dealer was again ^ ^ ?->,-> -., om^oo
here to-day; and he was C^fi-C-e. ^.J Wu\ j. .*\ j\->
"
saying, I know of several
"" '' *
u
'

(lit.
I have got a clue to)
7
, , iP * \
PI--J UJA. <_
good horses. \J ^f

a dish complete in itself, and eaten just as it is

brought to table. Chi!aw is also
o ?
made of rice ;
but boiled plain, and eaten with
^ ,. i- : this means any food
made savoury and relishing, or pungent, by means of sauces. In conjunction
O f O
with bread, it simply means condiment ; as,
{jyf- ^ ,
which distinguishes it

from the generic term . Its foundation, however, is meat of any kind,
(j~jf*-
dressed in a great variety of sauces, with dried fruits, spices, &c. &c. Each dish,
o f

so made, has its

specific name :
i^/vj*-
may he said to take the place of

curry on the table, in so far as it is eaten with plain boiled rice ;

but they are
O s
never made so hot as the Indian dish. 4->^ , literally,
means meat roasted,

whether it be fowl or flesh, and it includes even Jlsh. There is a great variety
~>s f

of this also made in Persia. t_jJ^' ,

for the explanation of this word, see the

preceding Note.
4
( ) This Arabic word, literally, means a "conductor"; hence, it is
applied
to all those persons who form a third party between the buyer and the seller,
in order to conduct the bargain. It is, however, more commonly applied to
*>'*,'
dealers in cattle and other animals. <ri itj (in the feminine gender) is also a

term applied to female hawkers, and the elderly women who negotiate to bring
about a marriage.
5
( ) This word, literally, means "a trace," "a sign," or "indication"; and
the
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 0^) 165

A.
f O O

Why did not you inform \_^i <X-J^

'

me, then ? You knew that , ,

I had occasion for a good t

horse or two !

SERVANT.

You had not yet risen

from sleep, Sir. We told

him, "Wait till the Sahib

wakes" (lit. should wake);
"
but he said, I have busi-
ness at another place, and
must go but if the Sahib
;

wishes to see me, whenever

he may think proper, if he .

sends a man [to say so], I *

will come directly."

A.
Does any one of you know
his residence ?

the horse-dealer means to say, that he has got scent of, or clue to, some good
horses. Here I take the opportunity of explaining, once for all, the difference

between the idiom of the English and Persian, as to the manner of repeating the

expressions of another person. In English, on such occasions, the speaker gene-

"
rallyemploys the third person or persons as, He said, he intended going to
;

"
town", &c. &c. or, They told me, they had been up all night"; &c. &c. But in
;

Persian, usually, the exact expressions of the parties are quoted by the present

speaker, without any change in them whatsoever ;

as will be seen in the several

instances (which I have purposely left undisturbed, in order to shew the idiom)

in the statements of this Persian Servant. I may think it

right, hereafter, to de-

viate from this strictly literal mode of translating, and follow the English idiom ;

if not always, at all events occasionally.

 166 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

SERVANT.
'' '
Yes, Sir; I know his house 6 \'

(fc. I am a guide to it).

'
[*

A.
Tx- O T^
Then go immediately, and ao *A\suo
T . ,
V <.v
**
say I wish to see him. But , ,,, , 0,, ^
what V-^W.
is the use of buying
(j<XUa^u.^ J\j\
&Sk.\/e\

horses? So long as this

groom remains in my sta-

bles, I shall never possess a

horse fit for riding !

an Arabic word, meaning, "

(*) This is also strictly, a guide." It is, how-
ever, vulgar to use it in any other sense in Persian, as this Servant has done.

Indeed, there are many other low phrases in the language assigned to this man
Ox O ? O^xx OxX O^ f O 'VofDy-
in the such
Dialogue ; as, *j!J i]^ /^];(j~' <^^-
, j i*-**^ ^_/~^ > 'V 1^==^ 5
&c. &c., all of which should be avoided by persons wishing to speak the Persian

language correctly or elegantly.

The generality of better servants, mechanics, and small tradesmen, throughout
the greater part of Persia (owing perhaps to the circumstance of their not being

kept at so great a distance, as they are in some other countries, by the more-
educated classes of society), do not, in general, speak bad Persian. Their lan-

guage, though necessarily devoid of classical taste and elegance, is, however, upon
the whole, tolerably correct But when we consider that it is the language of

a very numerous class of men, the greatest number of whom, perhaps, can neither
read nor write, we may wonder more at the general accuracy and tact with which

they express themselves, than at their occasional mistakes or their uncouth

phraseology. A
beginner, however, had better avoid learning his Persian from
them. On this account, in the course of these Dialogues, I shall introduce cha-
racters of this description very sparingly : and when I do introduce them, I shall

make them speak, in point of grammar at all events, correctly.

The reader, if at all proficient in the Persian language, cannot have failed to

observe already, in the few sentences which this man has uttered (independently
of the low phrases above cited), the Syntactical looseness of his style ; his ill-con-

structed sentences; the clumsy way in which he quotes, or rather puts, his own

vulgar expressions into the mouth of another ; and the difficulty which he seems
to feel in delivering himself. There can be neither pleasure nor profit in the
perusal of such language as this.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR ( Pv ) 167

SERVANT.

Yesterday, I told him that

the Sahib was very much
vexed, because of the bay
horse becoming lame but :

he swore that he was not in

fault(W. had no fault), as
the horse was quite lame
when the Sahib bought it.

A.
t
7
, ,,
t ,;
Yes; but not so lame as .\ aU$\\ *_5oo .

his worse -than -the -offence

/ , O ^ 9 s
excuse. I am greatly dis- y\ ~ Jija*, V>
pleased with that man, for
he does not appear honest.
At all events, I can never
confide in him any more;
for he may kill me (for me)
a horse daily. He must go

away from my stables. Go,

and tell him so (lit. say to
him after this manner) ! !

B. (coming in.)
Friend ! O my dear friend !

(lit. friend ! friend !) May

thy morn be good for good !

comes of thy morning (i.e.

morning's work). What un- ' '
lucky being is the cause of t ,,

this excitement ? or perhaps $

you have had another dream?
A. <U
"
Welcome, my friend ! I
had intended (lit. said) when

(') See Note 5. Dialogue 1.

(") See the Diminutive Nouns, p. 127.

 168 (HA) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

you came, to tell you what

had vexed me (lit. the grief

of my heart}. But what am

I to say ? since all the pain-

ful feeling is removed (lit.

grief goes) from my heart,

whenever you come." I have
had (seen) no fresh dream ;

but the interpretation of my

old dream has been realized
(lit. into manifestation). For
it is now certain, that the
animal which roused me out
of my sleep with a kick, was
not the horse which you
described, but [it was] this
vicious groom of mine, who ,, ^
has lamed my poor horses ,.j\ \

so,that henceforth, perhaps,

they may only be able to
raise their hoofs (lit.
raise
the hoof) from the ground
in a dream.

B.
The remedy for a tight
shoe taking the foot out of
is

it; and the cure for the tooth-

ache is extraction. When a
groom is a bad one, he must
be turned away.

A.

Forgive me ! for I really

feel greatly ashamed that

you should honour me (lit.

bring honour) while in this

state. To be in your com- ^-

9
( ) This is a beautiful couplet, from Sady.
I0
1 ) See the Diminutive Nouns, p. 127.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ^ ) 169

pany, and shew discontent,

be +v, v.
the cause what.
it
may,
is, I confess, the extreme of
ingratitude. But these ser-
vants are so very mischie-
vous !

B.
There is no occasion to be ^
i . C i . '. < -

ashamed at all! We are by

ourselves: and if you wish
me to prove more that
still

there is no stranger here, o^ o ,o?o

give me leave to correct a t\-jfr^ L"_^A^ .
^ ..._. \
\_^ ^\
o-o

p
o
(_f
^
c$
s

grammatical mistake in an
expression of yours.

A.
You will very much oblige
me: may your favour be f
f( , .,,
ever increasing! But to ^ W^-j^ tA--\o>$J C\ i
which of my mistakes are

you alluding? for I fear that,

in this state of vexation, I V L '\' -

may have talked very much

" ***
at random.

B.
No; I was not aware of
more than one very slight

oversight.

A.
Which is it? Be so kind
as to explain.

B.
This only when vou said,
., TU
These servants are very
'
T
mischievous."
jj'\ \
 170 (|V.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

A.

You say true : .Li I

is an

Adjective (Plural); and Ad-

jectives in Persian, when
used in the Plural Number,

yield a Substantive significa-

tion; and the meaning of

.Ijil by itself, is "mischie-

vous people.'" Therefore, if >

.
/)
''.r?J=
3 X & ^S
/
r

{
'

I had said,
"
These servants CX
\\

(*
*N
-^
v ^
>
\

L^ ^^^ ^

are the expres-

very^^i,
sion would have been cor-
rect; for in that form the ..

*
.
<
'i v^
Adjective would be in the
0,00? OT xx
-T
Singular Number.
T
But I
T
%
* ^^
7

' "\
^
1x
\
O.

-
\^
have made a greater mis-
take than this ;
and you are
not aware of it, because you
, , .,

had not then arrived (lit. you ^^ \jj t_p ^ J

had not brought honour).

B. (
- )

Do you remember (lit. is

it in your recollection) what

it was ?

A.
TTxO OxOx
0)
Yes ;
I remember it very & s
(Jj(-S C^ ^
*^V? '

'

well. When I was talking

to the other servant re-

specting that useless groom,

I said,
.oi -. .A
" I can never confide -> " ~'sS-',
^
/. v J*^
\ I
-'
}

1 . J- 1_
in him any more; for he
1-11 J >7
may J kill me T
a horse daily.
*
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. V

B.
Where is the mistake?

part, (<*^) I do
For my not
see any fault in this ex-

pression.

A.
Do
not you see
^>uJ CJu
can never be correct ?

B.
Whynot? Would that
your horses were always as
sound as this i. e. as this
!

phrase is correct !
(a play

upon the word e^*~>t>)-

A.
A Cardinal Number, you *>\ *~*

observed, is not admissible

before a Definite Noun; and S^
i i s

(_**! having already the ^

of unity at the end of it, is,

in itself, a Definite Noun. c_J J6/

B. ( V )

You are now making a

mistake, undoubtedly; be-
cause the ,_< of unity con- 'i
(*"*'<
veys an indefinite sense, and \T^ s
an Indefinite Noun can never 'i
2 M -'
x, . ,.
., .
, (^~>OO
-J'
OJ\JJ<
^
be definite (in its meaning).
i I* -,.-,
indicates

one horse, certainly

a sinqle or

;
but it
^
may be any one horse:

whereas
^1 uLb implies x

some one specific or parti-

t.*^
C^X-^y
tXx-^=X O3 a^ C5V~^'

"
(") See Dialogue 2. Conversation on Horseback," p. 147.
 172 V PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

cularized horse. And you

know, that if any one should
kill a /(orse, <Ae horse, in
that state, would be definite
and particularized.

A.
This is rather a nice point ;

but you have now made it

quite clear to me :
although
I had much rather that my
horses should always re-
main u^ed, and uncir-
cumscribed in number, than

that this AacA: of a groom

should define and
parfzcu-
larize them.

B.
Whoever wants his horse
for the purpose of riding,
would be your partner in
this sentiment. But, since
we are now upon the sub-
ject, I wish very much to

explain to you two or three

more /,
points concerning
Adjective, and Substantive
9 uafi/!ed fcy ^rfjec-

" This play, or pun, upon grammatical terms cannot be exactly translated
( )

into English without the risk of rendering the passage unmeaning : suffice it to
"< -5
x
^FO, .-"y i x a, < .

state, that these technical phrases (viz. J.Jss^ t_s Jt< J>s-*lJ /
, r t>j , ^Cjt<
apply both to Grammar and to Horses, in the Persian Language ;
and conse-

quently make good puns.

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. V O 173

lives, which, on that day,

'

the lateness of time pre-

.- t
'

*
vented me from explaining. Ai -..loo \^i

A. (V)
You are doing me a great
kindness ;
but if it be no ^J -J
'
J
trouble, and in the like man-
ner as before you will again
' '
explain yourself in English, *''"*'*, ? *
*.i '? 'i '
L^o- u \jo
it will add to the
obligation. -^ **J* tX^yo OooV/0,3

B. ( V )

The.(letter) zaw of

among sincere friends, is

> > -' o* -5

always without a dot

An Adjective^ whether Simple or Compound, must always

be in the Singular Number, whether its Substantive be so or
not. As to its proper situation with regard to the Substan-

tive which it
qualifies ;
when the Noun is Indefinite or

Definite, but not in apposition, the Adjective must invariably

follow it, and the final or connecting j;
^ (') be added to the
O xOy O P 'Is '
IP Tx
"
Substantive ; as, J-^/x, |j*-^l (-_>}- J^ A good man fears
O OxO^Tx *Vx
Is Ox
God "; L^viJU*^ <KAxAfl> ^jC. 4.,-vJ "An Arabian horse is always
OO? OX3 s** ' ~. , Is
thin-waisted"; ty -id^t)
Ox O
^ O
slu,
x
w*vJ
Oy Ox
'f

My
Ox
6/acA- horse was

in the stable ";

"
jJ;!jJ cJb tLXto-jl^jH^ ^Ij^ J?rae mew have
O-v V O oo
no dread of battle " j Thy affectionate
"
^b^, ^LLy
;
jJl^sU-y
friends are present"; &c. &c. But when the Noun is in
apposition, the Adjective may either precede or follow the

IJ
If the "
of the word
( ) first letter
O x O x
(j) e^v^ trouble," is not dotted, the

word will be read ^ -,^-^y , which signifies blessing, or mercy.

174 (T VI*) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

Substantive; and in either case, instead of the^; ('), the

descriptive ^
must be added to the Substantive or to the
Adjective, but generally to that which immediately precedes
1 1 H '
v 6iD j '''"S ^^sjgjjLjft^- o.,tj ttio 01* LI^^>^*- O r c ^^%j>-fc) it\>
V
1 nv
father is a good man." But when the sentence becomes
more complicated, the good taste and the judgment of the
writer or speaker must, in a great measure, him in the
guide
manner of arranging his words ; for then the Adjective
may
1 " - 1 ,1,
even be expressed after the Verb itself; as,
1 1>f1 1 1 1 Iff 1 ' ' '
, < , O
or o*.o, J ._Ji ,lx*o ..jjJLl , or

or all of which expressions

c^^-j^jjj'^-j^fi ^JoJ,
"
equally mean, London a very large city," and are all
is

idiomatic. One rule, however, is generally to be observed ;

that the Adjective expresses more than a

viz. if
simple
abstract quality, such as
good or bad, or if it is of Arabic
extraction, or a compound, it is to be placed after the Sub-
stantive, whether expressed before or after the Verb for :

O 1 11 f i,1f ,,, a . .

instance, you may say in Persian,

c^^.^ JoJ/J, or

^o, or iXJti^-j j^ y jfji , all

meaning, "Thy servant
Q ,
is a bad man"; but if an Arabic Adjective, say "wicked,"
j>
be substituted for the Persian jj, you may say 6r*fjj
'
i 11, 11 , 11 n^ ? ,1

^^^iji/" ) r
j(fi e^J j* />_? \
but it would not be quite

idiomatic, except in poetry, to say t,

Adjective Adverbs, or Adverbs of Quantity, such as,

<Jj^, "much," "very," &c. &c., brought to increase the

force of an Adjective,
may be placed immediately before
(never after) the Adjective, and the second Noun of the appo-

sition may also intervene between them ; as, .U*

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. Vf> )

O O OOP xxOxO O Ox O O OP O O

or *^M*Mf- c^ttve^U^j jJdXil, or AA&-

t-_>ji.
O OP O Ox OO x Ox Ox O
i
_5^
, or (>ji- -
e^MKU^Uw, jJJXJl : all of these expres-
1

"
sions equally mean, England is a very good kingdom/' or,
"
a very fine country."
With regard to the Cardinal Numbers, the Nouns to
which they are joined (whether they be with, or without an

Adjective) must always be in the Singular Number as, ;

OO " Ox X Ox
"
a thousand men (literally, man)," or ^j\j^ one
OxO P x Ox
thousand man"; jJuuA-e, or Joaj3^, "one hundred

sheep," &c. &c. ; but not ^b,*, or J*&MM. The same also
Ox X O O O

when the Noun is with an Adjective;

" as, XVJ J J>
x s*
. e>,*uuo "* "

O O P O O OxOP P xO
" " "
twenty brave maw Ljj&yUk> L_-vJji>j j-a>
;
I five hundred
and two very good Aorse
" &c. &c.
Respecting the order in ;

which the numbers should be arranged, the greatest number is

expressed first, and the rest following in the same order as, ;

AJhiUwtS &ui) Ixjjjb iXAtoj>

ikjb^lya-
slsfb* ci-xoioiO two hundred
and fifty-four thousand seven and eighty-three hundred
sheep." There is one exception to this rule however ;

namely, that from eleven to nineteen the smaller number is

always expressed first : and from twenty to forty-nine, the

smaller number may be expressed first ;
but only in counting
or telling, and never in conversation or writing. For instance,
OOP O O x O OOx

you may tell

e^uxjjJ, ^^1^, &c. &c., instead of
J^s-^j,
f f O O x OOx ?

i.e. twenty -two,

counting y>jo-".. >, ^L^-j _^
(
, Aj^J^js-,
thirty-four, and though the latter is the best
forty-five ;

mode of expressing these numbers. But there is no choice

from eleven to nineteen*.

* See the
Numerals, pp. 10, 11.
 176 (Ivl) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

A Noun may be used in the Plural, to answer to

Definite
the Cardinal Number; but it must be in a complete sen-

tence, when the Plural Noun is expressed first, then the

OTxTO - > O O^
Cardinal Number, and lastly the Verb
DxO^ O
;
x
as,
o
jJ^j^j
f Ox
J\^o

"f/je ?ne were two thousand"; jJ^Lg^- jlu^LgjuJ "The

black horses were four"; &c. &c.
In concluding this subject, however, let me assure you,
that if
you will only be a little careful in the course of your

reading, you will discover more rules with regard to the

Persian Syntax, and understand them even much better, than

any Grammarian could explain them to you by his isolated

examples or quotations. Besides having access to books,

you now possess another advantage over those foreigners

who study a language by themselves, or far from where it is
spoken. You are now at present in Persia, and in constant

intercourse with the natives : the best Grammar for you,

therefore, is to attend to the conversations and idioms of

the educated classes of the people, with whom you are so

frequently in communication, and may ask them any ques-

tions you may think proper.

DIALOGUE V.
A- (\)
To-day, the air
'
is very
warm.

B.
t
-
Ox^Ox / O T jf 9 O

I wonder that you should \>S\\\+2j \&-> _ju_L.X/o

'
complain of the heat !

A. m
Why ?
Perhaps you sup-
posed that I had no bodily

feeling ? *2j tX)

,_
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. w ) 177

E
"
Not so : but you having
} x O

**J*J*
<> 1 -

^ .'

said that you had resided

ten years in India, and had

been staying chiefly in Ben-

gal and the climate of In-

dia. especially Bengal, being

much warmer than Persia,

and to-day also not being a

particularly hot day I was

when you com- ' ' ^
surprised

plained of the heat !

-

^
i

**
*
^
f**J*-*

A.
Notwithstanding these

good reasons why such should

not be the case, I feel a \3 ^j> <J1>
yL^.
strange heat all over my
body; and, moreover, I have
a great thirst upon me, and
L-V-^^^X J *

my head also aches. *

B. (V)
God grant that you may
\J
JJ^ ^^ ^\ jj JJ )

have no fever ! Let me feel 9 *5 x xxO^ x OOOx

^
*
Do not
(/i<. your
see)
be alarmed:
pulse.
^
~
a j>
6 .% tLJoJ
^^d ,jy-lJ
you have a
slight fever; take care (of

yourself) :
please God, it will

soon be removed.

* See the 127129.

Diminutive Particles, pp.

2 A
 178 (!
VA ) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

I fear I may have caught ~~>-*--*>

cold : there is abad taste in
, ,,, , y 4 ,

my mouth ;
and I feel a shi-
'
vering in my back and side. -

"
, .

B. (

There is no doubt you

have caught cold you must
:

abstain from fruit altoge-

ther. At this season, fever

and ague are very prevalent

(lit.
has a great prevalence)
in Persia. People, in these
warm nights, sleep mostly
on the tops of their houses ;

and it sometimes happens,

that in the course of the

night a slight cold may have

settled on a person, and he

may not be aware of it :

and,
in the earlier part of the i : i

day, people incautiously eat isl-xixa^

(_J
'.

X X
fruit and most of the agues
:
f -,
>s ?

and fevers, and other mala- ^\ J\

\f
dies which prevail at this
Lf-^l^A-J^yi?
' J

season, arise from these . 2 \ .

.\.\

sources. >N-*y c->\4^ (j^/

A.
You say true last night, :

about two or three hours

past midnight, I woke, and

feltvery much chilled. I
found (saw) the night-cap
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 179

had fallen off my head, and

'*" '
'!
"
V 3_) 5
'

\-i
> '
\
O.,
JJ
~&t^_3lsi..
J 55UJ/ r- -^V
>

the quilt even was not over p f -J \J

' '
me I >!
'

and I sneezed also twice ^s ; 1 ',

;

or thrice: perhaps that may

j<*JOOjUJa*&
r -^
x
\

' '
have been the commence- i "\~\ \/
<X /..
/..I \\ /.we
*-> -J *- r
JS
~ -^ -
i
ment of my cold. ,

B. (

Notwithstanding these
""
.'
' '- '\
Q'
'.

several warnings, I still fear ^^

j
.J /.0\ 3
^" X* ^ 5
-^
\J
'

s
you may not have abstained ?\ ~ "".. 1\ \ !V
jl/wiJO C? ^^ e
/
.
OiVfi. j\W
from your usual custom of

eating fruit before breakfast.

A.
Why conceal it from you ?
The truth of the matter is,

that this morning the gar-

dener of the English Envoy

brought me several baskets

of fresh ripe fruits. With-

out exaggeration, I had
never seen grapes, figs, and
melons, in such a state of

perfection and delicacy.

Moreover, with what neat- &

ness and elegance had that
tasteful gardener arranged
them, mixed with roses and

jessamines, in those baskets

of green myrtle ! At all

events, I enjoyed the plea-

sure of partaking of those
forbidden fruits: now I must

pay the penalty of my in-

discretion.
 180 A ) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

B.
You must not alone pay

the whole of the penalty: ^

...

since the Envoy's gardener -c

^SjjsZ. >jW& ^s:
.. I
(jV^V ci^
has tempted you to eat the

fruit, justice requires that

the Envoy's doctor should

pay a part of the penalty, in

the shape of medicine and

attendance. I have some

business in the neighbour-

hood of the Ambassador's

house ; and, as I am passing
that way, I will see the En-

glish doctor myself,

and send
him to see you directly. A^j -Sj^ V^i

A.
May your affection never
diminish! But there is no
necessity for you to take
the trouble (lit. that you
should take the trouble) I :

can write to the doctor my- txA.|O X==> *J

self, and beg him to come.

B.
It is no trouble at all I
'-- xx\
!
x\ \ .
\ . .
'
J CJ J
must pass that way : what
difference will it make, if I

were to see the doctor for

x s s x

two or three minutes ? t^lJ jXatJ i

xx.x. J U--x^.
Moreover, when I see him, , , ., , , , -, >,

Ican explain your case to - ^ 5*'^ -e '

him and he perhaps, form-

;

ing some judgment of it by

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. A I) 181

my statement, should any

medicine be necessary, he
can at once bring it with

him; and in this manner the

^
matter may be expedited.

A.
I am much obliged to you !

Although we say, in English,

"I would do as much for

you ;" yet I hope to requite

you, for these affectionate

offices, at your wedding, and

not in your illness !

B.

May it please God to re-

store you to health first !

Now I will leave you quiet :

.*
and do you repose a little,

until the doctor comes.

A.
I have a great thirst upon
me ;
and am afraid of drink-
ing cold water, lest it should
do me harm.

1 ^ r>'

(') The Verb ^jf- does not always signify "To eat" in Persian. It sig-
_
nifies also "To drink"; as,
^^s-t-j! "To drink water";
^j^j^ "To
TV O? Ox
drink wine"; &c. &c. It means also
"
To suffer," and " To feel "; as,

"To suffer grief";

^tf- t "To feel regret." In fact,
(.jii;^,
in
"To take," than any other
Persian, corresponds more with the English Verb
Verb ;
for they say in English,
" To take pains,"
"
To take trouble," " To take
Ox O ?
" To take for all of which
dinner," wine," &c. &c. ;
^j^- may be used in Persian.
 182 (
I
AT) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

B.

I will tell the cook to

make some barley-water for

you: that will quench (your)

thirst.

A.
May your kindness and
affection increase !

B.
Boys !
Boys ! ! No one
answers !
(ftV. gives an an-
swer.) They are
'
all dead!

-Boys!!!

SERVANT.
O T x
Sir !
yes Sir ! !
_^l-tf ,Jj

A.
You see, at last, that I

am ill!
why do you, all of

you, vanish together ? For

God's sake, let one of YOU, at
,.
j- _^^ ,.,_x_=3. t.
least, be always near at hand,

to answer when I call! It

is yowr special duty always

to be in the coffee-room:

where had you gone ?

(
2
) An ante-room leading into the audience-chamber, where the coffee, &c.
> ')^
"
^Liii ghalyaun," are prepared, and handed in to the guests.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ( \
A O 1 83

SERVANT.

I was gone to the kitchen,

to fetch the barley-water,

which the cook had pre-

pared for you.

A. (V)
Mind you well, that to- r
_x*j
# ''"K
.
V'
~\ &S tx^b
' '

the doctor, "*

vl
* 'j c
day, excepting

and the gentleman who just .... * A<g~ t_-t-^\^^ .^^

>>
j-~ > i

L-^9
~^
>
x r p-
went out, whoever else may T ^o o .

call (come), you must say

that I am not well, and can- . -
-\
^I^XJw^) I,

not see any body ! Dost

thou understand, or not ?

SERVANT.

Yes, Sir ;
very well.

A.
('))
'
'
Now, bring (me) some
Ah! this is -
.

-'^"
.je ,

barley-water.
3 '

too hot ;
I cannot drink it.

SERVANT.

It is not (a) long (time)

since it has been taken off

the fire; and it is not yet <XiJ.2 1

cooled.

3
( ) See Note 1.
Dialogue 5.
 184 (I
A C) >
PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

A.
Go, and pour it all into a

glass (bottle) and put the ;

bottle into ice, that it may

cool the sooner. I am very
thirsty ! But do not bring it

till I ask for it : I may be

asleep, and will not have

any one disturb me.

(Two Servants talk.)

1st SERVANT.

What is the matter with

master to-day ?

2d SERVANT.

What do I know? He
says he is ill.

1st SERVANT.

If he is ill, he is ill : if he _Sl LL

is not ill, he is not ill: but t , t

who go in and come out

=J
you,
so often, if you be not an ass, ^$?\
must, at all events, know
one thing or the other.

4
( ) The
reader will here again observe the difference of idiom between the
T x Ox x
" S
Persian and English. In the former, the Negative form ,lx ^ long
fP>\f&
as I shall not ask for it, do not
bring it," is strictly idiomatic. In English, it is
" Until I
the reverse : do ask for it, do not bring it."

5
( ) See Note 1.
Dialogue 4.

6
( ) See Notes 2 and 4. Dialogue 3.

7
( ) See Note 5. Dialogue 4.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. Afi ) 185

2d SERVANT.

If you ask me, I tell you,

that these Englishmen, so

long as they possess a pulse ^

and a watch, they are never
in health. With one hand,
He holds his watch; and with
the other, feeling his pulse

thus. He looks at this a lit-

tle, and counts something to As. ^ *

> Jl5\-V"^ iX_J
- r
^
V ~~
^^ v ~ ^" " J
himself; and all at once ex-

claims, "Alas! it is ninety!

it is ninety-five ! O dear, \i "*'\

~)\)
it is a hundred ! ! ! Woe is

me ! I am ill !
Bring the
doctor !
Prepare some me-
dicine! Make some bar-

ley-water ! Let no one

speak ! Let no one knock

y
at the door ! I cannot see

any one !" and I know not

what !
But, thank God he !

is now asleep. Would that,

before his waking, his watch

may stop! then all would

be right.

1st SERVANT.

You talk a great deal

of nonsense ! Methinks

s
For this and the following exclamations, see the Interjections,
( )
pp 117 19.

2B
 186 (i
A 1) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

O O^ x O O O x^. Ox O.x O
you have lost your wits. If _3jo A^o ^.-sU tS 5 *Q S\
the man were not really ill,
' "
\ \ '\
do you think the doctor was '

'J^- .P**
x
<_
^

a fool, like yourself, to take ooo ?o,oxox

*- ^
\*f^ ^-^ ^' 3 a-) Q ^ lj
-^ L? ^*
*
/ i
i*^ . / 1 |

so much blood from him for UTiT^

'
no purpose ? J^ ^\J
.^

2d SERVANT.
After all, he (the doctor)
is an Englishman too, and
has a watch also. What
did he do, when he came ?

First of all, he pulled out his

watch, and, like Master him- -

m - -

^
, LJJJ==,*~>JLx~j t>_J ^Ti.3tLL_owU>
^^ /
~
self, held it in one hand, and J
Q
with the other hand he felt \
i

Ul CSkUiS /COJ
the Master's pulse, and in ^
^ ^ 1 P o O ..

the same manner he began

counting: then he said some-

thing to Master, and Master

put out his tongue. As soon

as he looked at Master's

tongue, he fumbled with his

hand in his pocket and pulled
out his lancet: and cried '

M^1X.X.
out, "Boys! bring the jug
and basin !" You know the
rest (lit.
the rest of it is

known), L e. he bled him. ^^^eyj^ (

r~fz

(I )
1st SERVANT. ^ , 00

Do you mean to say that

(_^ii^. *^ ^
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. AV ) 187

*
the doctor himself bled / , I f
L^Sy > J. >>
Master, and did not send
for a barber ? !

2d SERVANT.
Barber! They are their
own barbers. Have you
-
'
ever seen an Englishman
who could not shave him-

self? Their doctors, also,

&
^>
both bleed and extract teeth.

Listen !
somebody knocks
at the door. -- Yes, yes!

Coming !

^ ^^
A MESSENGER.
have brought a note for
I *1 2! ! .r

the Gentleman and want ;

an answer to it. u^?T*L?

f*)***

SERVANT.

Master is not well, and J

is asleep: I cannot iust now
give him the note. But,

hark! I hear him cough.

I think he is awake (or

has awoke). Give me the

note !

A. (\)
Boys! Bring me some ' 0/3

water to drink !-What is

the time ?
Bring candles,
that I may see !
 188 (I
AA) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

SERVANT.

Yes, Sir. We are com- ,

_ t\
,

^
\
,. __)!, >\JJ*\ M -C' \__rL
"^ V _'lf 1_J
Make haste
*~^ '
i

ing. [to a/eJ-

, and light these
candles ! or he will be angry

again. 3i~L.~-c

'
Another Servant.
x O O x > O x O ^

Your prayer has been i,"^ p\..i L"_I . .

lt^v _.* t
_ A^y .^ ^ L~

granted ! Master's watch

is
topped. Do you not see,

he asks, "What is the time?"

SERVANT. ^ x T O x O
^^ O O xx
Do not talk nonsense !
nr+* X&j \
\-ftJUtfA JC OO A.
Give me the candles !

Sir! a person has brought

this note for you, and wishes

for an answer to it

A. (reads.) , ,,
(U
, x

My Dear Friend !

Although it is unkind to
leave a valued friend alone u^J\A.i-Jwi-S (y^ * *f

when he is ill ;
and justice
itself, under such circum-

9
( ) I have not been strictly literal in translating some parts of this epistle ;

because, in the vain attempt to Anglify the untranslatable phrases of Persian

courtesy, the English becomes so bad, I may even say so ridiculous, as to de-
grade, rather than elucidate, the peculiar phraseology of the original. The
learner, if he has been a learner at all, by the time he comes to this part of the
Grammar, must see, and be able to understand, the difference of the idiom and

grammatical construction of the two languages, in this, as well as in many other

similar instances, in these Dialogues.

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ( I
A1 ) 1 89

stances, does not reckon any

excuse sufficient for absence.

Nevertheless, on account of
an important and necessary
business, the transaction of

which is indispensable, I fear

I may not be able to have
^ ' '
the honour of waiting on you <- i - i i

until to-morrow morning;

3 .3 ^)1 .JJ
-^ ^ ^V-oW C-vcO
,
,

unless (which God forbid!)

your indisposition should be

so great as to make you think -aa. JO
my presence necessary: in
that case, to attend upon you
will, of course, become the ' -

most urgent of all important

affairs. I pray that the b \ifljj\ u-ub\j
j J\
Almighty Giver of all
gifts,

in His infinite mercy, may ItX) V^ic <_g\ Q _*. ^^. t_^-

grant you a speedy cure!

Your very sincere friend, B.

A.
There is no necessity
to write an answer. Send
OB 9 O S)+ T

my compliments, and say,

xVLv ^ jj y
"
Thank God ! I feel much
better to night. The doc-
tor has visited me twice;
and, after bleeding me, he
sent me some medicine his :

remedies have proved of

great benefit ;
and I am in

hopes that by to-morrow,

 190(11.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

Ox "> x t x

God willing no ! illness will &\j &J\-+J

remain." As soon as you ,, x

have sent this message, Sr

bring me some tea.

SERVANT.

Very well, Sir. Do not

you wish for something to

eat with (your) tea ?

A.
No ;
I want nothing (more).
But mind, and remember,
before going to rest to-night,
to bring me some warm
water, that I may bathe my
feet ; and, that an hour after

tea is the time.

DIALOGUE VI.

B.
O, my thornless rose !

O, my" "Companion of the

cave !
peace be upon you !

"May thy person never be

a supplicant before the self-
sufficiency of the doctors
May thydelicate framenever
be afflicted with sickness !"
!

... ^-^ -*
.j

(') Mohammed, during his flight, when closely pursued by his enemies, was
obliged for a time to conceal himself in a cave, wherein none of his followers
TV *
was with him, excepting Job! "Abababr" (afterwards the first Khalif); and
"
hence he obtained the appellation of ili/lj
The Companion of the cave." It is

now used occasionally, in Persian, to signify a very sincere and intimate friend.
The couplet is by Hafiz.
* See 67.
Optative Mood, p.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAB. 0^0 191

I trust that the disinter-

ested prayers of your sin-
cere friends have been heard
in your behalf, and that you -J J
are now completely free
from indisposition !

A.
Thanks be to God! I have
no illness to-day. My fever
has left me (lit. is broken

off) my headache is com-

;

pletely gone and my appe-;

tite is also
very good : what
more dost thou want ? But
the truth is, that so long as

a person does not suffer ill-

ness, he does not know the

value of health. How much
it behoves me now to praise
God, who has bestowed on
me the blessing of health !

but when I compare my state

of yesterday with that of

to-day, I acknowledge that

it is impossible for me to

thank God as I
ought.

B.
It is incumbent upon us
every moment to thank God;
for there is no instant that
we are free from the exer-
cise of His goodness. The
divine bounty is like water,
and we like fish ;
we cannot
exist a moment without it.
 192 (II f) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

It is from our ingratitude

and neglect that we thank
God only from time to time
for some particular bounty
of His ; otherwise, His uni-
versal grace every moment
demands renewed thanks.

Dost thou not recollect the

passage in Sady ?

A.
No: to what passage do
you allude ?

B.
In the preface of his in-
"
comparable (work) Guli-
stan," On the praise of the

Almighty Creator, he says,

"Every breath, when in-

(ji^L^ iX :>'. Ho ^3 s
haled, is a prolonger of life ;

and when exhaled, a reviver

of nature : so that in every

single respiration there ex-

ists two bounties of God ;

and for every bounty, a sepa-

rate thanksgiving becomes
due. Whose power and .,-.-,,. . .

whose language is sufficient

to fulfil the duty of grati-

tude to Him ? !"

in Persian, means "hand," as well as "power." The English

reader need not be reminded of the same in his own language. But the passage
"
may also be translated thus : What can the hand or tongue express sufficiently,
to perform the requisite duty of gratitude?"
 PERSIAN GEAMMAR. ('I ")
1 193

A.
The
chief beauty of these

passages is in the truths

which they express, although
the expressions [themselves]
are also quite perfect in

point of eloquence.

B.
x s s ,

What can be more beau- oJ t>O\O JjljO

tiful than truth 9 My belief
is, that man ought not to be
"
called the lord of the crea-

tion" merely because of the

power of speech; but rather

on this account, that he can
_
speak truth. $ ^ tX)ijJwc

A.
You speak truth ; there-

fore you are the lord of the , ,,, ,^, ^, -3 o?

creation. But, My Lord of oVSj^sS ^-*jt*} ^
the Creation, this is a very
Q
..' ^^
s
.-.
,
">

/^XA^:-^ \
^jtx? ,u
antiquated truth. Should I

there be any new truths in \

-^ <_>. _*A_> u-R_J . ^ JaW .i

your noble thoughts, I shall

be much delighted to hear it.

B.
Do you believe, then, that

truth also, like the customs ^ , -> , f

and fashions of nations, has (jj-*^-^? LSJ

'"."
'-' t p

its novelty and antiquity? ^-

"
that to-day, <Ai* coZowr is
r"^-' -^ -*2^ x J
f s Ox x^ O^OOO ^n

^ JL-\ a
o .

liked ; and to-morrow, *Aa< ?

(A^ O> AA ^X)
*
-^ x
\ \
^J
x^

2 C
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

this year, this is thefashio-

nafcfe cut of a coat ;

and this

un-
teas last years, and is

fashionable; and so on?

However, if such really be

that you
your notion, I hope
will stop at this limit, and

will not carry the analogy

to its full extent ! For as,

in the one case, you may say,

" an old
for instance, This is

coat, or its colour is un-

fashionable" or, The cut of \ '

these breeches is vulgar, and

I am ashamed to wear them;"

in the other case you will
"
be obliged also to say, This

truth is very antiquated, and

,

every body knows it; and

is now become very vulgar,

j\
'
and I am ashamed to discuss
it ;" and so forth.

I like your diction better

than your logic; for in that,

there is much eloquence; but

in this, a great deal of fal-

lacy. Who in this world, ex-

could per-
cepting yourself,
vert my simple remark in
so hideous a manner ?
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 195

B. (V")
O x O x T ^">x
Where the fallacy ? Be ...UJ S 2
is
yJ <,

so kind as to point it out.

A. cn
I said, "This truth is 00,0 x > ^ o o

antiquated," meaning, long d* ... JtX9 C-~j u ^J I

established;'" but you inter- f t, ,, ->,,_, , , o

preted it in the sense of

oo^ Xx^So \y\ Vtfi jlj -O (^
"old, and worn out" which
was not my meaning. By
O Ox
*j>jJ>, I meant "ancient" as
I" o O OO.'T
opposed to djiiU*. "casual" oj j
I

The word, as it is employed

" *\
in logic, signifies eternal" A * '

^gi
.

" More-
and not worn out."
x .' x
s

over, .pjji is one of the at- OliLo^/ '.^ ,

J^ ^\>
"
*/\'IL" i. H^J j-.^vt /

C-x
"
[
_J ^^ ^x ^
mean-
tributes of the Deity, ,"-,? -> , ,o, >-, ~
"
ing without beginning, and
without end."
j\ .
.\,Xxj\
^ J^ ( C^ 1^

B.
< VO
There is no doubt that C!A-~JO t^X
you have proved (the ex- , o

istence of) a fallacy ; but, I -MJ ow

fear, more in your own state-

ment than in my saying. <xJ\OO

You must surely know, that
it often happens that a word
has been employed in a
science, or idiomatically, to .
1^
'
** -^ -^
express a particular mean- *rr x

ing; but, in common con-

versation, it has a more ex-

tensive signification, which,
"> ' ^ '
.; r
''

f V3 Z
'

rfl J '\
\
i .0>s3> v XC-\ t
for the most part, is re-

by the context. You

'
stricted

did not merely say, " This is

 196 (111) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

an antiquated truth;" but

you added, "Should there

be any new truth," &c. &c. *_J ,.*

It is therefore quite clear, Q >

from these contexts, that (^fr |r^ D~^ _j i^J~~i- ^J^^J

you used the word +ite (old),

as opposed to J (fresh), and

not as opposed to ^_>t)U-

(casual)and your meaning,

in using the word "anti-

quated," could only have been

"
old and common," and not
"eternal." Moreover, you

expressed yourself ironically

at my defective explanation,
and shewed some signs of
weariness; and these, too, are
additional proofs that you
used the word "antiquated"
in its worst sense.

A
ti
- "

Do you not know, that I

am an Englishman, and that
Persian is not my native

tongue? What wonder is

it, should have employed

if I

a word rather out of its

proper place ?

B.
Although your excuse is
rery Za?7ie yet, as you have
;

so recently (lit. newly) risen

.
from
.
/
sickness, I will not, for
...

old friendship's sake, be too

hard upon you.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 197

A. (\)
'
May your affection ever M .

increase! But, with all this

kindness and consideration, ''1-

b
I still see that you do not *j j
quite forget the "new" and
the " old."

B. V>
Q "> T Ox 9 *)

This is only to shew you, ]b\jd\ sS *jV^J \^O JO

x I ^^ * +
how words, according to idi-

oms and contexts, give va-

rious significations.

But now let us change the

subject: for, as you say in

"
English, This is rather too

much of a good thing," we

say in Persian, "Eating too
much of sweetmeats pro-

duces heartburn."

Now, I well remember, U**IJA)

that, two or three days ago,
I settled with a dealer that
he should bring several good
horses, in order that I might
see them, and, if I approved
of any, might make a pur-
chase. He came yesterday ;
X ,

but I was not very well, and -j~* " ^^** * **' Owo '

told him to come another

time. If you have a mind,

3
( ) See Note 4. Dialogue IV.
 198 (H A ) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

x- ^

^ Oo
,- ,,/*
^

I will send a man, to desire

xy^ \ \j x^-^ JLri.fi** +3\
him to come to - morrow -, -, ? <-TX'XOXX ? , >

if you happen
morning; and,
not to have any other en-

easement, have the kindness x

x x X
.

to come here, that we may ubb UV^Xs\ U OO.A.O ( SJ -tJ\aaJ\

l
> -v*> x
">
see the horses together. T>_ o o

B.
f (^)
Very well! -I have an ''u
JJLJ^W liJ^JjjLX
engagement now, and shall \'
take my leave (lit. become
permitted) ;
but to-morrow
morning, I will be here

again.

A. O'T" Ox

God be with you To- !

morrow morning, I shall ex-

pect you.

DIALOGUE VII.

A.
(U
o , -- o X 0^ O')x x<x Ox'> -- x O x

am very much oo\ .^o ,*~^*- 13^^-?4^ "

I i
> '
pleased ^." c) Jj L/
with that bay horse. What
say you?

R Ox 0x^,0^-- ^
(
'
V) *'
^
-3 .

It is a fine horse: but I

J^J \)i^jf C!A >
(J\ (J*
like that chesnut better :it o >

possesses several very

,

good
t _ s
^7 J j^-J,.j-JU<AXs-
"
',, ,
v
,tX>--J
I
*
,

Sr
<c

Tx
marks. ^ U
A. C\)
It is true; but, to my V
taste, it is rather too small.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ^ ) 199

If that horse had been half t~~

a hand taller, he would have

\

'

O'jT
\

C
been worth any sum you
might mention. r5

DEALER.

Sir, a thorough-bred Arab

horse seldom happens to be
taller than this. By your J ool)
<j\Jb\
own head ! in the stable of

the prince even, a better

horse than this cannot be
found ! But what need is ,. ^
there for me to describe it ? , ^
You (as heaven has willed) &S&iJi

yourself understand horses _

very well; and your friend *&

himself also is a perfect

judge of a horse.

A. ( n
You say that "an Arab
horse seldom happens to be

taller than this." Is not L?

that bay an Arab ?

DEALER. ( Jb)
That bay horse, also, is
worthy of being mounted by
the king. It is of mixed

blood (/if. is of two veins)

the Arab and the Turko-
man ;
but it has more of the
Arab blood.

(') A form of adjuration common among the Persians.

200 (I*..) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

B.
What do you
of that piebald ? See what
think (say)
^^ 1
^
a beautiful head and neck
he has !

A.
In respect of shape, he
does not appear to be a bad . .

horse, though his chest is W <-^

rather narrow : but, I do

not know why, I never fancy
a piebald horse, however

good his blood may be (lit.

good-veined).

B.
That is another thing.
But if a horse be of good

blood, and [possess] good

marks, I seldom look at his ''< > '
i *.
'
~ >
+M^X> 8\>J .**
colour. \

A.
^ I o Ox O ,

At all events, out of these ..\^A i

^.^\ \j *j ,.y\ \\ /.wo

six horses, I approve only of o ,,'->,, >

that bay and that chesnut. C^? xt-\Ju^.^ ,^c

T-v
B.
J-J.T-
V
OxOOxxOxOOxx ( )
OxOo * .

Do you not admire that _

\.'t ... t '> \ /v_L*. \ \

dun -coloured horse? I

very much wonder See !

how handsome he is ! In

point of beauty and marks,

that horse, in opinion, my
is quite perfect. Short
back broad shoulders
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. C**') 201

i!
\' CJu s I
'
'.

open chest slender waist

; ;
yj^ AJ (\\.~t *-^~* ; X
' '
wide between the thighs;
clean and straight legs ;
ex- (

pansive forehead; dark-grey

eyes; taper ears; handsome
head and neck; white teeth; '
<
elegant form; graceful ac-
tions; altogether (literally,
* "
TI , . &4*dwW^./ vi. ~A
J L.O
all
having grown upon each
other), there is not a single > I li
'
*J . !!*'
ja
" '

' **
^>~* ......
.y ( i^ i
( ..vjL>^g?

good mark which this horse ' - vL

does not possess.
v\ ^jj

A. (\)
Iam) however>m uch m ore
pleased with the other two ;

and, if their owner is in-

clined to treat with me (7i<.

have an intention to do &^=> ..\OOul^a

business), I have no objec-
tion to purchase both.
^J

DEALER. ( U*** )

Let your mind be easy on

jJ^X^g oLLb cLob
that account, Sir
my busi-
: ^ Jr IV*
'^J \

ness is, to sell horses; and

I have no doubt that a
better purchaser than
your-
self cannot be found.
Why,
then, should not our busi-
ness be done ?

i-
x
^OO^OO*_^
For one important reason Wl .xA
; j?i X^C.*.
x (J^J

See Note 1.
Dialogue IV.
2D
 202 (P.f) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

!
and that
/if /you
is, should \d '

osA: <oo mwc/i for them :

then it may become difficult

for us to proceed.

DEALER.

God grant you happiness,

Sir! What words are these
&_a>.
^ L.

which you are pleased to

utter? I would never ask

too high a price from you.

Every body knows me ;

and

all know, that no merchant -,, , , , , ,, x,

can sell horses cheaper than ^J^^ V^ 3
irfjj CTj^ S6f
ir

A.
That must be tried.
Well !
say now, How much
do you want for that bay
horse ? Tell me the lowest
the final) price of it,
(lit.

that the business may be

shortened.

DEALER.
The very lowest price of
that bay horse is two hun-
dred and thirty tumans; and
the price of the chesnut
horse, two hundred and
twenty tumans or, the two ;

together, four hundred and

fifty tumans.

and Adverbs are often thus repeated in Persian, for the sake of
(') Adjectives

emphasis.
4
A in circulation in Persia, worth about ten shillings
( gold coin, the highest
)

It is a Turkish word.
English money.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (I* 203

A. (V)
Did not say, that "if
I

you should ask too much,

our bargain would not pro- >;
ceed?" Four hundred and i_M"
fifty tumans is a great deal
too much !

DEALER.
o o, 0,0 o 7

By your own head, they

j
.\ A.X J &_i
'
are very cheap If I were !

to send those two horses

to Bushire, your own mer-
chants would give them no
5
respite and, at the lowest,
,

they would give six hun- ouufctXx (

.

dred tumans for them. From

here to Bushire, the ex-

penses of two horses and a

groom would not even be
ten tumans. But at pre-
sent I have occasion for

money, and cannot wait.

You yourself are a very

good judge of horses, and

your friend is also perfect
in this respect :
reflect, both
of you, and say whether
these horses are cheap, at
the price I asked, or not ? !

A. ^
Will you consent to what- U.JJ tXJ
(^\5ow J '

ever this gentleman may , ->

say? I will be satisfied

The meaning of this passage "

( ) is, that your English merchants would
eagerly purchase the horses," i. e. suffer no time to be lost in securing them.
 204 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

with whatever price he shall

Let him be the arbiter
^
fix.

between us.

Though I do not believe

that he would, out of friend-

ship for you, propose what

is unfair (lit. transgress jus-

tice) ;
yet, since this is not
the proper way of selling

and purchasing, I cannot

positively engage to take

whatever he may mention :

but still, there is no objec-

tion to his stating what he
thinks fair. Perhaps I shall

be satisfied.

B.
If you ask me, I say at
once, that four hundred tu-

mans is a fair price for the

two horses. Let one give,

'
'

5*
"' '
("

and the other take ;

and so '-'. -

let the bargain be closed.

I have not a single word

more to say.

A. (1)
' "" '
I, likewise, since I re-
ferred [the matter] to you,
have no more to say ;
and
am willing to pay the four
 PEKSIAN GRAMMAR. (f.o)205

hundred tumans. Let him

take it, if he chooses: other-

wise, he knows best.

Four hundred tumans are

too little, Sir ; but, as I re- ,,/,,
presented to you, that having
great occasion for money,
I

must sell the horses there ;

is no help.

A.

Very good! now all is

right. Tell me, What do

you wish money, or a bill

of exchange? To me it

makes no difference.

DEALER.
OO Ox QX^O o x OxO x ^^x
If you will have the kind- (Xn&JAjftjJ ^iX? tN^^* i
r'Ll'
-*-
5^
''
ness to give me a bill of

exchange, payable to my
I shall
partner at Bombay,
be very thankful to you.

AA.

Certainly; there is no

objection. If it would not

be too much trouble, come
to-morrow morning, or send
some person : the bill shall

be ready.
 206 (
r . 1
) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

DEALER.

May your kindness never

be less ! I will wait on you

myself.

A.
See, in order tobuy a
couple of horses, what waste
of breath is necessary. As
for me, I am really fatigued ;

and if I, who have pur-

chased two such good horses,
and anticipate so much plea-
sure in riding them, say so,

what must you say, who

have had nothing else, ex- .

J^
^ IfelCi
cepting the trouble of talk-

B.
You make a mistake !

My pleasure, in having done

you a service, is greater by
many degress than the plea-
sure which you may have
from riding those horses.

Moreover, my pleasure is

more permanent ;
because

it will, at all events, be with

me as long as my life lasts :

but your pleasure depends

upon the lives of the horses,

which I trust may be, by

many years, shorter than

your own life. tXi*\J J

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ( r
V) 207

M)
What you
ceeds, doubtless,

extreme
A.
express, pro-
from your
kindness towards
^

-
U ^^ -^^ooo
^ o^o

**
-

^
1,
.?
. o

>
,
o-*-.

O .

me :
nevertheless, it so ap-
i * ; /^ '\ / i

pears, that the pleasures of l OO & S Ool^u^o CXXA- /.yoo

this world which, after all, _,,,, ,,, xxx
;,,,' , , ,
xxx?
must sooner or later en- ^ ^" ^^-
tirely perish stimulate our

inclination towards them > -*

according to their nature Ox
and quality, and not in pro-
' '
'
)
.'' '
"*

portion to the extent of . \

JOoC^-*
" J CJo"-'j& K$v'f^ **'
duration which each may , ,
-^
, , '

have, in comparison with

others. And very often we
prefer a pleasure which we
know to be of short dura-
^_x
tion, to that which we are rub &_O\ > o.AtX
'
certain is by many degrees
more lasting because there
;

is more
probability of excite-
ment in that, than in the
other. Therefore the value
of our pleasures must not be
estimated by the time of their
continuance ; but rather,

they ought to be appreciated

according to the sensations
they create, and the interest
we feel in them.

B.
No doubt ! But the tastes

and the dispositions of men 5 ' ^ ' ' ">0x

>i . 'l" /''' i
are of different kinds ;
and 5 Uiija/e CU-J\ xL-J /^sr' JiiaS /.o\ .
 208 (T.A) PEB81AN GKAMMAR.

it entirely depends upon the

individual himself which

pleasure he would prefer,

and in which he would take
most interest, or imagine
there is most excitement:
for there is no species of

pleasure in this world of

which it can be said, " This,
of itself, contains such and
such a degree of excite-
"
ment," or that much grati-
"
fication," and every body
would feel the same amount
of satisfaction from the ac-

quisition of it." And hence

it is, that we frequently see
that a person takes pleasure
in a thing in which others

have no interest, or to which

they even have a dislike: -\

-J
_Jj\
C_ JJ
O ,.**_/,S\ C^v
*-'
>~J i OO
J ,

therefore, if I, in
serving
you, in fact, receive only
the same amount of plea-
sure that you receive from

riding those horses, still,

the strong probability that

"
the duration of my plea- o-,_o. .., a^oo^o
sure will be greater than
that of yours" gives, to that

extent, a superiority to my
pleasure over yours. But
of t^>
Ot>J
if, in reality, my pleasure
itself 6e superior that is, .

in a given space of time

- A. V^iO^/eO^ -J ,
'.I
^
/.wo

I become more gratified

<
from serving you, than you
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 0**^) 209

from riding; then, my plea- 1\

-* -
sure, in point of quantity
be more than
al^will

A. O ^ O TxOOyOxx- ^
^) '

&= ^,1 . .

Your arguments all turn &+& \^i 3^

OJ-^Jlx^J (.jJO J->
upon this, that my horses

may die before me ;

for in

that case alone, a portion

only of your dogmas can

become verified. But, what cXi;
j^2\ ^j^ ^Ijj ^3^ J-Laff
if the horses should survive >

me ?

B.

You admit, by this state-

ment, that in your life-time

there may be a period when
the enjoyment of riding
those horses may not be
attainable by you ;
as they

may perhaps be dead, or

some other person may have
become their owner. But,
as it is not quite possible
that I should die before

myself, therefore, whilst I ^ .*. %.

^ A ^ i^cSj \ StXT \3
am living, my pleasure can

always be attained.

A.
This, likewise, depends
upon my remaining alive
as long as you live: but it C^ XjvrsSP .
\^S,_X_>J
,
+i\) OJ'< Jo\
^J

2E
 210 (n ) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

die
is probable that I may
before you : in that case

as it pleased you to say that

your pleasure consisted in
serving me there may be ij &!x~J
a period also, in your time, o^
when the pleasure of serving

me may not be attainable

\

* * -^ ''
by you>

B.
I was speaking of the ''

3\
pleasure which I had al- -'

ready acquired from serving

you
t
: and not of that which,
in time to come, I might ac-

quire. And (if it has not

escaped your memory) in the

beginning of these discus-

sions, when you asked me to
X O.,OQ O TOfO/'Ox
excuse you fearing I might OU^ Jo OoJ J ui. tXC-
^w j\
have been vexed at the al-

tercation between you and

the horse-dealer my an-
"
swer was this : You make
x

a mistake! My pleasure, in \^*j &^=oJ\ .^

^.^ OoJ
having done you a service, is
, ^ , ^ Q ,

greater, by many degrees,

than the pleasure which you
Jw^ * -1..
may have in riding those
t } '
'*#-'
0x00 OO
horses!" Therefore it makes ^ . \_a_J
^ i
/*> (J^-ijO tX-X-Auik.
no difference to me, whe-
ther you die before me, or
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. C*t') 8H

survive me. The source of

L_>OJ *UL-0- 000 \- J00\ /.y j
my pleasure is attained, and
italready exists within me ;

and I shall take pleasure

in the contemplation of it,

whilst I live. (V***

'-"*'
U~ J
^J '

(*

A.
Suppose that I and my -^
horses should all survive

you. In that case, I shall

take pleasure in riding them

at a time when you are jfjo* Vfw &=s
not alive to take any7r
plea- 1 1 , 1 Z' 1
sure from your contempla- /\j
^ _>
TT
i" /0 j_k. \\>j^
^^
tion : the duration of my
pleasure, therefore, would
OJ\Jj \f& ^ \\
(.* OOJ
then be greater than that
of yours.

B. ( V )

Our conversation was on

the subject of the enjoy-
ments of this life : but when > ^ ' ' '
'
'f \ i ^ i

a person is not in this world, & tXi^uO \-O J

^_J^ ^Ji ~
of what enjoyment can he , , , x Q

be deprived ? ^j oo UJ p* -S? i 'OO

-

A. O)
Of
the enjoyment of sa/-
' '
^ J ' '
^.
-\
"'i
(. c l-' M^
vation, which is the greatest
'" -
u^^ ,
-^ "^ *T* -^
of all enjoyments ! When
a person, in this world, is

deprived of
any pleasure,
he may perhaps, at some
other time, recover the same,
' '
or may find an equivalent
...
'\ 1 C^ ^7 f
tXJU .JtXBJ, i-~J ,.(!<
T~ i?'\
J^S ,11
\
,,. ,
which may anord him conso-
lation for the loss of it. But
the pleasures of futurity
 212 CM T) PERSIAN GBAMMAR.

are not only without equi-

valent, but the loss of them
is, to us, a sure sign of eter- > o o

nal condemnation and mi- Cl .

.)tXJ 1 1_> ui-C- *

B*
" x 0?T 1 1, 1, 000
x
^.1 ,
'I

Vj (S^^ >^*aa
I are i^s>- &-^> *3v- o
see, again, you
mixing the subjects of the

debate; and, with all this \.

piety, you
are about to con-
'

found both worlds together. JliA^I\

** ^^ >xCi "_i..-,Aj5-_i . .^J
/*
J [T^FT L/iJ C^ J
It is, therefore, better we U
should here conclude the

discussion, and suffer the hea-

vens and the earth to remain

in their respective places.

DIALOGUE VIII.

)
A.
1^0.^,0 j-Ox -3 O Ox Ox 'x

Heigh-ho The world ! U.'

' 3^_Cx^J a lO\^j3 jj JU ^ ^
cannot go round without 00x OOO^T "*'"
'^
madmen ! Come, take </tzs, \^ &^= CfU &j Lsk ..xG U'
and read it! and see w/i< is

written in it. If this man

be not mad, then, no mad-
man can be found on the
whole earth ! Read aloud;
-read aloud !

B. (reads a Letter.) (
ailySU <UJ>,
"
SlR '

"
The religious controver-
sies, which passed yester- \
day between us, have made V "
,-

(') See the Diminutive Particles, pp. 128, 129, &c.

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (NT) 213
' ' ' '
me very anxious on the
subject (lit. concerning the
i

^ ^j-^'jV y V^ > "r f

I
'
i
'

affairs) of your future exis-

tence.
?

"
one of the blessed
It is
-U &-J cj\
maxims of our holy religion *.'' ^ " -^ ^
,
\

(and, indeed, philanthropy

and humanity also require

it), that we should not, by our

piety and devotion, seek to

'
obtain the glories and salva- 9
tion of futurity for ourselves ] oLa\J L? AJO cn^A XJ
alone but we ought to en-
;

deavour at the same time, ,-

*== \
0-^3
^^ -^ r**-
^ *>^
\
H-flS
'.

1
'<f

by our admonitions and ex- p

hortations, to the utmost of
our power, to guide like-
wise unto the abode of sal- . . , . .,, ., .,

vation those [of our fellow- ^USJwj ^-jUj^J &i *jiLx3\3\ 13 *J

creatures] who, by the temp-
tations of Satan, having &_O\J i X_LJ XJ --^
" y!>
wandered from the right -
'
* * **2^^ >
path, are, in the fearful de-
sert of perdition, bewil-
dered in the labyrinth of

misery.

\ 'l
*"
'2 "
r '

^^A" )^)
i

"And it is come down to us, W* tOu^l <5tXij i .U <?r^ ~

( t

'
in the authentic Traditions ,',,';, o . . o = .,..<
of the Prophet (but as I ^o tXJi
suppose you do not under-
stand Arabic, I send you a
translation of the prophetic
"
in &==> ^--j
'

C^ v^
saying in Persian)
'
it is ,)'
\'
'
the Traditions, that all chil- ,',-, ,' -, s,

dren are born to be of the t>J *-Jw

2
( ) The C^iJo- is a body or code of recognised Traditions of the
Prophet
Mohammad, considered to have equal validity, in point of authenticity, with the
Koran itself. This passage, therefore, cannot be literally translated into English ;

there being, as I presume, no such Traditions among Christians.

 214 (TIP) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

religion of Islam ;
but their

parents make them Jews, 1 ? x P 1

Christians, and Majus [Magi tsSj C5jV jni

or Fire- worshippers]'. I

therefore hope, that since

the Divine favour has now

.
guided you into the country
of the Faithful, the exhor-

tations of pious people may

conduct you also to the abode . \ _JooU
of salvation ! One of the dis-
interested counsels of your

well-wisher is this, that, while

you are in Persia, you do not

associate with those cursed
Jj^ ,.
Soofies ;
for they not only

go to hell themselves, but,

without a doubt, they take /

''^'^^
their associates (be they <_
%JO U^. w^ &xAj

willing or not) with them , -,

- v'
likewise, into the infernal re- (J

gions ! Oh how do I trem-

!

8\ AJ
ble for like the ->
your soul
willow-tree before a mighty

wind ! Free yourself from

the chains of the wicked;
and enter the circle of the

pious people of Islam, in

order that, in company with

them, you may enter Para-

dise ! And peace be upon
him who follows the true
"
guide!'
 PERSIAN GRAMMAK. (
r
l) 215

What is this? And who

f.
^. \

is it from? and what is the >

meaning of it? It has nei-

ther a seal nor signature,
Its,') 1.0, ">
s,

whereby one may know who \^J\ &lij y ,5 JOltX)

has written it !

A. (V)
i WUI te ,,
you a,,

about it. I know who has

written it.

Yesterday, after you went

away from this place, I went
. . . f .1
also, to return a visit of the

Minister for Foreign Afiairs.

., r .... ., .

While I was sitting in the

Minister's apartment (where
a number of people were
also present), there entered
a Mulla (Doctor), apparently
about sixty-one or two years
of age but, up to that time,
;

I had never seen so strange

a figure! white turband,
white garments, white man-
tie ! in short, from head to

foot, excepting his beard,

which by dint of dyeing
looked blacker than jet, he
resembled snow newly fal-
len on the mountain- top;
f ',
having just come out of the
bath, with his head and neck
shaven as clean and as
smooth as the interior of
the pearl-oyster, and with

O Ox
* J means "colour"
i
&, literally any colour; but in abstract, it is applied
to the leaves of the indigo-plant, which are pounded and made into a paste with
which they dye the beard.
 216 (Ml) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

a beard most diligently 3

'
trimmed, and rounded like

a half-moon in a state of
total eclipse, mocking, as it

were, the ordinary course

of nature ! his mustaches
cut close to his upper lip,

and his lips busily employed

in muttering ejaculations as
he approached ;
a very neat
staff in one hand, and a
"v
\ ... >

rosary of large beads in the

other and, putting all to-
;

gether, he appeared
the very

personification of austerity
and devotion ! As he was
entering, the assembly all
'*'""
reverentially stood up; and
the apartment itself became
filled, at his entry, with the

scent of ottar of roses. >> - .

The Minister ran out, bare- jfyj -

J^T/ *=%>
footed, as far as the door of
the coffee-room, to meet him,
and, with the utmost reve-
rence and respect, brought
and seated him in the high- '
7i
est place and himself re- ; O-3\-5Jj4X-fljJ j^
spectfully leaving a space
between them wide enough
for two or three persons
took his seat lower down.

s
( ) See Note 2. Dialogue V.
> ^x
" " " sanctum."
(
'
) +>.&- nn Arabic word, literally signifies a sacred place or
,

It has, besides this, a technical or conventional meaning, in which sense the word
has here been employed; namely, "the vacant place" left by a person between
himself and another, out of respect to the latter.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (
f ' v ) 217

B.
_ (V)
Ah! how much
you are giving to your story!
prolixity jj^jo^, ^Ill^lj
>" "^ '
^ x
^
e v* i_-
Say, at once, what was his
> -^
'
name. Although, I have an *
, ,
^
idea that I already know of C<"\^ \\ \ <" M '

whom you are speaking. V > ^IOOw

(Sjl i
S^i.
,
u_^-^j) /.we
* '

A -

They were addressing him,

"The Rev. Hajee Mulla-
Zayn-ail-Aubedeen."

B.
Now, you have relieved ^ ^ '

me! It is the same!

Everybody knows him \-

He is among the most cele-
lebrated of the " Khushks."

What is "Khushk"? and

what does mean ?
it

"
Khushk" means dry and
inflexible, like a hard stick,

which does not bend in any

direction : but in Persian, it

is also a metaphor for those

superstitious people who, in

regard to matters of reli-

gion, are injudiciously scru-

pulous. They call them, also

"
Khar-sauleh." 00,0^0

A.
Be so kind as to
explain
> - > ' >
'.
n -
m
the meaning of "Khar- &^y>^S
2 F
218 ( M *) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

to me (lit.
has a novelty

B.
" Khar-sauleh" means a .3 \jj
This is also
pious donkey. ^

another metaphor, in Per- X-i \j-XJ i^vX^^C

sian, for a blockhead, in
whom real stupidity is com-
bined with the external
forms of devotion. That
is, his folly is natural and
real ;
but his piety is merely
imitation and blind zeal,

without discrimination or
^ ^t- ,

judgment in those actions >'**.

which render a man truly ^j^ \jJi^. p .^\lL.AA.\,,jci\
pious and acceptable to
God.
And such persons as these
are to be found in every
nation, and in all religions :

thus, in English, you call

"
them Bigots." OOO C- cJo^ \j$^

'

^^ ' '
ever you please neverthe- '
- V u"\
;
\ <^
^
less, he did not appear to

me deficient in sense ;
for

many of his proofs and ar-

guments were well weighed,

and appeared very plausible.

B.
Are any of them still re-
maining in your recollec-
tion? What was he saying;
and what was he arguing
about ?
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (
r
'^) 219

A- ( \ )

The controversy was on

the topic of Faith and Reli-

gion whether the Moham-

madan or
ligion
the Christian Re-
was the true faith.
^^ C^ A (*^-rj L? 4X^32? C^uLc \>\

I said thus: "As the fol-

lowers of Islam already be-
lieve that Christ was sent

by God, and his religion was

true, this alone is quite suffi-
cient to enable us Christians
to establish the truth of our

religion ;
as there can be no

proof better than the volun-

tary admission of the oppo-
nent himself. Therefore
it is now for the Muslems
to prove the truth of their

religion, and shew that Mo-

hammad was the Apostle of
God, and, by His command,
the abrogator of the religion
of Jesus."

"
He answered : The same
evidences and proofs which
teach us to believe the truth ^.xijtSl^J \jC^ JUi
'
^j:
of the Christian faith that .",' ,/ ,

is, the Kuran and the Tra-

(
s
) In these colloquies, the Persian idiom, or manner of quoting , has been 1

preserved ;
that is, to make a person repeat his own expressions, as well as to

repeat one's own expressions, in the very words in which they were uttered when
spoken. This peculiarity of Oriental phraseology has been already remarked

upon (Note 5.
Dialogue 4.) ; and it has been adhered to in the translation, in many
places, even when not consistent with English phraseology. But, as it happens
that, in this instance, the personification is quite admissible according to English,
it has with propriety been preserved.
 220 (FT.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

'
ditions the same also in- -

** j
struct us in the truth of the

Mohammadan religion."

I said :
" Since we Chris-

tians do not consider Mo-

hammad a true prophet (lit.

true), we cannot believe in

the Kuran and the Tradi-

tions ;
for Mohammad him-
self is the author of them.

Therefore, to prove the truth

of the religion of Islam to

us, other proofs and testi-

monies are necessary."

He answered :" The case ^.. jJO^ /.oi

j
is confined to one or the
O ^f
other (lit.
is not out) of these \^ C\ ,_ j J> .j 5

two positions. Mohammad

O x J
was either true or false. If
^^
we believe him to have been
true, we must believe the
whole of his statements and ;

if otherwise, we must look

upon the entire of his say- ^jMjjy*

ings and doings with doubt,
or even reject them alto-

gether. For it cannot be,

that we should consider only J
a portion to be true, and the
other portion false; so as
to believe implicitly in some . x
(points), and to reject others

as absolute falsehoods. For '. x 00

^^
instance you cannot expect
;

that the Muslems should be-

lieve Mohammad, when he
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 221

O J 9 sT T r
1

says 'Jesus was sent by God, ,^ .

l \ \ ^
and to reckon him a liar
"
* S ' jf-*
' * ' ' J 1 s '
when he again says that he s*. So JOSC./e
^j ^- OO v&
'
himself was also sent by
"
God !

"
I said, in reply, The be-
lief of a person, or even a
nation, in an event, does not A Jo.i iVa!xc.\
..
t ^ * '
- ' >
make ,
it necessar?/ ror others

also to believe in it; and

this/ad alone that the
Muslems believe Moham-
mad to be true in his testi-

mony with regard to the

mission of Jesus is suffi-
cient to warrant Christians
in saying to you (Moham-
madans), We have no need
of any other evidence to
prove the mission of the
Messiah ;
for if the use of

proofs be to establish a
truth, you already believe

and con/ess it.' And since

you consider Mohammad to

be true in this part of his
,

statement, you may also sup-

pose him so in what he may
have stated with regard to
his own mission but it
by : is

no means incumbent upon

us Christians to agree with

you in this belief, as we do

not avail ourselves of what

your Prophet has stated

concerning the mission of

the Messiah ;
and our faith
 222 (PtT) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

in our own religion does

not depend upon the testi-

mony /te bears to the mis-

sion of the Messiah."

"
He said : It is quite in-

cumbent upon Christians, in

their controversies with the
Muslems (especially when
they invite the latter to em-
brace the religion of Jesus),
to prove the mission of the
Messiah, and the truth and

perpetuity of his religion,

by arguments and testimo-
nies distinct from what Mo-
hammad has stated in that

respect. For, suppose that

I have abandoned the faith
T1
, ,-,
of Islam, and become a

Christian, because I consi-

der Mohammad sincere in

his testimony respecting the

mission of the Messiah; yet,

immediately that I become
a Christian, it becomes a
vital principle of my faith

to turn round and consider

Mohammad a liar. Hence,
I am bound to consider Mo-

hammad sincere, in order

<o prow ten to be a liar;

and to become a Christian

through the testimony of a
man in whom Christianity
itself teaches me to disbe-

neve r
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (TIT) 223

B.
Aha! see that the "Akh-
I \
"
fash's goat shakes his head

at logic too !

A.
Akhfash's goat?! What
does this mean ? This ex-

pression is also new to me !

B.
Akhfash is one of the
celebrated grammarians of
Arabia. They say, that at
the beginning of his stu-
dies, whether because he had
a bad delivery, or had not as

yet acquired any knowledge

worthy of being delivered,
or both God knows best!
but, certain it is, that at that
time he could not find a il.*
'j^xx^J c^iXX^J LJJ ->K3
pupil to whom he might
repeat what he was in the
habit of acquiring at public
lectures or by private stu- L$3*+j U=aJ C? jJ L$S
dies, and by this means -> ->,

sharpen his own wits. Now, 1^> j-X_>

u
you must know, that in y^
Eastern Countries, amongst O &-S ,

(*) XjlflJUu! (an Arabic word) is deriving, or seeking, benefit. It may be from
X ^

any thing. But its conventional meaning (which, in this place, the context of

the story also indicates) is, attending public lectures. In like manner <S*Jlla (also
an Arabic word) of itself signifies, looking into, or perusal ; but, contrasted with

public lectures, its conventional meaning is, private study by oneself.

 224 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

the students, the repeating of

what they have learned from
Public Lecturers, either to Oo\ .

each other or to other pupils,

is of much greater import-
ance than the listening to the
Professor alone. And this
Arabic maxim is well known >, -,?->
"
amongst them, viz. The
lecture is equal only *0 "*
, s , ,, ,

Jjo-c cn^=
word, but the repetition is a <
* '
thousand." However, the
&
poor Akhfash was
for a long -

time quite unhappy and dis-

tressed, and at a loss how to oo
o\-J ,* tXC.

supply the want of pupil.

a
^
length, he (literally,
At his

this ex-
thoughts) hit upon
pedient.
He bought a little
kid, and taught it while yet

young ;
until, by degrees,
it became in
quite perfect ._
the part Akhfash expected j CJ \j\
it to perform, which was
,,,,,
this : As soon as Akhfash \j
and placed
opened any book, ^ ^
'
it before himself, the little
3 ,Jyo* . L$sJ)j\J ^^13
"'
instantl bounded
goat also instantly
on the other side of the book,
opposite to Akhfash, and,

bending both its fore-legs,

rested on its knees, and,

fixing both its eyes on the

face of the teacher, waited
with profound attention.
Akhfash would begin lectur-
ing and whenever
;
he came
to the end of a preposition,
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (ffo) 225

^ o

or to a pause, he would look

^SLJ*J\ jOjutMt AV
the goat in the face, and, in

a louder tone of voice, ask,

"Didst thou understand?"

when the goat, in reply as

it were, nodded its head

thrice, as much as to say,

"Yes!"

Since that time, "Buze

Akhfash" has become a nick-
name for those simpletons
who have no more active
, . . ,1. , i .1
brains in their heads than

[had] Akhfash's goat, and,

like the same animal too,

when a conversation is go-

ingr on upon some intellec-
tual subject, of which they
have not the least notion,
shake their heads and beards,
"
as much as to say, We
understand also"

A.
You bear too hard upon

the Rev. Hajee

J Mulla-Zayn-
*

ull-Aubedeen !
-- I fear

there is another cause, which

prompts you to disparage

him. / inow; he has not

much friendship for the

20
 226 (m) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

B.
There may be something
in this, too. But look, my
friend, at my watch! By
the Persian way of reckon-

ing, it is now an hour after

midnight ; and, according

to the English, one o'clock

in the morning! Sleep is

necessary :
so, Good night !

and God bless you !

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (f v 227
)

ALPHABETICAL LIST
OF THE

ENGLISH AND PERSIAN TERMS OF GRAMMAR.

THESE Terms are in common between the Arabian and

the Persian Grammarians, and owe their origin entirely to

the former language.

Ablative. If "by" is prefixed to a Noun in English, the cor-

O ff T f 1 ^

responding term in Persian is

&J^)^*&; and if "from,"

or "with,"" &J>. or &*/c,UxA/,

JjX&o, respectively.
i , ,-> t
6 .
Abridgment, j-^lss
-'-.
j-f1W''*''>
.

Abstract Noun,
1 1-
j~&o
s
.

'

Accent, la\5 To accent, u

*) * *)< O

Accentuation, C-ss^ ^ or \o

Accusative, or
jXi<c,
O Z O p O x '

Accusative Case, Jl.oJAa/ C^JW ; i. e. a Noun in the Accusa-

tive Case.
5

Action,

Active Participle, A^^J *>>i 5 &* Noun, or name of agent.

A Verb in the Active Voice, if it

Active Verb, be a Transitive Verb, is termed

, f 1
oo f o
^rt) .V*3 but if only Active,
Active Voice, j

in contradistinction to Verb Neuter,

Addition, jUL h \*
is termed
j^ ^
228 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

Additional Letters, or
or
Particles, OoV^
*
t

5j^ ,

also

or
Adjective, Oii-p,
''
'? II

Adjunct, (3s"*' or L? ''

O 00 x
or
Adverb, JW, u^v>
\
Adverb of Time, ^^)
1

Adverb of Place, ^j^

O O

Affirmative Particle, <>

or (if to swear
"
%") AJ ^^ *a^ <
Plural, cJUj^ for all.

O
*>^* M
Affirmative Form, *X>^o C^JW ,

Affirmative Verb, C^a

The corresponding term to never used in the
Affix.
ox o
this is
x^
c

Singular Number ;
^i^.W),
or Ol&ai/, both being Plural.
* " >* .x
But they are rendered Singular, by placing ji ,^0 ("one of")
O x Ox O ,

before them thus,

^^.^Jj\ ,XJ
.
;

a Verb), Vc-Vs.
Agent (of
' TO
(of a Participle, &c. &c.) +~i\
Agent
Ox
'

f #

Agreement, OJiii^c, or (JJjy-

'
Allegorical) -. .x-
> iJ^oui, or
J
Allegory

Alphabet (letters of),

Ambiguous, /& or
,x
Annotations, X-^W. Plural,
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (fl) 229

Antecedent,

Antithesis,

Aorist,

Apposition,
? ~
aJ
Article, <

e^*j
*
*^ , or <

^ *

Auxiliary, &J*J^j Auxiliary Verbs,

00 .
O ,

Copulative (Conjunction), u_p\ac-c-9j^..

O x

Case, OJW, or

Causal Verb, jj^

Clause, i^sLs, or

Commentary, jA^U , or

or
Comparative Particle, XJU^UcJ^,
Comparative Degree,

Comparison (Degrees of)

1
OJx_
Composition, <
ajJU. Plural, CjU->J\3, or C->Ui. Plural,

Compound, S-^/ -

Concrete (as opposed to "Abstract"),

Conditional, ^j^'
Conditional Participle,

Conditional Clause,
230 (Cr.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

i i o ,

Conjugation, u^J, or ( To conjugate (a Verb),

a.^-o->.
Ox, O

'

Conjunction, u-ftlxc.
O Ox
i
O x Ox Ox
Connective Particle, &j\ t_5^., or
&isoij
. Plural,
j^\jj
"
Sj^.
or \aJ\*<
> x O 7
.Ox 0^
Consonant (as opposed to Vowel), r>,X'*
i- t> * r**- . Plural
OxxOx *^ '
'
*!> C
-^ '

Consequence, ^^S^.
Ox O x

or
Context, J^> y,

Dative Case, &J^

Dedective, JjVaJ*lj\ .
Dedected, (J .*, or .v

Declension,

Declinable (Noun), *-j\.

c_Jj*Uk*

Defective, j^sJlj.
o o

Defective Verb, jj^sVJ \ju .

Definite, t_9jjyt, or

Definitive Particle,
00 Ox
Definition, (^-SL^JSJ, or

Demonstrative Pronoun,

Derivative, JLx-l*, or J^kV*.

O O Ox ^
O

a->
Descriptive Particle, <

Diminutive, ^
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (fT|)231

Discriminative, j+> -

O O Ox O x OT
f

Disjunctive Particle, &j3 J(__J^, or iJoo \

O xO x ' ^ f

Dual,

Ellipsis, ,*j4-^*> or .jJL- i.e.

any thing understood or supposed.
O x

Elocution, ejW
TO
Emphasis, tXx
O x,
t--jjj
Epithet, .

O x ? Ox

Etymology, C-cJ ^y^; e. the original meaning of a word.

O Ox Ox

Example, ,Jo. Plural, &io-\.

O Ox O

Explanatory Particle,
O x

Expression, * Jw.

Feet (in Prosody), t-x

Feminine, C
"
First Person, *&J*o .
Literally, Speaker.
o xO x o c

Future, AJJJ .

..
1 -

Form ;
Formation ; uJ, or <^V.

Gender, ^j-J^- ( or - Genus)-

1
>
\
Generic Noun, (t jH*^'f^>\ 1

O x

Genitive, wUf The Noun which is in the Genitive Case is

T5^ ff ^ O ?

termed &>S\ u-5\^y ; and that which governs it, u-^L^c .

232 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

Gerund, & p~>- A kind of Verbal Noun ;

which governs

Cases, like a Verb.

OT-; O x ^ Ox
Grammar, j^, or

Idiom,

Idiomatic,
O xx ' / O x - * -/ ^

Idiomatically, O^Wj^\to I
O^\ai*J\^^
all equally meaning idiomatically, or according to idiom.
OOx OO^ O ^O^J^T
Imperative Mood, y^> orj\ c^4, or^&ixo.
O O O ^

Tense, "/ was doing"); or,

Imperfect
OOxjr Cfj^-J
' ' j^fiW
'
(for,

"
Ur*^*3,y0V< (for, I Acre done").

See Defective Verb.

Imperfect Verb.
O - Ox
Infinitive Mood,
TOO
Index,

Indeclinable,

Indefinite,

Indicative Mood, or, simply,

Intransitive Verb,
o o

Plural, or
Interjunction,

Introduction,

Irregular, /^ H^ When a Noun, or a Verb, deviates from the

ordinary Rules of Grammar, it is termed i.e. heard

r^tlfui,
from the natives who have so used it. But if such instances of

deviation are few, or uncommon, the Irregular is then termed

,
i. e. rare.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 233

Masculine Gender, j> o*>

Metaphor, o'l*ll\ ^ ^
f \

Metaphorical *, > Plural O\A*LJ.

'ill** )
=

II
* * t

I
Metaphorically,
00^ oox OT > T?y
Measure, ujj, Plural or (in Poetry) Plural
e;^; j&, j^;
00, -5

Multitude, Noun of,

Oy f

Name, Proper, At (Also Appellation.)

Ox DX

Negation, ^
(
.
Negatived,
?' /"
Negative Particle, ^^ t

^/*-
' ?
. ?
or
Negative Form, (_^ >

Nominative,

Nominative Case,
'* ^

Neuter Gender. The Arabs have but two Genders, Masculine

and Feminine ; to either of which only a Noun may belong,

according to its sez, or other grammatical circumstances.

O o

Neuter Verb, *'

/3 o \

Noun, **J
'

Noun Adjective, C
Noun Derivative, j-L<
O w
Noun Primitive, iXW * >^, or
^
' K ' ""x

O
Noun Substantive (as distinguished from Adjective), iJ!jiS ^.
O , ,

Noun of Time,
^lc^*~)i.
2H
234- (rrP) PEKSIAN GRAMMAR

O x-

Noun of Place, (J&c ,*-~\-

1 x O

Noun of Instrument, LJJ * ' '

Object (as governed),

Object (as intended), Ly

? 1 x x

Objective Case,
Z,

C-OJ^**,* id
W x- X
. A Noun governed by
another, or by a Verb. It may be in the Accusative, Dative, Abla-

tive, or Vocative Case, &c. &c.; for any of which, see under
their respective heads.

Oblique Cases. See Objective Case.

Original (meaning of a word),

*,''*> ? O

Optative Mood, <]&+>

**
Ax9,
x-
or <J,Vo A*3-
s '
O

Optional,
c5 \Alk\.
;
.

Ordinal Number,

Paragraph, C. '

O.

Paraphrase, <^u
OxxxO?
5 ...

Parenthesis, &^ *i<Xto, ~

or (for a whole sentence) &+o->JtA> &XJT .

*) 'I s *> f 9

Particle, *
*r^ Plural, *JU.^.

Participle. See Active, and Passive.

Passive Voice, L A9 '

^j4^'^3
O 9 > * 1

Passive Participle, J^*^ (*>'

Past Tense, (j^^o> or

'Is O ? j

Perfect Tense, (J^5* 1

/5^^
 "
PERSIAN GRAMMAR. C* 1
) 235

Perfect Verb, *$ ^J-^3; Le. a Verb having all the Regular Tenses

and Moods. It is used in contradistinction to an

Imperfect or

Defective Verb.

00 , f

Pluperfect Tense,

Plural, --.
O -39 O
-) OP 1

Potential, { .f^. Potential Mood, w

Predicate (in Logic), ;
(in Grammar), j+L .
^jlj
'.O ,. 00
Poetry, J&J, or JLJ.
O ^ O

Preface, &a.\JO^. (This <erm is purely Persian.)

"* ' 1 * 1 P P
\ -^

Prefix, j-oj cJ^. .

Plural,
^-ijj^

Preposition, j** ^y^ , or obU Plural, 5 .W uJj .*.

Pronoun, ^*xs .
Plural, Jf^e .

O .0

Pronoun, Separate or Personal,

Plural,
-S",
O 5 ? O

Pronoun, Adjunct or Affix,

v ^ a 9 s
Plural,

Pronoun, Relative, vjj*^y- Plural, ^

Ox

Pronoun, Demonstrative, 8J&\+d. Plural,

?
V" -

Pronoun, Reciprocal, (^x&.*. Plural,

\
- i

Pronoun, Interrogative, *\4ftx->\ >V. Plural,

I ' 'L '
'

Pronoun, Possessive, s
. O x ^

Pronunciation, iai\3, or
236 (1*1*1) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

O O x

Prose (as distinguished from Poetry), Jj .

1' Q '

Proposition (in Grammar) &XJr :

(in Logic or Mathematics)
i rt f *

Prosody, u^/ 1 -

OO^Ox O

Qualified Noun, cJj-s^o ,*-j\,

Quality (or the power of any one Part of Speech grammatically),

" ~

\, or t^x^U^.
, 'o 1 x ' '

or ^Vo-o- Plural, or
Quantity, ^jjj, u^jS
o '?' > * x '

Quiescent, tjf^> ******> or

5 ?

Quadriliteral, ^Vj- c
. O

Quadriliteral Noun, ^ V;
'

oc*
Quadriliteral Verb, ^

Reflective Verb,

Regular, (j^S^*

Relation (as between Parts of Speech), O.x ....* >

or

Relative (as subjoined to Antecedent),

>>.

Rhyme or Rhythm, S^JvS, or

Root,

x, OxO 9

Sentence, * 8S, d?r ,

or
T x T

or
Sequel, oaI3, -

Simple,
 ~v
PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (
ri
) 237

x O ? O

Simple Noun, $Jl*p~i\, or

1,1? x x O ? Ox
Simple Adjective, -3j& UUa-o , or
.iyLoU-tt*3j,
&c. &c.

Plural, SZji* ctf, &5.$i<^*>j, or

Ox O f o J O x O

or t^jJD JU opposed to
Simple Verb, ^jlia^^JAi, JjtS , (as

Subjunctive).
V ' *

Simple Peterite, (3^^ >

(_5^
1

0x0 f

Singular (Number), tX^.i, or X&<, or O^UXjLu^, &c. &c.

O x^ O ^ O x^-- }

Speech (the Parts of), Plural, *1

*j,j,^.. >\y*>\.
00 y Ox .
J^
Speech (the Faculty or Power of), JjiaJ,
or JusU 2j$
\ \

Speech (an Oration), &jaai. , or ijuai

X
O x

Style (of Writing), Title (Appellation), (.

C^Ut-
O S x f

Subject (of a Predicate), ,oJle .

i
O 7 O x

Subject (of a Discourse), ^ ->.-A-c ,

OO^Ox
or '_
O Tax? O

Subjunctive Verb, or Mood, i^j-L* Vati , or OoJU Jjt3 , if

O O 9 O x O
the Verb be Conditional; if and
,^^0^1*3, Suppositive ;

O <> O O

, if Doubtful.

Superlative Degree, or
JJwxso J.x^i5 aoJ^c, ,

Plural, u-Je, &C. &c.

'

Supplement, J^J ^
Plural, ^J^. U
\

,
or Ouiai*
\ '\
;
also
X
O O* T x

Suppositive, ^^0^-
O 1x F 1

Syntax, j^:, or Vx>^j

O )

Term, r MU9' Plural,

238 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

O ^ ^ x O D s
f

Terms of Grammar, s^3

Terms of Logic, aoJas-x* oW^asus \

* * x s

Terms of Mathematics, &J-0Vj.

J, ,
, ,
'' \M\ ' x
^
Terms of Philosophy, J*ifl**I<>Wj*y^, or C1-*X^. Of

Philosophers, *V^X^. oWilk-o\, or

^ ' S
OxO?O^
Terms Technical (in general ), &*O

Text (as opposed to Commentary), (.>**

Title (of a book), i_Aji .

Proper Name,
^*\
a ' .
Appellation, *,._.,* Plural,
5 TxT ^

Title-page, --Jj~j, or
* :
.-\
or
Triliteral, (Jj,
o
Triliteral Verb, Noun,
^ysSjJ^ Jjti.
Root, ^js2P,ijL> \&*&c.

Typical (Emblematical), Cj^"&, J\-tJ,

Typography (Printing), Xfulj, V'H"' /t ^5 '

Q
1\ ''i 'i^v "
\"C
Vacation (Holidays), \_xAsuo ,
or V-xlsjtJ *u\
**
3 , 1 '

Vague, *4J-.
'
O O x O *

Variable (Declinable), i

Variation (of Cases),

Verb,

Verbal Noun (the Infinitive),

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (fTl) 239

Verbatim, iu2b\aA).
TO' o x

Verse, j*-^> or JfaJ

Version (Translation), &r

M or
Vocabulary (Dictionary), 'J!+J ,

Vocative (a Noun in Vocative Case),

Vocative Particle, ^oo

* ^^
f*
-

Voice. See Active and Passive.

00 O
Volume (a Book), tX^s*.
O
s
O
,
or ^^
T -3

Vowel (Points), or O\J\ .

v^j-^'
*3 -* O w ^

Vulgar (People), Jljfr, or 4^ui\^

T ' T x

Vulgar (Diction), *^ )
\lflS', or ^

Unambiguous, *^>-ej or

^ ^.
Unaspirated (A, or &), &.Q.\Q^. *VA, or o>i LJ *V* ; ?'. e. the quies-
x
cent .

Unchangeable. -See Indeclinable.

Uncommon (rarely used), ji\3, or iVt.

0<>0x
Unconnected (not coherent), as applied to Composition, IsOyeU,
"
(which also means, Nonsense.")

Unity (between the Parts of Speech, or in composition),

,,
or ru..
^ O >' O ^ -0 f

United (Grammatically), A*flj*, or ^j^>. (See Pronoun.)

Utterance, la&U.

J Ox

Word, laid, or
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

APPENDIX

ON THE USE OF THE ARABIC WORDS

THE Persian of the present day being so much mixed with

Arabic words, I think it almost indispensable for a student
of the former language to acquire some slight knowledge of
the rudiments of the latter.

Independently of quotations, and whole Arabic phrases,

with which the Persian writings abound, there is
scarcely a
Persian line, or sentence, which does not contain some

words, either purely Arabic, or of Arabian origin. Not-

withstanding this great influx of foreign words, the genius of

the Persian language remains unchanged. The aliens, how-
ever, are all subjected to the same laws, and are governed

by the same rules of Grammar., as if they were purely

native words. They may be considered as so many abstract

words, denoting certain, but indefinite, meanings : if

they
are used as Nouns, they are declined, in all respects, the same
as the Persian Nouns ;
and if as Verbs, they must be con-
jugated in the same manner. In the instances of the former

kind, the Arabic words admit of the same grammatical > "7 ^
Particles being affixed or prefixed to them, with which the

Persian Nouns are uniformly declined and in those of the

;
t

latter,they are simply prefixed (without any alteration) to all

the Persons, in both Numbers, throughout the Tenses and
Moods of one of the Auxiliary Persian Verbs, both in the

Active and the Passive Voices.*

* See the Persian Verbs, p. 85.

Compound
21
242 (fPr) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

The Arabic words, thus used by the Persians, do chiefly

belong to some one or other of the following original

classes.

THE MOST COMMON FORMS OF THE MASDAR t

VERBAL NOUNS OF TRILITERAL RADICAL VERBS,

SIGNIFICATION. EXAMPLES. MEASURES.

o o ^
 6
PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (PI !*) 243

SIGNIFICATION. EXAMPLES. MEASURES.

Asking, Jl^^"*
244 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

SIGNIFICATION. EXAMPLES.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. C* 1
^) 245

SIGNIFICATION. EXAMPLES. MEASURES.

O p ^ "
o i ^ '

JjtJ 3 '

Learning by degrees, .V*-^

Pretending ignorance, i!-*^ \\&3 4.

Oxx 9
2" .
'

War, or Reciprocal slaughter, <id5uLe <Sdi\i- 5.

o o o o
6.
Avoiding, c-Ajo^.' J\JtxJ\
O
i ?
' o.oo
V.
Asking assistance, jUAXWi JytaiL^i

Being broken, or fatigued, ASol v j\xftj\

8.

O u, O O

Travelling with haste, ii Aa>.i

,J\xS\
9-
* * * s
O O O O T T

Wearing a rough garment, 1-

^\JL-.JL~w\
(
JV*jot3\

Excessive redness,

Excessive blackness, Afubii ,\^L>ot5\

O xxO x o^x O ^

Causing to put on a sheet, JUOiXa.

* *

Deputing,
*>,'*>

Causing to put on foot-socks, x> ^. jj^ ^ 15.

> ' ;
' o.,o,
Causing to put on a hat, &^jjji &ijjsj

Pruning,

Causing to put on drawers, &J..-J &Jx3

Causing to put on a cap,

Putting on a sheet,
"*
Putting on a garment without 1 f- ">'.<.
: \
2L
sleeves, >** >**>
246 (fr*1) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

SIGNIFICATION. EXAMPLES. MEASURES.

Putting on stockings, i^_>j

*s \- Jo 22.

Putting on a hat, ,
jjjjjij \jjti3 23.

Being pruned, t
_o ^ *; \jujjj 24

Putting on drawers, V "j V^AJ 2 5.

o o o

Going backwards, /..A ...'vii\ \jljjcS \ 26.

0-^, O O TU__ o O
4
Reposing on the back, *\JLSJuj\ ^)sJJt3\ 27.

VERBAL NOUNS OF RADICAL AND INCREASED QUADRILITERAL

OO
VERBS, tXV

Exciting,

2
Putting on a vest,
'

iJ^J^ iJ^*^
TOO
Assembly, /<

4
Shrinking from
-
fear, j\yt-!L9\ ,J^*i\

Forms and Examples of Attributives, or Participle Actives,

as derived from the Infinitives of Triliteral Radical Verbs,

in order to denote Excess ; and are termed ^Lu. *UJ, i. e.

1,9')
Nouns of Excess. (The Singular ^Ixo^l, Noun of Excess.)
Ox Ox
1-
Extremely cautious, ><Jc^ i\**

** 2
Extremely knowing or learned, iV^**
'

A great striker, L_Jw<3 ,]**9

3 -
 PEBSIAN GRAMMAR. (nV) 247

SIGNIFICATION. EXAMPLES.

00 9

A great discriminator,
4.

O u> 9 O w *

A great cutter, pusJ vj\*9 S-

A great speaker, (jr*-** (j*^6 6 -

00 ?
A great warrior, <__Mj3C? JVA&O 7.

O O O O O

A great deceiver, J4Xs28 V-Xxa^j 8.

A great drinker, C.-O ^ \$** 9 -

w x x
.

A great changer, *_S\--o ij^*

10 '

A great laugher, sS^? i*3 1 1-

o a ; a '
A great alterer, or changer, v _A'i \jt3 12.

Extremely fearful, u-oofc VxJ 13.

o o i

Extremely silent, i^^vC^ \JOLJ 14-

A great fomenter of distur- "

A
'

L^'*~ J "\
uT*^
15-
bance,

Extremely impatient, 16
p' }^ L)^* '

O O O O

A great eater, \y\t -^ Jux3 17.

O O x O O x

Extremely timorous, (jW-* (o*** 18 -

A great talker, J Jjj ftlxfiJ 19.

f -f

OO*"5 X OO^Ox
A great sleeper, $*$ .
J*&J 20.

It is proper to remark, that of the Twenty Measures which

have been noticed and exemplified here, there are only three
248 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

or four which can be considered as of frequent occurrence,

either in the Persian or Arabic language : and of these,

tx 00<V >> ,
in a peculiar degree, the measures JU, Jy<i,
and Jo*s are

worthy to be impressed upon the memory with care.

In addition to the examples offered in the Table, the fol-

lowing may also be remembered, as mostly occurring in the

Persian language :

'
-u
Very wise, or omniscient

(* (an attribute of the

Deity).

Z"fl A great Creator (also an

t-5 attribute of the Deity).
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ( ^ ) 249

SIGNIFICATION.

Sacrificed, or having \\ \i
the throat cut, \_ , ***

Seized, or possessed, c*^* L/*'

T O

C'^ 5
Concealed, ^*
1 ^
( J- x
-

Broken, *Uoa. , J\*3 6.

Cut, or filed, JUsVjJJ

&)lx5 7.

Drunk at a single
draught,

In addition to the above forms, it

may be observed, also,

that the following Participle Passives are of most frequent

occurrence, as Attributives, in the Persian language.

to
,
synonymous \yJ^L^> , celebrated.
o T 9 rt ^

, for c-Jitxasy, beloved.

for ,*ctXc, blamed, or reproached.

> for 3Ja<e , banished, or expelled.

>/,,
> for , stoned to death, or detested (an appellation of
+j^.j/c
the devil).
-> -3 X

for stain.
">"> <">
-> ^

> for _v>4Xcj sacrificed.

> for .U-xiL*, accepted.

'
a messenger, or prophet, but literally serif, which invariably

supplies the place of the Regular Participle,

2K
250 (TO.) PEBSIAN GRAMMAR.

Forms and Examples of ATTRIBUTIVES, or DERIVATIVE

NOUNS, as flowing from the Infinitives of Triliteral Radical
Verbs, which are in themselves uniformly Neuter and Intran-
sitive, or occasionally admit of a Neuter and Intransitive
1 s Zs ?

and are termed, <LfxL cudic Collectively, or

Acceptation ;

<i(ji.<i e^g*o Singly ; i.e. Adjectives resembling, or having

the same import as Participles.

SIGNIFICATION. EXAMPLES. MEASURES.

Generous, or noble, (*> (3"^*"*

119 s 119s
Jealous, or high-minded, J>)^ v3?*"*
Isl s 1,1s
Of deep-red colour, 3 '

_^*"~ v3**

4
Resplendent, or shining, U*^ '

(J}\J^

Chief (a term applied to the descen- oJLLj VxxJ 5.

dants of the Prophet Mohammad), ^S
? '
' ' ll *~^'
Virtuous, good, or beautiful,

-J ^"
Joyful, or glad,

Thirsty, or dry, u V-Lto* a ^*3

Iff 1 ! 9

Polluted, or impure, S-* *^ 1

(3*^

Yellow, or bile,
*^*3 10.
^\jL>a

tj^ ^
3
Thirsty (feminine), S^*
'

1 s f Is?
A shepherd cruel to his flock, /*" % 3
i,/*

Aged, or great, j^ (,/*^*

13 .

of > <

Brave, or enterprising, ^^ L)^^

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. ( f I
) 25 I

SIGNIFICATION. EXAMPLES. MEASURES.

5 O ^ O x

Difficult, or arduous, i^^.*^ Wj 1 5.

Empty, or cipher, 0^? \x9 16.

"i O ? -3 o ^

Hard, or solid, t *L<3 Vjts 17.

5 ' x o r ,

Intelligent, or sagacious, i)~&J V*3 18.

Cowardly, or timorous, rj^ 1^ ]^*^ ^ -

Noble, chief, or aged, \jS ]^*J

^^ >-

Pregnant (applied to rational beings

' "* ' *"
only),

Naked, or stripped, ^\j ^, /..^ixS 22.

Starting (generally, an ass) at one's /c/vj-I

own shadow,

A white-haired camel, CJ^^ J*** 24.

1 ^ x *) s s

Living (an animal), ^Vx^ ^11x3 25.

Ox- O ^ O x T s

Mean or contemptible, JLx^. V*Jw3 26.

Ingenious, or clever, P"^T L/^'*

^^'

Ox T ^

Eloquent, A> J^S 28.

A pregnant camel, in the tenth A-Lfi. -^i*J 29.

month of gestation,

Fat, stout, or bulky, JV J*3 30 -

The Student will observe, that although the above thirty

measures are of frequent and promiscuous occurrence in
Arabic, yet all of them are not commonly met with in the
252 (POT) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

Persian language. Those &+&<, ^JLc which are of most

frequent occurrence in the Arabic language,

and are chiefly
used by the Persians, are the following measures viz. ;

o O OO- OO^x O -
p Ox O .<*** iri ?s O xOx

' and <-^' ; as '

Good, or beautiful. Fearful, or cowardly.

Rough, coarse, or
Noble, or honourable. harsh.

Hard, or difficult. Impure, or polluted.

Jealous, or high-
Unjust, or tyrannical. minded.
rr Foolish, idiotic, or
Heroic, or brave. '' ^' simpleton.

O O O ^ O

NOUN OF SUPERIORITY, A^JAJ -J\.

K -"

The measures of this Noun, in Arabic, is, for the mascu-

^xOx xO* 1
OxO x O^Ox
line, J*sl ;
and for the feminine, J*j ; as, ^1 , or Jacl , both
^T? '
- OP
" "
meaning greater," or greatest" ;
and ^jf , or _s
(
*&c. , the
same.

In Arabic, this Noun supplies the place of the Compara-

tive, and Superlative, in other languages. Although the
Persians have a proper Comparative and
Superlative in their
own language, yet they not unfrequently employ the Arabic
forms also.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAB. ( r O 253

O x*- *- Ox
NOUNS OF INSTRUMENT, +~>\, or

These Nouns have three Measures, J*^, &*JU>, and

x x

; as,

A milk-pail, or the instrument of milking.

A broom, or the instrument of sweeping.

o o

But the measure Jl*i is of the most frequent occurrence,

and is very extensively used in Persian ; as,

A key, or the instrument of opening.

A scale, or the instrument of weighing.

A measure of capacity, or the instrument of measuring.

Scissars, or the instrument of cutting.

\JLlk<e A saw, or the instrument of dividing.

\j*vc A lamp, or the instrument of giving light.

o o

.uotro A standard, or the instrument of proving money.

o

A bird's beak, or the instrument of pecking.

&c. &c. &c.

NOUNS OF TIME AND PLACE, *~>\ , or

(jj^-ej jyW
1 ,t , T T^
These have two Measures, JJM*> and <J*<u ;
both of which

are of frequent occurrence in the Persian language as, ;

" " "

Jiiu the time and place of slaughter &c.y
the time ;
254 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

and place of promise," &c. &c. Although these Nouns in

Arabic often imply both time and place, yet, when used in

Persian, the place alone is intended by them ; as,

" '
A mosque, or the place of j /\ A habitation, or thep/ace
'-^" of dwelling.
worship. |

A station, or the place of A school, library, or the

resting. place of keeping books.

The Easfj or the places A ford, or the place of

\wherethesun crossing a river.

The West) rises and sets.

&c. &c. &c.

There are a number of Nouns in Arabic, which, although

destitute of a Feminine sense or termination, are applied as

of the Feminine Gender, and therefore denominated, in

li, , v's?

Arabic Grammar, <cxU, cuLw^o, or IRREGULAR FEMININES.

Many of them are of frequent occurrence in Persian ; but

there they are merely treated as Substantives, without any

regardto their Gender. The following are some of them :

SIGNIFICATION. SIGNIFICATION.

:, or foun-
The hand,
tain,

The arm, 8. The neck,

A cubit, or half
9
the arm, 6? -

The palm of the

hand,

A finger,

The liver,
PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (" 60 ) 2^5
256 (f 61) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (fF-ftV) 257

there are various descriptions and forms. It has first, by

oo x o
the Grammarians, been resolved into #=* , or JL,
x
and t i

Oi x f

j^Lo ;
terms which literally signify whole or perfect, and

broken or imperfect : but the former may with equal propriety

be termed regular, and the latter irregular.

Of the first, or Regular Plurals, we have no occasion to

treat at large, as they scarcely ever occur in Persian; with

the exception of a few in the Feminine forms, which are

invariably to be recognised by the termination or Feminine

O _ O xx

sign of Plural, cjl ; as, ej]^- dangers, the Plural of

"> Ox O !

J- ;
cyUi'jj events,
the Plural of <x*i>!j ; ejU-$~c important
m ? O 0?0x
affairs, the Plural of *^ ;
cubyLo letters, or epistolary writ-
O OP Ox

zwg-s, the Plural of c_>yiCe; &c. &c.

It is chiefly of the second, or the Irregular Plurals, that

I here propose to offer a number of Examples frequently

occurring in the Persian language. The Irregular, or

Broken Plurals, ^ILo j-*?-,

have again been divided into two
distinct species, corresponding, in their technical appellation,

to the peculiar uses forwhich they were originally invented,

and to which they are still for the most part, although by no
means (especially in Persian) uniformly, applied. The first

of these species has been pronounced applicable to limited

and small numbers ;

i. e.
extending from three inclusive to
Ow O f O x

ten, and therefore denominated iJLLj)

^c>-,
or Plural of

Paucity and the second, as extending in its application to

;

all numbers beyond ten without limit, has received the ap-
OxOx O ' 1 x

pellation isy&l j-*a- ,

or Plural of Multitude ; a subdivision

of which has again been termed -^Juu, or e^=r'

e^==' t^" '

i, e. the extreme, or the Plural of Plurals. The first of these

species, or the Plural of Paucity, comprehends only four

2 L
258 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

O?Ox O Ox Ox O>
measures ; namely, Jwl , JU*I ,
iUil ,
and &* : but each of

these is the common measure for the Plurals of a number of

Nouns which themselves are of different measures when in

the Singular Number.

1. Nouns which form their Plurals of Paucity

PLURAL. SIGNIFICATION. SINGULAR. MEASURES.

O ? Ox OOx O Ox
SL>\ The soul,
1
A cubit, 2.

^ ^ An oath, 3 '

A foot, 4.

A female kid, 5 -

O-* 1

A cow's hoof,
Jlxi
6.
Ifc*-'

2. Nouns which form their Plurals of Paucity

O Ox ">
Ox
f A tablet, \jt 1.

1 1 f
s
^
O,'
0,
An order,
J*3
.

** **
O O

Possession, 3.
J*3
Brave,

The heel, -^,^,'0 g. ^'

X
iy*^
X
^ x O ^ x
The arm, Ou^t V^3 6.

The neck, , iic \jti 7.

 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. 259

3. Nouns which form their Plurals of Paucity

P PLURAL. SIGNIFICATION. SINGULAR. MEASURES.

5 Food, JUi
s

An ass,

A\ A A
\ >
\ e
raven,
ry
x

A loaf of bread,
5
A pillar, -; 5

4. Nouns which form their Plurals of Paucity

~'i
A boy, or slave,

A young deer,

A friend,

A bull,

A son,

OxT x ? Ox
The Plural of Multitude,
S/Sllj^, comprises nineteen
Measures ; according to each of which, several Nouns, dif-

fering also, in most instances, in their Measures of Singular,

form their common Plurals. It is to be observed, however,
that the particular Measures assigned to various Nouns under
the respective heads of the several Plurals do by no means
restrict the Plurals of those Nouns to those particular Mea-

sures only ; for it often happens, that a Noun has a Plural

of Paucity as well as a Plural of Multitude. For instance,
il "a boy"; JuUj "a loaf"; Jl' "the soul," given
260 (n.) PERSIAN GRAMMAR..

in the above Tables, formed their Plurals of Paucity, as

O ^O O,, *V O *Ox
and ^^w', respectively; while each of those
JUic, 5ae,l,
x
O O
Norms has at the same time a Plural of Multitude, ^LJc,
O O? OO^
^tfli, , and i^~yiJ , also respectively. It will be sufficient for

our purpose, therefore, to remember that this is the Mea-

sure of the Plural of Paucity, and that, that of the Plural of

Multitude ;
while a Noun may form its Plural according to

any one or both of them having any one or both forms ; or,

of these Plurals, may at the same time have likewise a

7? /.?*>*
Plural of Plurals, <&*=?' j-*- , hereafter explained.

1. Nouns which form their Plurals of Multitude

PLURAL. SIGNIFICATION. SINGULAR. MEASURES.

00 /
A bright-eyed
damsel,

Red colour, 2.

A lion,
J*3 3.

A she-camel, 4.

A fool,

2. Nouns which form their Plurals of Multitude

3' r >
>.>,
A book,

A prophet, or

messenger,

An admonisher,

A wheel, or The
sky,
O f f

(^)&~~>
A ship,
ftJOOLu
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (HI) 261

3. Nouns which form their Plurals of Multitude

PLURAL. SIGNIFICATION. SINGULAR. MEASURES
O __
^ ,, f A portion of any _,.,,
thing,}
s and also a chapter /
\^> '
of the Koran,

The last,

A village,

The beard, 4.

k Nouns which form their Plurals

of Multitude
'
5' r 1 2'.^
*& A tense, or person, \.T.V,J "1

-!
<%
^*J A benefit,

O x

JJt3' ^j.s? Trouble,

|
x
I '

w_5 .^- Trade, or occupation,

Ox
L -^ Deceit,

5. Nouns which form their Plurals

of Multitude
,
\'_
A student, or searcher
after any thing,

<
A Lord, or a descen- 2.
Ox X .

dant of Mohammad, Jii

O Ox
Virtuous, J 3.
J*3

I Vicious,

0. Nouns which form their Plurals

of Multitude
5" A judge,

Brave,
262 (Mf) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

7. Nouns which form their Plurals of Multitude

P
.^
-
PLUIUL.
_
SIGNIFICATION.
_
SINGULAR.
_
MEASURES.
g

3 K 3' *
A monkey,

% A rider,

"

L
Ear-ring,

8. Nouns which form their Plurals of Multitude

M> Q ,- f

Perfect,

OOx
Weak, or Infirm,
JjtS

Incessant rain, 3 -

'?'
Unarmed,
JxJ\
9. Nouns which form their Plurals
of Multitude
5'
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (MO 263

1 0. Nouns which form their Plurals of Multitude

SIGNIFICATION.

Measure
264 (Ml*) PEBSIAN GRAMMAR.

1 1. Nouns which form their Plurals of Multitude

PLURAL. SIGNIFICATION. SINGULAR. MEASURES.

11 11
Os^ f
&
03
Science,
e
a
The heart,

A turret, or Sign 3.
of the Zodiac,

A male, 4.

A stone, 5.

A sleeper, 6.

A king, 7.

1 2. Nouns which form their Plurals of Multitude

'
''u Black, or an
1.

Ethiopian,

A loaf of bread, 2.

'
\
\ A Christian de-
U'J votee,
3.

13. Nouns which form their Plurals of Multitude

1 t

A boy, or slave, * JVsti

1.

S
>.

s . Fresh dates, 2.

3
/..- A guest,
3.

4.
Light,

An infant,

M
... J)
'jft
A fawn,
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (no) 265

1 4-. Nouns which form their Plurals of Multitude

PLOBAL. SIGNIFICATION. SINGULAR.

00 x

Slain,
266 (Ml) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

1 7. Nouns which form their Plurals of Multitude

PLURAL. SIGNIFICATION. MEASURES.

Rich,

A prophet,
x
_ Ox
j*>\ A legatee,
* Ox
2UU A friend (of God),
Acute, 1.

Wicked,

Pious,

OO
A faithful friend,
&o o
\ A beloved friend,
1 8, Nouns which form their Plurals
of Multitude
^ ' x x
i
i_i. f
^UJ
\
Decision of law, J$'^!xj /li*3 1-
b)
S^ .'..' A bone behind

A woman's name, (I^Oot-j jl*J

'
3.

A virgin, ^tXt ?^ix3 4.

Drunk, ^jds IM^*^ 5-

TT x OQ^
Orphan, ^jjj ,V^*3 6.
' O
i
\ .\
A widower ;
also
X

"
I-
4^ a widow,

1 9. Nouns which form their Plurals

of Multitude

Is- Drunk,
I
An unit; also an attri-
bute of the Deity, _j^
~ Ancient ;
also an attri-
bute of the Deity, 3 -
 PERSIAN GRAMMAR. (P1 V ) 267

OF THE PLURAL OF PLURALS,

THE EXTREME BOUNDARY OF PLURALS,

Of the origin and signification of this term, it will be suffi-

cient for our present purpose to state, that the Arabs often

form Plurals from Nouns already in the Plural Number ; as,

199 0~-x
0x0
iJua
,

"
"a ship": First Plural, ^ ; Second Plural, ^la-.

Ifj
& pillar": First Plural, jf; Second Plural, J,\);

Third Plural, ^\) . &c. &c.

The last of these, then, from which it is not allowable to

form another Plural, goes by the above names. But the
student is not to imagine that every Plural of this kind, that
he meets with, is
absolutely formed from another Plural ; for

there are many Arabic Nouns, the Plurals of which are con-
fined to the above form only, and, in reality, have no other
Plurals.

This class of Plurals comprises Seventeen Measures,

according to the following table.
SIGNIFICATION. SINGULAR. PLURAL. MEASURES.

A claim, 4^,7 S^?^ L3

L
i > ^

-^
,-
Mankind, ^--^ 3 2>
tj *

, ^

A book, letter, &c. &c. JV-j .

.J^^-Jj i)^^Jt'
3 '

Ox
Precious stone, &c. &c.

il^c''
t 5 '
Regulation, CL^^* "!Py'

Greater,
J^^^' J$ ^^ 6 "

Climate, jjj^ !j\ji lfi-Vi^ 7.

268 (MA) PERSIAN GRAMMAR.

SIGNIFICATION.

Object,

A lamp,
9.

10.
Experience,

A picture, 11.

12.
Eloquence,

A sovereign,
13.

A register, 14.

15.
Paper,

A Kushmeerian, 16.

An Afghan,
17.

[N.B. The Arabic words, with the Forms and Measures

in which they appear under the various heads in this

Appendix, have been chiefly taken from Baillie's Arabic

Tables the most useful and correct compilation of the kind

ever offered to Arabic Students in the English language.

In the selection of them, however, I have felt it necessary
to introduce some further explanations and to make such ;

alterations in the arrangement and disposition of them as

seemed to me
proper and desirable.
I only wish it had been more in accordance with the

nature and the plan of this work to have availed myself

more copiously of the use of this most valuable auxiliary.]

PIIIXTED BY RICHAKD WATTS, CROWN COURT, TEMPI.!. BAR.

&^*o
PK Ibrahim, Muhammad
6329 A grammar of the Persian
127 language

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