Geotextile Engineering :

Application in Civil and Environmental Engineering

Shobha K. Bhatia
Syracuse University, New York

ASCE Expo 2012

Outline
 Introduction
 History
 Classification
 Properties
 Applications
 Innovations
 Conclusions
Geotextiles

 Permeable textile used in conjunction

with soil or rock.

 Integral part of many manmade

structures, such as levees, dams,
roads, retaining walls, steep slopes,
landfills and others.
ZIGGURAT – woven mat reinforcement

Ziggurat of Ur
in
Mesopotamia
~ 2500 B.C.
History
 Initially referred as “civil engineering
fabrics” or “filter fabrics.”
 First use in 1926:
 Cotton fabric with hot asphalt (geomembrane
kind of material) was field tested.
 Polymer based woven industrial fabrics
(geotextile) were used beneath concrete block
revetments in late 1950s.
 Early 1960s, geotextiles were typically
woven polyproplene monofilament
fibers.
Major Breakthroughs

 In 1956, Dutch engineers used geotextiles

to overcome dilemmas present in their Delta
Works Scheme
 Hand woven from 100-mm wide
 1-mm thick nylon strips
 From 1960s, polymeric woven geotextiles
were commonly considered in coastal
protection works.
Major breakthroughs
 Mid 1960s, geotextile filters were
considered only on sites where granular
filters were not readily available.
 In 1968, FHWA monitored pavement overlay
repair schemes where geotextiles were
installed to control reflective cracking in
asphalt surfacing.
 First nonwoven needle punched polyster
geotextile was developed by Rhone-
Poulenc company in France.
 Major breakthroughs
 Valcros Dam
 In 1970, thick nonwoven geotextiles were used as
filters beneath rip rap protection.
 55Ft High Dam, Slity Sand ,30%<0.075mm.
 Polyester Continuous filament needle punched
nonwoven geotextile, 300g/m2.
 Continuous trickle of clean water for 35 years.

 At the same time, ICI started producing

thinner heat bonded nonwoven geotextiles
Major Breakthroughs
 In 1973, three basic functions of
geotextiles were identified
 Separation
 Filtration
 Reinforcement
 In 1974, drainage was added as fourth
basic property.
 By early 1990s, cushioning or protection
was added as the fifth basic property.
VALCROS DAM, 55 ft (1970)

First Dam with Geotextile Filter

 Manufacturer’s and sales

 In 1957, after a tropical storm caused severe beach

erosion at the home of the president of Carthage mills,
he started working with engineers from Coastal
Engineering Laboratories of University of Florida to use
Carthage Mills fabrics to protect his property against
future storms.

 This resulted in first use of woven filter fabric in

waterfront structures.
 Manufacturer’s and sales
 Research sponsored by AB
Fodervavnader of Bora, Sweden, a small
specialty weaving company resulted in
the world’s first pullout test device.
Geotextiles
The manufacturing of synthetic fibers
 Transforming raw polymer from solid to
liquid form.
 Extruding fibers through spinneret, and
 Solidifying the fibers into continuous
filaments.
 Various textile-forming technologies
used to make:
 Woven ,Non-woven, Knitted and Stitch-
bonded
Geotextile Classification
 Types
Warp
 Woven- weave pattern and fiber Threads
Plain Weave, Basket Weave, Twill Weave, satin weave

Weft
 Non-woven -Spun Bonding Thread

Weaving
Polymer Chip Direction

Fiber
Bonding

Winding

 Knitted –seldom used

Fibers
 Geotextiles are made of synthetic
fiber
 Polypropylene (92%)
 Polyster (5%)
 Polyethylene (2%)
 Nylon (1%)
 Slit Film Tapes

Yarns

Different types of yarn

 Monofilament fibers
 Heterofilament fibers
 Multifilament yarns Multi Filament Yarns

 Staple fibers
 Slit-film tapes
 Fibrillated yarns
Different Type of Geotextiles
 Natural Fibers
 Fiber types: natural (wood, straw, coconut,
jute), synthetic (PP, PET, nylon), and
combinations (straw/coconut, wood/synthetic)

 Fiber structure types: short, long, multifilament

 RECP structure types: ECNs, OWTs, ECBs,

and TRMs

 92 different degradable RECPs and 37

different non-degradable RECPs are available
in the US
 RECPs –

wood excelsior wood/synthetic blend straw/coir

Coir Coir Jute

 Types and Properties

 20 different companies market geotextiles

 87 Woven and 124 nonwoven geotextiles
 Properties-
 Transportation Related Application
 Mass per unit area, percentage open area,
 Permittivity, puncture resistance, tear and grab strength,
survivability
 Reinforcement Application
 Wide width tensile strength, creep limited strength
 Geotextile consumption

Year 1970 1980 1990 1998

Millions of 5 100 300 600

square meters
,North America

Million of 10 60 250 App.400

square meters,
Western
Europe
Million square 100
meters , Japan (all geosynthetics)

Growing market in China and India…………

 Relative importance of geotextile
functions in geotechnical applications

Application Separation Filtration Reinforcement Drainage Protection

Temporary and permanent 1 2 2

pavements

Asphalt overlays 1 2 2

Railways 1 3 3

Embankment 3 3 1 3

Retaining walls and slopes 3 3 3

1
Erosion control 3 2 3 3 2

Subsurface drainage 3
1
Membrane protection 3 1

(1) Primary Function (2) Secondary Function (3) Tertiary Function

Geotextile Properties
Geometric Information
Schematic

25
cm²

2 kPa

thickness

metal base

Measuring thickness at 2 kPa

The test is performed to EN964 part 1 for a

single layer products and to EN964 part 2 for
multi-layer
 Measuring
Sampling
(mua)
 Mechanical Properties
 Short-term tensile strength and dependent deformation
 Long-term tensile behaviour (creep/creep rupture)
 Long-term compressive creep behaviour (with/without
 Shear stress)
 Resistance against impact or punching
 Static puncture test, rapid puncture
 Resistance against abrasion
 Friction properties
 Direct shear, inclined plane test, pullout resistance
 Protection efficiency
 Damage during installation
 Geosynthetics or composites internal strength
 Geosynthetic reinforcement segmental retaining wall unit
connection testing
Mechanical Properties

Testing machine with Capstain clamp for geogrid

video-extensometer with laser-extensometer
Tensile Tests
ε
Force - Strain behaviour of
Geosynthetics
Fm 1
kN/m
2
3
100
90 Woven Fabrics,
4
80 GeoGrids
70
60 5
50 PP - M
40
PP/ PE - T
30
20 PP/ PET - T HD PE - M
10
strain
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
%
 Tensile Creep and Creep Rupture
EN ISO 13431 : 1996 ASTM)

 Tensile creep tests give information on

time-dependent deformation at
constant load.
 Creep rupture tests give time until
failure at constant load.
 A deformation measurement is not
necessary for creep rupture curves.
 Loads for creep testing are most often
dead weights, often enlarged by lever
arms.
Multiple Creep Rupture Rigs in a
Temperature Controlled Chamber
Resistance To Static Puncture

 Static Puncture Test:

The Test CBR (EN ISO 12236 : 1996)

The use of soil mechanics California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

apparatus for this static puncture test, has resulted in the
unusual name for this test.

 A plunger of 50mm diameter is pushed at a speed of 50 +/-

10mm min onto and through the specimen clamped in the
circular jaws. Measurement of force and displacement are
taken. The test is widely used for geotextiles, it is not
applicable to grids, and the test provides useful data for
geomembranes.
CBR - device Inserting
in testing specimen in
machine hydraulic CBR-
clamps
 Impact Resistance Test
(CEN TC 189 WI 14; ISO 13428 draft)

 Efficiency of protection materials can be tested by dropping a

hemispherical shaped weight onto a specimen placed on a
lead plate on a resilient base.

 The impression in the lead and the condition of the specimen

are recorded.

Lighter round shaped drop weights are used for other

geosynthetics. The deformation of a metal sheet under the
tested material gives quantitative results.
 Impact Resistance Test

Drop weight, lead platen, specimen under ring

Impact Resistance Test
(performance test : BAW)

 A heavy drop weight (67.5 kg) is dropped from 2 m height on the

geosynthetic placed on sand and fixed in a ring. The result is a
“penetration yes or no” decision.

67.5 kg

2m

Result of drop tests -

The Test no penetration
 Abrasion Resistance
(EN ISO 13427 : 1995)

 Emery cloth of a specific grade is moved linearly along the

specimen. After 750 cycles the abraded specimen is tested to
measure the residual tensile strength or hydraulic properties

Example of Apparatus
with Sliding Block
Specimen Specimen after
before test abrasion test
Direct Shear Friction
(EN ISO 12957 : 1998)

 Reinforcing geosynthetics develop their tensile resistance by the

transfer of stresses from the soil to the fabric through friction. The
friction ratio is defined as the angle of friction, the ratio of the normal
stress to the shear stress. Low normal stresses may be tested by an
inclined plane test and higher normal stresses by direct shear or by
pull out test.

 Direct shear (EN ISO 12957-1)

The friction partners are placed one in an upper box, the other in the
lower box. The lower box is moved at a concentrate of displacement
(index testing: 1 mm/min) while recording force and displacement.
The results for three normal stresses (50, 100, 150 kPa) are plotted,
the value of friction angle is calculated
Section Through Shear box
Test
 Damage During Installation
 The CEN-ISO standard applies a cyclic load to a platen (100 x 200)
pressing via a layer of Corundum aggregate placed on top of the
geosynthetic being tested. (Corundum is a trade name for a sintered
aluminium oxide.

 After 200 cycles between 5 kPa and 900 kPa maximum stress the
specimen is exhumed and may be subject to a tensile test for the
residual strength for reinforcement applications, or for filtration the
hydraulic properties for filtration applications.

 A performance test requires the soil and fill to be used on the site
and the equipment to spread and compact the material.

 Typical results of an index-test are shown

Material Before (left) and After
(right) Damage Test
 Characteristic Opening Size
(EN ISO 12956 : 1999)

 To determine, which grain size can passing

through a geosynthetic and which is
retained, a wet sieving test is used with a
standard “soil”.
 The ‘soil’ passing the geotextile is extracted
from the water and sieved again.
 A characteristic value O90- is calculated
according to EN ISO 12956.

 O90 = d90 of the ‘soil’ passing the

geosynthetic
 Dry Sieving

 Hoop sizing
 Sagging
 Broken and irregular
glass beads
 Trapping within the
geotextile
 Electrostatic effects
 Time for the Test
 Wet Sieving
 Hoop sizing sagging
 Great chance for error:
a. Leakage between
sieves
b. Analyzing passed
glass beads (<325 mesh)
 Glass bead clumping on
geotextile
 Elimination of
electrostatic effects
 Time for the test
Pores with Glass Beads

 Plan view  Side view

 100
Product: Texel, 909
90
PET/PP, Staple, Needle-
80

70
punched, Nonw oven
Thickness: 2.3 mm W2 -
Permeability: 0.45 cm/sec
multifilament
Percent Finer (%)

60 AOS: 0.07-0.11 mm (Dry

50 Sieving)
Bubble Point: 0.116-0.135 Mineral Oil
40 mm
Silw ick
30 O95: 0.098-0.11 mm
O50: 0.069-0.076 mm Porew ick
20

10
0
1 0.1 0.01
Diameter (mm) Pore size, volume, permeability,
density, surface area, and adsorption
 Comparison of Wet Sieving &
Bubble Point Method
Bubble Point Method: 0.12 mm
100
90
80
70 Amoco 4510 Sample A
Percent Finer (%)

60 Amoco 4510 Sample B

50 Amoco 4510 Sample C
Amoco 4510 Sample D
40
30
20
10
0
1 Diameter (mm) 0.1 0.12-0.068 mm 0.01
 Durability Properties
 Resistance to weathering

 Resistance to microbiological
degradation (soil burial)

 Resistance to liquids

 Resistance to hydrolysis

 Resistance to thermal oxidation

 Durability Properties
 Geosynthetics may be used for temporary structures
such as access roads for construction sites or may
be required for medium term applications until
consolidation of soils makes them redundant.

 Long-term applications are the main use (30 to 60

years for some in UK application or ; more than 120
years for landfills in most countries).

 Therefore durability is an important requirement.

 Resistance to Weathering
(prEN 12224 : 1996)

 Products exposed uncovered to light

and products placed without cover-soil
for service are tested by artificial
weathering.
 Exposure to UV-light of defined
emission spectrum and rain at elevated
temperature accelerates the test.
Exposure to Natural
Weathering
Tensile tests after
exposure and reference
to fresh specimen
tensile strength loss in
%. Tensile tests on
exposed and fresh
specimens can be used
to determine the loss of
tensile strength,
normally expressed as
a percentage of
strength retained after
exposure.
Rainsplash erosion testing
 Typical engineering properties of geotextiles
used in geotechnical applications (after Lawson
1982)

Geotextile type Mass per Unit Apparent Volume water Tensile Maximum
area (g/m2) Opening size permeability Strength kN/m Elongation
(AOS) (mm) 1/m2/s %

Woven
• Monofilament 150-300 0.07-2.5 25-2000 20-80 9-35
• Multifilament 250-1300 0.2-0.9 20-80 40-800 9-30
• Tape 90-250 0.05-0.10 5-15 8-90 15-20

Nonwoven
• Heat-bonded 70-350 0.01-0.35 25-150 3-25 20-60
• Needle-punched 150-2000 0.02-0.15 25-200 7-90 50-80

Knitted
• Weft 0.1-1.2 60-2000 2-5 300-600
• Warp 20-120 12-15

Stitched-bonded 250-1200 0.07-0.5 30-80 30-1000 8-30

Application
 Geotextile as reinforcement
 Designing for Roadways reinforcement
 Unpaved and paved roads

 Designing for soil reinforcement

 Geotextile reinforced wall
 Geotextile reinforced foundation soil
 Geotextile to improve bearing capacity Geotextile encase
columns, A continuously,
 Geotextile to in situ slope stabilization radially, woven geotextile sock
made from a variety of
polymers. These socks form
encased stone columns when
filled with compacted sand,
gravels or crushed rock for use
in very soft soil
where conventional ground
treatments cannot be utilized.
http://www2.wrap.org.uk/downloads/MRF116_Geosystems_Guidanc
e_Document_FINAL_February_2010.adb44eaf.8590.pdf
 Basic Principles of Reinforced Soil
 For reinforced soil to work, the soil and
reinforcement must STRAIN
 In a stable structure the strain in the soil and
reinforcement are equal (i.e. there is strain
compatibility)
 The strain in the reinforced soil is influenced by:
 The stiffness of the reinforcement
 Properties of the soil
 The stress state of the soil
 Analysis and Design
 Established geotechnical and stability methods
used
 Soil parameters generally considered in total stress
terms
 Three main failure mechanisms considered
- Rotational Stability
- Lateral Sliding
- Bearing Capacity
 Lateral Sliding
Embankment fill

Horizontal Reinforcement
movement of fill,
driven by active
wedge Tr
Tr

Soft Clay Foundation

Reinforcement tension develops in
the plane of the reinforcement

 Resistance to lateral sliding determined from

active driving force
 Geosynthetics/soil interface should be obtained
from testing
 Foundation Extrusion
Embankment fill

Lateral extrusion of
foundations due to Reinforcement
settlement of fill

Soft Clay Foundation

The solution to this mode of failure is to reduce the settlement

by making the base stiffer (Geocell mattress)

 If soft soil thickness > embankment base width, a

bearing capacity analysis will be required
 If soft soil layer thickness < than the embankment base
foundation width extrusion occurs at the toe.
 Case Study: Hetaoyu Coal
Mine Processing Plant

 Location: China
 Retaining wall
(1km x 140m)
built adjacent to
Jinghe River
 PET geotextile
used to reinforce
soil
http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0212_fla_hetaoyu_mine.html
High strength
geotextiles for
embankments on
soft ground

35 June 8, 2002
 Case Study: Levee WBV-72

 Location: New Orleans, LA

 Levee (2.8miles long) has 2.4miles of
geotextile reinforcement
 Geotextile strengths used:
 490 kN/m (21,500 sq yd)
 650 kN/m (187,403 sq yd)
 830 kN/m (172,071 sq yd)
 Used as embankment reinforcement
and separation
http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/081712_huesker_levee.html
 Case Study: Levee WBV-72
cont.

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/081712_huesker_levee.html
 Case Study: Fiber-Reinforced
Roadway Embankment Soil

 Location: Lake Ridge Parkway, Texas

 Originally constructed in the reservoir
of a proposed lake (1980s)
 Earth fill embankments were built (slope
ratio=3) to raise road over lake
 Slope failures occurred (2000s)
 Repaired with fiber-reinforced soil
 3” polypropylene fibers used to increase
shear strength
http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0811_f2_sustainable_embankment.html
 Case Study: Fiber-Reinforced
Roadway Embankment Soil cont.

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0811_f2_sustainable_embankment.html
 Case Study: Fiber-Reinforced
Roadway Embankment Soil cont.

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0811_f2_sustainable_embankment.html
Geotextile as filter or drain
 Pavement Topsoil
Stone 450 mm
base

GT
400 mm
Crushed
Soil subgrade stone/
perforated
300 mm pipe

(GT Filter in Excavated Trench) (Crushed Stone & Perforated Pipe)

 Geotubes in Dewatering
Applications

 Municipal Paper
Sludge
 Pulp and Paper Mill
Sludge
 Mineral Processing
Sludge
 Fly Ash
 Mining and Drilled
Waste
 Industrial By-Product
 Agriculture Waste
 Case Study: Dewatering
Solutions cont.

 Location: Midlands, England

 Pumping sludge into filtration
geosynthetic tubes (“Sedi-Filter”)
 Sediment remains but water drains out
 Sediment removed to landfill
 Ideal before attempting to deepen
canals

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/101310_sediment_bag.html
 Case Study: Dewatering
Solutions

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/101310_sediment_bag.html
Waste Containment Liners
with
Geotextiles



Different Drains

Mebra Drain
Amerdrain
Installation
Prefabricated Vertical Drains
PIPING SYSTEM
Application – Seperation
Geotextile as a separator

http://www.typargeotextiles.com/PDFs/TG-
Landfills.pdf
 Erosion Control

Slope Protection
with Geotextile

Silt Fence
South Channel

A3

A2

A1
 Case Study: Incheon Grand
Bridge

 Location: Incheon, South Korea

 Reclamation dikes had to be built
during construction
 Geotextiles were used
 Cost-efficient
 Met construction and time requirements
 Close-ended fabric tube with filling ports
for sand input
 Cost more than $2 million
http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0211_fla_incheon_bridge.html
 Case Study: Incheon Grand
Bridge cont.

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0211_fla_incheon_bridge.html
 Case Study: PEMEX Marine
Facilities

 Location: Tabasco, Mexico

 Beach erosion problems
 Sand-filled geotextile tubes used under
oil conduction pipes in the surf zone
 Previously at risk to collapse due to loss
of sand foundations
 Geotextile tubes also used as a
submerged breakwater along the coast
http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0410_f3_tubes.html
 Case Study: PEMEX Marine
Facilities cont.

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/0410_f3_tubes.html
 Future Trends and Innovative
Products

Reactive Core Mat Intelligent Geotextiles- Geo detect System-

Structure Health Monitoring System
http://remediation.cetco.com/LeftSideNavigation/Pro http://boingboing.net/2012/01/19/intelligent-geotextiles-
ducts/ReactiveCoreMat/tabid/1359/Default.aspx wired.html
Future Trends
DUAL FUNCTION GEOSYNTHETICWRAPPED PVD
 Provides structural stability due to the high tensile and shear
strength of the geosynthetic Can bear the shear stresses
generated by the mandrel
 Reduces the zone of disturbance and remolding
 Also reduces the effects of smear by preventing the finer soil
particles to enter the drain core

ELECTRO-CONDUCTIVE PVD
 Employs the process of electro-osmosis in attempting to
reduce the smear effects cations in the diffused double layer
of water moves towards the vertical drain (acting as cathode)
and get discharged, thus carrying the pore water along with for
drainage.
Innovative Products and
Future

 The use of flat weft knitting technology

to manufacture natural fiber geotextiles
for reinforcement applications

 Superior over mid range synthetic

geotextile used for soil reinforcement

(Anand,2008)
Innovative Products and
Future

 Reducing fiber diameter to nanoscale,

a significant increase in specific
surface area to the level of 1000m2/g

 Future geotextiles could be

nanocomposites which might not only
change their effectiveness, but
applications
(Ko 2004, Koerner 2000)
Innovative Products and
Future

 By taking advantage of the recent

development and changes in design
aspects, companies have increased
weights from 16 oz. / sy. to 28-32 oz. /
sy.
 Use of polyester for manufacturing of
geotextiles has many advantages over
traditional polypropylene
(“Advancements in geomembranes and geotextiles” – Reuben Weinstein)
 Case Study: TenCate Mirafi
H2Ri

 Location: Alaska
 Water-wicking geotextile used below
roads in frozen tundra
 Road damage common due to uneven
soil moisture freezing differently
 Tested on the Dalton Highway and
now used in Alaska and Canada

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/102611_tencate_award.html
 Case Study: TenCate Mirafi
H2Ri cont.

http://www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com/articles/102611_tencate_award.html
 CIVIL
Draintube© FTF
Embankment drainage

• Replaces traditional granular

layers and two geotextile filters
• Can replace up to 3 ft. of
granular drainage
• Effective solution for cuts, fills
and soft soils

Portneuf / mer – Road 138 : Quebec – sept. 2008

CIVIL Autouroute 50
Major project in 2009 with Transports
Draintube© FTF Québec
Embankment drainage 2,5 km of road

Installation Backfill

The entire job

  Afitex - 20+ years in the
drainage & environmental
markets

 Texel - 40+ years in

geosynthetics

Draintube© technology
 Geosynthetic
Instrumentation
Conclusions
Questions
 What are three different types of geotextiles that can be used
for civil engineering applications?
 What are the most important properties of the geotextiles
when they are used as a reinforcing member?
 What is the difference between index and performance test?
 Where would you get the information about the geotextile’s
properties?
 Give two specific examples where geotextiles is used as a
filter and as a separator.
 Give example of two innovative geotextilse that have been
developed recently.