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Electric battery
A battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external
Battery
connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones,
and electric cars.[1] When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is
the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode.[2] The terminal marked negative is
the source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive
terminal. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction
converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-energy
difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy.[3] Historically the
term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however
the usage has evolved to include devices composed of a single cell.[4]

Various cells and batteries (top-left to

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the
bottom-right): two AA, one D, one
electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are
handheld ham radio battery, two 9-volt
the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices.
(PP3), two AAA, one C, one camcorder
Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times
battery, one cordless phone battery
using an applied electric current; the original composition of the electrodes can be
restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles Type Power source
and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and mobile Working Electrochemical reactions,
phones. principle Electromotive force

Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing First 1800s
aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid production
batteries or lithium-ion batteries in vehicles, and at the largest extreme, huge battery Electronic symbol
banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency power for telephone
exchanges and computer data centers.

According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48

billion in sales each year,[5] with 6% annual growth.

Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels
such as gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of
electric motors in converting chemical energy to mechanical work, compared to
combustion engines. The symbol for a battery in a circuit
diagram. It originated as a schematic
drawing of the earliest type of battery, a

Contents voltaic pile.

History
Principle of operation
Categories and types of batteries
Primary
Secondary
Cell types
Cell performance
Capacity and discharge
C rate
Fast-charging, large and light batteries
Lifetime
Self-discharge
Corrosion
Physical component changes
Charge/discharge speed

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Overcharging
Memory effect
Environmental conditions
Storage
Battery sizes
Hazards
Explosion
Leakage
Toxic materials
Ingestion
Chemistry
Primary batteries and their characteristics
Secondary (rechargeable) batteries and their characteristics
Solid state batteries
Homemade cells
See also
References
Further reading
External links

History
The usage of "battery" to describe a group of electrical devices dates to
Benjamin Franklin, who in 1748 described multiple Leyden jars by analogy to
a battery of cannon[6] (Benjamin Franklin borrowed the term "battery" from
the military, which refers to weapons functioning together[7]).

Italian physicist Alessandro Volta built and described the first

electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile, in 1800.[8] This was a stack of
copper and zinc plates, separated by brine-soaked paper disks, that could
produce a steady current for a considerable length of time. Volta did not
understand that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that
his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy,[9] and that the associated A voltaic pile, Italian physicist Alessandro
corrosion effects at the electrodes were a mere nuisance, rather than an the first Volta demonstrating his pile to
unavoidable consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in battery French emperor Napoleon
1834.[10] Bonaparte

Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in

practice their voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period. The Daniell cell, invented in 1836
by British chemist John Frederic Daniell, was the first practical source of electricity, becoming an industry standard and seeing
widespread adoption as a power source for electrical telegraph networks.[11] It consisted of a copper pot filled with a copper sulfate
solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode.[12]

These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly. Many used glass jars to
hold their components, which made them fragile and potentially dangerous. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for
portable appliances. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte
with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical.[13]

Principle of operation
Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the electrical energy released is the difference in the
cohesive [14] or bond energies of the metals, oxides, or molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction.[3] For instance, energy
can be stored in Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-electron bonding, unlike transition
metals. Batteries are designed such that the energetically favorable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move through the
external part of the circuit.

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A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-cells
connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing metal cations. One half-cell
includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively
charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode,
to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Cations are reduced (electrons are
added) at the cathode, while metal atoms are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the
anode.[15] Some cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell; then a separator is used
to prevent mixing of the electrolytes while allowing ions to flow between half-cells to
complete the electrical circuit.
A voltaic cell for demonstration
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (emf, measured in volts) relative to a standard. purposes. In this example the two
half-cells are linked by a salt bridge
The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells.[16] Thus, if the
that permits the transfer of ions.
electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf
is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.[17]

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in
volts.[18] The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of
the cell. Because of internal resistance,[19] the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-
circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage.[20] An ideal cell has negligible
internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell
maintained 1.5 volts and produce a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would have performed 1.5 joules of
work.[18] In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge[19] and the open-circuit voltage also decreases under
discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve
varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.

The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and
electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and
NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts.[21] The high electrochemical potential changes in
the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more.[22]

Categories and types of batteries

Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:

Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then discarded. Their chemical reactions are generally not
reversible, so they cannot be recharged. When the supply of reactants in the battery is exhausted, the battery stops producing
current and is useless.[23]
Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical reactions reversed by applying electric current to
the cell. This regenerates the original chemical reactants, so they can be used, recharged, and used again multiple times.[24]
Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored to operation by replacing the electrodes.[25]
Secondary batteries are not indefinitely rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal
corrosion.

Primary
Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on assembly. These are most commonly used in portable
devices that have low current drain, are used only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in
alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be
reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms.
Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary cells.[26] In general, these have higher energy densities
than rechargeable batteries,[27] but disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under 75 ohms (75
Ω). Common types of disposable batteries include zinc–carbon batteries and alkaline batteries.

Secondary
Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries, must be charged before first use; they are usually
assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which
reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers.
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The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely used in
automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid electrolyte in an unsealed
container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe
dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging. The lead–acid battery is relatively
heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Its low manufacturing cost and its high
surge current levels make it common where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more
important than weight and handling issues. A common application is the modern car battery,
which can, in general, deliver a peak current of 450 amperes.

The sealed valve regulated lead–acid battery (VRLA battery) is popular in the automotive industry
as a replacement for the lead–acid wet cell. The VRLA battery uses an immobilized sulfuric acid
electrolyte, reducing the chance of leakage and extending shelf life.[28] VRLA batteries immobilize
the electrolyte. The two types are:

Gel batteries (or "gel cell") use a semi-solid electrolyte.

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries absorb the electrolyte in a special fiberglass matting.
Other portable rechargeable batteries include several sealed "dry cell" types, that are useful in
applications such as mobile phones and laptop computers. Cells of this type (in order of
increasing power density and cost) include nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–zinc (NiZn), nickel
metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells. Li-ion has by far the highest share of the
dry cell rechargeable market. NiMH has replaced NiCd in most applications due to its higher
capacity, but NiCd remains in use in power tools, two-way radios, and medical equipment.

In the 2000s, developments include batteries with embedded electronics such as USBCELL,
which allows charging an AA battery through a USB connector,[29] nanoball batteries that allow
for a discharge rate about 100x greater than current batteries, and smart battery packs with state-
of-charge monitors and battery protection circuits that prevent damage on over-discharge. Low
self-discharge (LSD) allows secondary cells to be charged prior to shipping.

Cell types
Many types of electrochemical cells have been produced, with varying chemical processes and
designs, including galvanic cells, electrolytic cells, fuel cells, flow cells and voltaic piles.[30]

From top to bottom: a large

Wet cell 4.5-volt (3R12) battery, a D
Cell, a C cell, an AA cell, an
A wet cell battery has a liquid electrolyte. Other names are flooded cell, since the liquid covers all
AAA cell, an AAAA cell, an
internal parts, or vented cell, since gases produced during operation can escape to the air. Wet A23 battery, a 9-volt PP3
cells were a precursor to dry cells and are commonly used as a learning tool for electrochemistry. battery, and a pair of button
They can be built with common laboratory supplies, such as beakers, for demonstrations of how cells (CR2032 and LR44)
electrochemical cells work. A particular type of wet cell known as a concentration cell is important
in understanding corrosion. Wet cells may be primary cells (non-rechargeable) or secondary cells
(rechargeable). Originally, all practical primary batteries such as the Daniell cell were built as open-top glass jar wet cells. Other
primary wet cells are the Leclanche cell, Grove cell, Bunsen cell, Chromic acid cell, Clark cell, and Weston cell. The Leclanche cell
chemistry was adapted to the first dry cells. Wet cells are still used in automobile batteries and in industry for standby power for
switchgear, telecommunication or large uninterruptible power supplies, but in many places batteries with gel cells have been used
instead. These applications commonly use lead–acid or nickel–cadmium cells.

Dry cell
A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow current to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any
orientation without spilling, as it contains no free liquid, making it suitable for portable equipment. By comparison, the first wet cells
were typically fragile glass containers with lead rods hanging from the open top and needed careful handling to avoid spillage. Lead–
acid batteries did not achieve the safety and portability of the dry cell until the development of the gel battery.

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A common dry cell is the zinc–carbon battery, sometimes called the dry Leclanché cell, with a
nominal voltage of 1.5 volts, the same as the alkaline battery (since both use the same zinc–
manganese dioxide combination). A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in the form
of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode in the form of a central rod. The electrolyte is
ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to the zinc anode. The remaining space between
the electrolyte and carbon cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride
and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some designs, the ammonium
chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.

Molten salt
Molten salt batteries are primary or secondary batteries that use a molten salt as electrolyte. They
operate at high temperatures and must be well insulated to retain heat.
Line art drawing of a dry
cell:
Reserve 1. brass cap, 2. plastic seal,
A reserve battery can be stored unassembled (unactivated and supplying no power) for a long 3. expansion space, 4.
porous cardboard, 5. zinc
period (perhaps years). When the battery is needed, then it is assembled (e.g., by adding
can, 6. carbon rod, 7.
electrolyte); once assembled, the battery is charged and ready to work. For example, a battery for chemical mixture
an electronic artillery fuze might be activated by the impact of firing a gun. The acceleration
breaks a capsule of electrolyte that activates the battery and powers the fuze's circuits. Reserve
batteries are usually designed for a short service life (seconds or minutes) after long storage (years). A water-activated battery for
oceanographic instruments or military applications becomes activated on immersion in water.

Cell performance
A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over lifetime due to many factors including internal
chemistry, current drain, and temperature. At low temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in cold climates,
some car owners install battery warmers, which are small electric heating pads that keep the car battery warm.

Capacity and discharge

A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can deliver at the rated voltage. The more
electrode material contained in the cell the greater its capacity. A small cell has less capacity than
a larger cell with the same chemistry, although they develop the same open-circuit voltage.[31]
Capacity is measured in units such as amp-hour (A·h). The rated capacity of a battery is usually
expressed as the product of 20 hours multiplied by the current that a new battery can consistently
supply for 20 hours at 68 °F (20 °C), while remaining above a specified terminal voltage per cell.
For example, a battery rated at 100 A·h can deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period at room
temperature. The fraction of the stored charge that a battery can deliver depends on multiple
factors, including battery chemistry, the rate at which the charge is delivered (current), the
required terminal voltage, the storage period, ambient temperature and other factors.[31]

The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity.[32] The relationship between current,
discharge time and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a typical range of A device to check battery
voltage
current values) by Peukert's law:

where

is the capacity when discharged at a rate of 1 amp.

is the current drawn from battery (A).
is the amount of time (in hours) that a battery can sustain.
is a constant around 1.3.

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Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small fraction of the capacity lose capacity due to the presence
of generally irreversible side reactions that consume charge carriers without producing current. This phenomenon is known as
internal self-discharge. Further, when batteries are recharged, additional side reactions can occur, reducing capacity for subsequent
discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all capacity is lost and the battery stops producing power.

Internal energy losses and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the electrolyte cause battery efficiency to vary. Above a
minimum threshold, discharging at a low rate delivers more of the battery's capacity than at a higher rate. Installing batteries with
varying A·h ratings does not affect device operation (although it may affect the operation interval) rated for a specific voltage unless
load limits are exceeded. High-drain loads such as digital cameras can reduce total capacity, as happens with alkaline batteries. For
example, a battery rated at 2 A·h for a 10- or 20-hour discharge would not sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated
capacity implies.

C rate
The C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being charged or discharged. It is defined as the current through the battery
divided by the theoretical current draw under which the battery would deliver its nominal rated capacity in one hour.[33] It has the
units h−1.

C-rate is used as a rating on batteries to indicate the maximum current that a battery can safely deliver on a circuit. Standards for
rechargeable batteries generally rate the capacity over a 4-hour, 8 hour or longer discharge time. Types intended for special
purposes, such as in a computer uninterruptible power supply, may be rated by manufacturers for discharge periods much less than
one hour. Because of internal resistance loss and the chemical processes inside the cells, a battery rarely delivers nameplate rated
capacity in only one hour.

Fast-charging, large and light batteries

As of 2012, lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) battery technology was the fastest-charging/discharging, fully discharging in 10–20
seconds.[34]

As of 2017, the world's largest battery was built in South Australia by Tesla. It can store 129 MWh.[35] A battery in Hebei Province,
China which can store 36 MWh of electricity was built in 2013 at a cost of $500 million.[36] Another large battery, composed of Ni–
Cd cells, was in Fairbanks, Alaska. It covered 2,000 square metres (22,000 sq ft)—bigger than a football pitch—and weighed 1,300
tonnes. It was manufactured by ABB to provide backup power in the event of a blackout. The battery can provide 40 MW of power
for up to seven minutes.[37] Sodium–sulfur batteries have been used to store wind power.[38] A 4.4 MWh battery system that can
deliver 11 MW for 25 minutes stabilizes the output of the Auwahi wind farm in Hawaii.[39]

Lithium–sulfur batteries were used on the longest and highest solar-powered flight.[40]

Lifetime
Battery life (and its synonym battery lifetime) has two meanings for rechargeable batteries but only one for non-chargeables. For
rechargeables, it can mean either the length of time a device can run on a fully charged battery or the number of charge/discharge
cycles possible before the cells fail to operate satisfactorily. For a non-rechargeable these two lives are equal since the cells last for
only one cycle by definition. (The term shelf life is used to describe how long a battery will retain its performance between
manufacture and use.) Available capacity of all batteries drops with decreasing temperature. In contrast to most of today's batteries,
the Zamboni pile, invented in 1812, offers a very long service life without refurbishment or recharge, although it supplies current
only in the nanoamp range. The Oxford Electric Bell has been ringing almost continuously since 1840 on its original pair of batteries,
thought to be Zamboni piles.

Self-discharge
Disposable batteries typically lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge per year when stored at room temperature (20–30 °C).[41]
This is known as the "self-discharge" rate, and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions that occur within the cell
even when no load is applied. The rate of side reactions is reduced for batteries stored at lower temperatures, although some can be
damaged by freezing.

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Old rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, especially nickel-based batteries; a freshly
charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10%
a month. However, newer low self-discharge nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern lithium designs display a lower self-
discharge rate (but still higher than for primary batteries).

Corrosion
Internal parts may corrode and fail, or the active materials may be slowly converted to inactive forms.

Physical component changes

The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge and discharge cycle; active material may be
lost due to physical changes of volume, further limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged. Most nickel-based
batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first use.[42] Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be
used when purchased, and have only 15% discharge in a year.[43]

Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the
electrodes or because active material detaches from the electrodes. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1,700–2,000 mA·h) can be
charged some 1,000 times, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2,500 mA·h) last about 500 cycles.[44] NiCd batteries tend
to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values.

Charge/discharge speed
Fast charging increases component changes, shortening battery lifespan.[44]

Overcharging
If a charger cannot detect when the battery is fully charged then overcharging is likely, damaging it.[45]

Memory effect
NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in capacity called "memory effect".[46] The effect can be
avoided with simple practices. NiMH cells, although similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory effect.[47]

Environmental conditions
Automotive lead–acid rechargeable batteries must endure stress due to vibration, shock,
and temperature range. Because of these stresses and sulfation of their lead plates, few
automotive batteries last beyond six years of regular use.[48] Automotive starting (SLI:
Starting, Lighting, Ignition) batteries have many thin plates to maximize current. In general,
the thicker the plates the longer the life. They are typically discharged only slightly before
recharge.

"Deep-cycle" lead–acid batteries such as those used in electric golf carts have much
thicker plates to extend longevity.[49] The main benefit of the lead–acid battery is its low
cost; its main drawbacks are large size and weight for a given capacity and voltage. Lead–
acid batteries should never be discharged to below 20% of their capacity,[50] because
internal resistance will cause heat and damage when they are recharged. Deep-cycle
lead–acid systems often use a low-charge warning light or a low-charge power cut-off
switch to prevent the type of damage that will shorten the battery's life.[51]
An analog camcorder [lithium ion]
battery
Storage
Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in a
refrigerator or freezer, which slows the side reactions. Such storage can extend the life of alkaline batteries by about 5%;
rechargeable batteries can hold their charge much longer, depending upon type.[52] To reach their maximum voltage, batteries must

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be returned to room temperature; discharging an alkaline battery at 250 mA at 0 °C is only half as efficient as at 20 °C.[27] Alkaline
battery manufacturers such as Duracell do not recommend refrigerating batteries.[26]

Battery sizes
Primary batteries readily available to consumers range from tiny button cells used for electric watches, to the No. 6 cell used for
signal circuits or other long duration applications. Secondary cells are made in very large sizes; very large batteries can power a
submarine or stabilize an electrical grid and help level out peak loads.

Hazards

Explosion
A battery explosion is generally caused by misuse or malfunction, such as attempting to recharge a primary (non-rechargeable)
battery, or a short circuit.

When a battery is recharged at an excessive rate, an explosive gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen may be produced faster than it
can escape from within the battery (e.g. through a built-in vent), leading to pressure build-up and eventual bursting of the battery
case. In extreme cases, battery chemicals may spray violently from the casing and cause injury. Overcharging – that is, attempting to
charge a battery beyond its electrical capacity – can also lead to a battery explosion, in addition to leakage or irreversible damage. It
may also cause damage to the charger or device in which the overcharged battery is later used.

Car batteries are most likely to explode when a short-circuit generates very large currents. Such batteries produce hydrogen, which is
very explosive, when they are overcharged (because of electrolysis of the water in the electrolyte). During normal use, the amount of
overcharging is usually very small and generates little hydrogen, which dissipates quickly. However, when "jump starting" a car, the
high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of hydrogen, which can be ignited explosively by a nearby spark, e.g. when
disconnecting a jumper cable.

Disposing of a battery via incineration may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the sealed case.

Recalls of devices using Lithium-ion batteries have become more common in recent years. This is in response to reported accidents
and failures, occasionally ignition or explosion.[53][54] An expert summary of the problem indicates that this type uses "liquid
electrolytes to transport lithium ions between the anode and the cathode. If a battery cell is charged too quickly, it can cause a short
circuit, leading to explosions and fires".[55][56]

Leakage
Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous or both. If leakage occurs, either
spontaneously or through accident, the chemicals released may be dangerous. For
example, disposable batteries often use a zinc "can" both as a reactant and as the
container to hold the other reagents. If this kind of battery is over-discharged, the
reagents can emerge through the cardboard and plastic that form the remainder of the
container. The active chemical leakage can then damage or disable the equipment that
the batteries power. For this reason, many electronic device manufacturers recommend
removing the batteries from devices that will not be used for extended periods of time. Leak-damaged alkaline battery

Toxic materials
Many types of batteries employ toxic materials such as lead, mercury, and cadmium as an electrode or electrolyte. When each battery
reaches end of life it must be disposed of to prevent environmental damage.[57] Batteries are one form of electronic waste (e-waste).
E-waste recycling services recover toxic substances, which can then be used for new batteries.[58] Of the nearly three billion batteries
purchased annually in the United States, about 179,000 tons end up in landfills across the country.[59] In the United States, the
Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act of 1996 banned the sale of mercury-containing batteries, enacted
uniform labeling requirements for rechargeable batteries and required that rechargeable batteries be easily removable.[60] California

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and New York City prohibit the disposal of rechargeable batteries in solid waste, and along with Maine require recycling of cell
phones.[61] The rechargeable battery industry operates nationwide recycling programs in the United States and Canada, with dropoff
points at local retailers.[61]

The Battery Directive of the European Union has similar requirements, in addition to requiring increased recycling of batteries and
promoting research on improved battery recycling methods.[62] In accordance with this directive all batteries to be sold within the
EU must be marked with the "collection symbol" (a crossed-out wheeled bin). This must cover at least 3% of the surface of prismatic
batteries and 1.5% of the surface of cylindrical batteries. All packaging must be marked likewise.[63]

Ingestion
Batteries may be harmful or fatal if swallowed.[64] Small button cells can be swallowed, in particular by young children. While in the
digestive tract, the battery's electrical discharge may lead to tissue damage;[65] such damage is occasionally serious and can lead to
death. Ingested disk batteries do not usually cause problems unless they become lodged in the gastrointestinal tract. The most
common place for disk batteries to become lodged is the esophagus, resulting in clinical sequelae. Batteries that successfully traverse
the esophagus are unlikely to lodge elsewhere. The likelihood that a disk battery will lodge in the esophagus is a function of the
patient's age and battery size. Disk batteries of 16 mm have become lodged in the esophagi of 2 children younger than 1 year. Older
children do not have problems with batteries smaller than 21–23 mm. Liquefaction necrosis may occur because sodium hydroxide is
generated by the current produced by the battery (usually at the anode). Perforation has occurred as rapidly as 6 hours after
ingestion.[66]

Chemistry
Many important cell properties, such as voltage, energy density, flammability, available cell constructions, operating temperature
range and shelf life, are dictated by battery chemistry.

Primary batteries and their characteristics

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Shelf life
Max. Nominal
Specific at 25 °C,
Anode Cathode voltage, voltage,
Chemistry energy Elaboration 80%
(−) (+) theoretical practical
(MJ/kg) capacity
(V) (V)
(months)
Zinc–carbon Zn MnO2 1.6 1.2 0.13 Inexpensive. 18

Also known as
Zinc–chloride 1.5 "heavy-duty",
inexpensive.
Moderate
energy
Alkaline density.
Zn MnO2 1.5 1.15 0.4–0.59 30
(zinc–manganese dioxide) Good for high-
and low-drain
uses.
Moderate
Nickel oxyhydroxide
energy
(zinc–manganese
1.7 density.
dioxide/nickel
Good for high
oxyhydroxide)
drain uses.
No longer
manufactured.
Lithium Replaced by
(lithium–copper oxide) Li CuO 1.7 silver oxide
Li–CuO (IEC-type
"SR")
batteries.
Expensive.
Lithium
Used in 'plus'
(lithium–iron disulfide) Li FeS2 1.8 1.5 1.07 337[67]
or 'extra'
LiFeS2
batteries.
Expensive.
Used only in
high-drain
devices or for
Lithium long shelf-life
(lithium–manganese due to very
Li MnO2 3.0 0.83–1.01
dioxide) low rate of
LiMnO2 self-discharge.
'Lithium' alone
usually refers
to this type of
chemistry.
Lithium
(lithium–carbon fluoride) Li (CF)n 3.6 3.0 120
Li–(CF)n

Lithium
(lithium–chromium oxide) Li CrO2 3.8 3.0 108
Li–CrO2

Lithium
(lithium-silicon) Li22Si5

High-drain
and constant
voltage.
Banned in
Mercury oxide Zn HgO 1.34 1.2 36
most countries
because of
health
concerns.
Used mostly
Zinc–air Zn O2 1.6 1.1 1.59[68] in hearing
aids.

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Shelf life
Max. Nominal
Specific at 25 °C,
Anode Cathode voltage, voltage,
Chemistry energy Elaboration 80%
(−) (+) theoretical practical
(MJ/kg) capacity
(V) (V)
(months)
Very long life
Very low
Zamboni pile Zn Ag or Au 0.8 >2,000
(nanoamp,
nA) current
Very
expensive.
Used only
Silver-oxide (silver–zinc) Zn Ag2O 1.85 1.5 0.47 30
commercially
in 'button'
cells.
Magnesium Mg MnO2 2.0 1.5 40

Secondary (rechargeable) batteries and their characteristics

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Specific Energy
Cell
Chemistry energy density Comments
voltage
(kJ/kg) (kJ/liter)
Nickel–cadmium chemistry.
Inexpensive.
High-/low-drain, moderate energy density.
Can withstand very high discharge rates with virtually no loss of
NiCd 1.2 140
capacity.
Moderate rate of self-discharge.
Environmental hazard due to Cadmium – use now virtually prohibited in
Europe.
Moderately expensive.
Moderate energy density.
Moderate rate of self-discharge.
Lead–acid 2.1 140
Higher discharge rates result in considerable loss of capacity.
Environmental hazard due to Lead.
Common use – Automobile batteries
Nickel–metal hydride chemistry.
Inexpensive.
Performs better than alkaline batteries in higher drain devices.
Traditional chemistry has high energy density, but also a high rate of
NiMH 1.2 360
self-discharge.
Newer chemistry has low self-discharge rate, but also a ~25% lower
energy density.
Used in some cars.
Nickel-zinc chemistry.
Moderately inexpensive.
High drain device suitable.
Low self-discharge rate.
NiZn 1.6 360 Voltage closer to alkaline primary cells than other secondary cells.
No toxic components.
Newly introduced to the market (2009). Has not yet established a track
record.
Limited size availability.
Silver-zinc chemistry.
Smaller volume than equivalent Li-ion.
Extremely expensive due to silver.
Very high energy density.
Very high drain capable.
For many years considered obsolete due to high silver prices.
1.86 Cell suffers from oxidation if unused.
AgZn 460
1.5 Reactions are not fully understood.
Terminal voltage very stable but suddenly drops to 1.5 volts at 70–80%
charge (believed to be
due to presence of both argentous and argentic oxide in positive plate –
one is consumed first).
Has been used in lieu of primary battery (moon buggy).
Is being developed once again as a replacement for Li-ion.
3.3
LiFePO4 360 790 Lithium-Iron-Phosphate chemistry.
3.0
Various lithium chemistries.
Very expensive.
Very high energy density.
Not usually available in "common" battery sizes.
Lithium polymer battery is common in laptop computers, digital
Lithium ion 3.6 460 cameras, camcorders, and cellphones.
Very low rate of self-discharge.

Terminal voltage varies from 4.2 to 3.0 volts during discharge.

Volatile: Chance of explosion if short-circuited, allowed to overheat, or
not manufactured with rigorous quality standards.

Solid state batteries

On 28 February 2017, The University of Texas at Austin issued a press release about a new type of solid-state battery, developed by a
team led by Lithium-ion (Li-Ion) inventor John Goodenough, "that could lead to safer, faster-charging, longer-lasting rechargeable
batteries for handheld mobile devices, electric cars and stationary energy storage".[69] More specifics about the new technology were
published in the peer-reviewed scientific journal Energy & Environmental Science.

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Independent reviews of the technology discuss the risk of fire and explosion from Lithium-ion batteries under certain conditions
because they use liquid electrolytes. The newly developed battery should be safer since it uses glass electrolytes, that should
eliminate short circuits. The solid-state battery is also said to have "three times the energy density" increasing its useful life in
electric vehicles, for example. It should also be more ecologically sound since the technology uses less expensive, earth-friendly
materials such as sodium extracted from seawater. They also have much longer life; ("the cells have demonstrated more than 1,200
cycles with low cell resistance"). The research and prototypes are not expected to lead to a commercially viable product in the near
future, if ever, according to Chris Robinson of LUX Research. "This will have no tangible effect on electric vehicle adoption in the
next 15 years, if it does at all. A key hurdle that many solid-state electrolytes face is lack of a scalable and cost-effective
manufacturing process," he told The American Energy News in an e-mail.[70]

Homemade cells
Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as the electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty
or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes made of different metals into a lemon,[71] potato,[72] etc. and
generate small amounts of electricity. "Two-potato clocks" are also widely available in hobby and toy stores; they consist of a pair of
cells, each consisting of a potato (lemon, et cetera) with two electrodes inserted into it, wired in series to form a battery with enough
voltage to power a digital clock.[73] Homemade cells of this kind are of no practical use.

A voltaic pile can be made from two coins (such as a nickel and a penny) and a piece of paper towel dipped in salt water. Such a pile
generates a very low voltage but, when many are stacked in series, they can replace normal batteries for a short time.[74]

Sony has developed a biological battery that generates electricity from sugar in a way that is similar to the processes observed in
living organisms. The battery generates electricity through the use of enzymes that break down carbohydrates.[75]

Lead acid cells can easily be manufactured at home, but a tedious charge/discharge cycle is needed to 'form' the plates. This is a
process in which lead sulfate forms on the plates, and during charge is converted to lead dioxide (positive plate) and pure lead
(negative plate). Repeating this process results in a microscopically rough surface, increasing the surface area, increasing the current
the cell can deliver.[76]

Daniell cells are easy to make at home. Aluminium–air batteries can be produced with high-purity aluminium. Aluminium foil
batteries will produce some electricity, but are not efficient, in part because a significant amount of (combustible) hydrogen gas is
produced.

See also
Battery electric vehicle
Battery holder
Baghdad Battery
Battery isolator
Battery management system
Battery nomenclature
Battery pack
Battery regulations in the United Kingdom
Battery simulator
Battery (vacuum tube)
Comparison of battery types
Depth of discharge
Electricity
Electric-vehicle battery
Grid energy storage
List of battery sizes
List of battery types
Nanowire battery
Search for the Super Battery (2017 PBS film)
State of charge
State of health
Trickle charging

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Further reading
Dingrando, Laurel; et al. (2007). Chemistry: Matter and Change. New York: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-877237-5. Ch.
21 (pp. 662–695) is on electrochemistry.
Fink, Donald G.; H. Wayne Beaty (1978). Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Eleventh Edition. New York: McGraw-
Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-020974-9.

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Knight, Randall D. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach (https://archive.org/details/physicsforscie
n200knig). San Francisco: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-8053-8960-9. Chs. 28–31 (pp. 879–995) contain information on
electric potential.
Linden, David; Thomas B. Reddy (2001). Handbook of Batteries (https://archive.org/details/handbookofbatter0000unse). New
York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-135978-8.
Saslow, Wayne M. (2002). Electricity, Magnetism, and Light. Toronto: Thomson Learning. ISBN 978-0-12-619455-5. Chs. 8–9
(pp. 336–418) have more information on batteries.

External links
Batteries (https://curlie.org/Business/Electronics_and_Electrical/Power_Supplies/Batteries/) at Curlie
Non-rechargeable batteries (https://web.archive.org/web/20131022104620/http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-b02-batt-nonr.
htm)
HowStuffWorks: How batteries work (http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/battery.htm)
Other Battery Cell Types (http://depts.washington.edu/matseed/batteries/MSE/classification.html)
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package- "Batteries" (http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/batteries/index.php)
The Physics arXiv Blog (17 August 2013). "First Atomic Level Simulation of a Whole Battery | MIT Technology Review" (http://w
ww.technologyreview.com/view/518446/first-atomic-level-simulation-of-a-whole-battery). Technologyreview.com. Retrieved
21 August 2013.

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