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English and foreign language

University
(A Central University established by Act of Parliament)
Hyderabad, Telangana State, India

A TERM PAPER ON THE TOPIC

“MULTILINGUALISM IN INDIA”
Submitted to:
Dr. HEMANGA DUTTA,
Assistant Professor,
EFL University,
Hyderabad.
Submitted by:
M. Rajya Lakshmi,
HOOMALNG20190047,
M.A. Linguistics,
EFL University.
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MULTILINGUALISM IN INDIA
CONTENTS
1. Introduction

1.1 Multilingualism

1.2 Types of Multilingualism

1.3 Multilingualism in India before Independence

1.3.1 Multilingualism in Ancient India

1.3.2 Multilingualism in Medieval India

1.3.3 Multilingualism in Colonial India

1.4 Multilingualism in Post Independent India

1.4.1 Linguistic Survey of India

1.4.2 Census Record

1.5 Language and Social Identity

2. Education policy in India

2.1 Macaulay’s Minute

2.2 Education Commissions and their Recommendations

2.3 Three Language Formula

2.4 National Education Policy 2019

2.5 Summary

Conclusion

References
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MULTILINGUALISM IN INDIA
1.0 Introduction:

India is a multilingual, multicultural, multi-religious and multi-ethnic country. India is

regarded as one of the socio linguistic giants (Ferguson 1966) with multilingualism being the

soul of this giant. India is divided into twenty eight states and nine union territories. Each state

has its own cultural and linguistic diversities. This diversity is visible in every aspect of Indian

life. Whether it is culture, religion, language, script, food, clothing, etc. makes ones identity

multi-dimensional.

It has been rightly said, “Each part of India is a kind of replica of the bigger cultural

space called India” (Singh U.N, 2009).Indian multilingualism has several layers. It can be

understood under a single heading of ‘Language Families’. It’s real essence can be defined in

terms of ‘variations’. i.e, knowing about the language families, races, script, regional languages,

tribal languages, idiolectal variation, stylistic variation, etc.

Indian languages belong to five major Language Families: Indo-European, Dravidian,

Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burmese and Semito-Hamitic.

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S.no Language families Number of Persons who returned the Percentage to

languages languages as their mother total
tongue population
1 Indo-European

a) Indo-Aryan 21 94,50,52,555 78.05

b) Iranian 1 21,677 0.00

c) Germanic 1 2,59,678 0.02

2 Dravidian 17 23,78,40,116 19.64

3 Austro-Asiatic 14 1,34,93,080 1.11

4 Tibeto-Burmese 66 1,22,57,382 1.01

5 Semito-Hamitic 1 54,947 0.00

Total 121 1,20,89,79,435 99.85

(Source: Census of India 2011)

1.1 Multilingualism:

Language plays a vital role in the social, economic and educational development of a

nation. The existence of many languages side by side resulted in multilingualism. Thus a need to

know two or more languages become mandatory to communicate among speech communities as

well as individuals. Multilingualism can be defined as the ability of the individuals, groups,

societies and institutions to use more than one language in their day to day lives. Linguistic

diversity is not merely an accidental process but is inherited. It is an integral part of the history.

This is further resulted in lingua francas, pidgins and phenomenon like code switching. These are

the products of multilingualism. Multilingualism has many advantages:

a) Communication between different linguistic and cultural groups becomes easier.

b) High cognitive development of a child.

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c) Accessibility to know other cultures.

d) A broader world view, etc.

Multilingualism can also be defined on the basis of maximal competence and minimal

competence. The maximal definition means speakers are equal competent and proficient in not

only one language but all the languages he/she knows. The minimal definition is based on use,

i.e, he/she is successful enough in achieving the goals of effective communication in a particular

domain.

In a multilingual country like India, there arises a need to become a multilingual due to

different communicative functions: in-group communication, out-group communication and

specialized communication (Mansour, 1993). No speech community lives in isolation.

Individuals or speech communities are in regular contact with other group members. This brings

the need of out-group communication. In this process an individual switches from one language

to the other. Thus shows his/her knowledge of two languages. Specialized communication

includes areas like education, religion, technology, etc., where there is a need of knowing other

than his native language. There are different descriptions on multilingualism. The terms

bilingualism and multilingualism are used interchangeably. Haugen (1956) refers to

multilingualism as ‘a kind of multiple bilingualism’. Also Herdina and Jessner (2000) define

bilingualism as “only possible form of multilingualism”.

1.1 Types of Multilingualism

Multilingualism can be divided into different types. It is characterized according to

degree of acquisition and manner of acquisition.

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Degree of acquisition: The level of competence of a person has in the languages which he knows

is known as degree. If he has equal competence in all the languages he speaks, is known as

Equilingualism.

Manner of acquisition: It is the way how a person becomes multilingual. Acquisition of more

than one language by child at home is called Natural bilingualism. It happens in childhood. If a

person learns other languages in an artificial setting it is called Artificial bilingualism.

Mansour.G (1993) classified multilingualism into two types: horizontal multilingualism

and vertical multilingualism. Speakers who live in their own geographic areas are mostly

monolingual are categorized under Horizontal multilingualism. The people belonging to different

ethnicity live together because they share the same territory come under Vertical

multilingualism.

1.2 Multilingualism in India before Independence:

Indian Multilingualism has its roots since ancient times. Pandit (1977) describes, ‘diverse

people who have come and made their home for the last five thousand years’. And Bayer

observes that ‘India is one of the world’s oldest multilingual societies’ (Beg 1996). Indian

multilingualism can be divided into three stages: ancient, medieval and modern.

1.2.1 Multilingualism in Ancient India :

India contacts with outer world dates back to 3rd millennium B.C. Multilingualism is

present in India since Ashokan times. It is evident that Ashokan inscription was written in four

different scripts. Aryans came to India and brought ‘Sanskrit’ with them in1500 B.C. Many

outsiders came to India to acquire its wealth and brought their culture and language with them.

Thus India became a multilingual hub.

1.2.2 Multilingualism in Medieval India:

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Medieval period started with the arrival of Islam. Mohammad Bin Qasim was the first

Arab to enter India in 715 A.D. The Turks did not rule for a longer period, but the impact of their

language in still prevalent in India. Persian was also introduced in India. Later the Mughal rulers

had given equal prominence to all languages. Great epics like Ramayana and Mahabharatha were

translated into regional languages. Then Bhakti Saints used vernacular languages and made local

languages popular. Regional languages like Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Marathi etc. were

used for administrative purposes along with Sanskrit (Chandra 2001). All made India a linguistic

giant.

1.2.3 Multilingualism in Colonial India :

The modern era began after the 18th century. Many scholars wrote about India’s

greatness. The British rulers made to local people to learn English. Later they realized the need

for learning their local language. They made learning of these languages mandatory for civil

servants. Missionaries arrived in India and spread Christianity in India. They played an important

role in the promotion of tribal languages. They contributed a lot in the creation of tribal literature

1.3 Multilingualism in Post Independent India :

India was partitioned into India and Pakistan in 1947. Later a demand arose for the

formation of linguistic states. Sardar Vallabhai Patel and some other leaders opposed the

reorganization of states on linguistic basis. But the reorganization of states did not achieve much

in the creation of a homogeneous region. This is why there is no official language in India till

date.

1.3.1 Linguistic Survey of India :

The Linguistic Survey of India (LSI) is a detailed survey of the languages of British

India, describing 364 languages and dialects. The Survey was first proposed by George Abraham
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Grierson, a member of the Indian Civil Service and a linguist. His proposal of linguistic survey

was approved by the Indian government in 1891. It began in 1894 and continued for thirty years

till 1928.

1.3.2 Census Record :

Indian multilingualism can be studied through its census records. The Linguistic Survey

of India made a declaration that there were 179 languages and 544 dialects. There is a big

problem to define the term ‘mother tongue’. It was included in 1881 census. In the later censuses

‘Mother tongue was defined as the language first spoken by the individuals from the cradle’. In

1950 the Eighth Schedule listed 14 languages as Scheduled and the number now has risen to 22.

The language data presented in the census are represented as schedule and non-schedule

languages. The languages which were listed in the Eighth Schedule are called Scheduled

languages and the rest were Non-Scheduled languages. (Saba N, 2011).

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(Source: Census of India 2011)

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1.5 LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL IDENTITY:

Language and society are inter-related. Each language has many varieties. Language is a

sum of all those varieties. Language varieties indicate the speaker’s origin, the speakers who use

them and the contexts in which they are used. For example, the Tamil Speech community refers

their mother tongue as Tamil. There may be divisions like caste, region or religion. But as a

whole all those together come under the central Tamil entity.

TAMIL

Caste Region Religion

Brahmin Madras Hindu

Mudaliar Arcot Muslim

Padayacci Tirinivelli Christianity

The study of Tamils in Bangalore yields interesting insights into language and social

identity. The Iyengars of Bangalore exhibit themselves as a group whose Tamil is not acceptable

by the native Tamil speakers as standard. This speech community doesn’t use their language

outside of their homes. They mostly prefer Kannada, the state dominant language. Otherwise

they use English with code mixing of Tamil, Kannada and English. This group is treated as lower

in the Tamil speaking hierarchy. The distinction between Karnataka Tamil and Tamilnadu Tamil

varieties serve as good examples of this situation.

Tamil language distinctions:

Kannada Karnataka Tamil Tamil Nadu Tamil English gloss

bande vandhe vare ‘coming’

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This is used in the context when a visitor taps on the front door of a home and the hosts
answer ‘vandhe’.
houdha aamava apadiya ‘is that so’

In any given speech event there is the use of lexical items which are considered as feedback
signals. This is one usage.
aagala avardille mudiyad ‘not possible’

(Pattanayak.D.P, 1990)

Language and social identity are very much linked with ethnic identity. The notion of language

identity overlaps with the individual, group, regional and national identity. One has to look deep

into the social science disciplines to properly handle the issue of language identity.

Summary:
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2.0 Education Policy in India :

Language is not only a means of communication but also serves as a medium for gaining

knowledge. Knowledge can be self-gained. But education needs a proper training and

curriculum. It plays a vital role in shaping the personality of an individual. In olden days, there

were only classical languages served as a medium of instruction. During those days education

was only confined to upper caste people. They have gurukul system.

After the spread of Buddhism, education was available to everyone. Educational

institutions like Nalanda, Vikramashila and Takshashila were established to make education

available for everyone. “The medium of Buddhist education was the common language of the

people” (Jayapalan, 2005). The Muslims had maktabs (primary schools) and madarassas (higher

education) during the medieval period. There was no place for vernacular languages in

education. Mother Tongue gained its importance after the publication of UNESCO monograph

on using vernaculars in education in 1953.

With the arrival of British in India, there were many schools. The classical languages like

Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit, Arabic, Bengali, etc., are used as a medium of instruction. The British

didn’t pay much attention towards education during the beginning days of their arrival. Later the

missionaries started imparting education via English. The Charter of 1813 confused everyone.

Some were in favor of education in classical languages while the rest interested in their

vernacular language learning. Then came Macaulay’s minute which brought a big change in the

educational policy of India.

2.1 Macaulay’s Minute :

Macaulay visited India as a member of the supreme council of India. He criticized the

Charter of 1813 because there was no choice of languages in the educational system. He opposed
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education in vernacular languages and supported English education. The main points of his

Minute were :

 English is worth knowing than Sanskrit or Arabic.

 Natives should also be taught English.

 The English educated natives will serve as interpreters between us and the millions

whom we govern.

 English stands pre-eminent even among the languages of the West (Saba.N, 2011).

But this did not come into force. More than Macaulay’s Minute, Wood’s Dispatch of 1854 can

be regarded as the foundation of the present educational system in India. His recommendations

are :

 An education department was to be set up in every province.

 Universities on the model of the London University be established in big cities such as

Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.

 At least one government school should be opened in every district.

 Affiliated private schools should be given grant in aid.

 The Indian natives should be given training in their mother tongue also.

2.2 Education Commissions and their Recommendations :

For the improvement of education government has appointed many commissions and

committees to take care of the issues related to education. Each commission recommended some

new steps which pave a way for the better education in India.

S.No Name of the Education Commission Recommendation

1 The Conference of the Vice-chancellors of Replacement of English as the medium of

the Universities(1948) instruction at the university level.
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2 The Conference of the Education Ministers Mother Tongue as the medium of

of the State (1948) instruction at both primary and secondary
school levels
3 The University Education Commission Secondary students should know at least
(1949) three languages. i.e, regional language,
languages that links Hindi and English
4 The Secondary Education Commission Study of at least two other languages at
(1952) the higher primary level.
5 Kunzuru Committee (1955) Study of English by all University
students
6 The Central Advisory Board of Education Three Language Formula
(1957)
7 Kothari Commission (1964-66) Modification of Three Language Formula

(Sridhar. K, 1983)

2.3 Three Language Formula :

All these considerations together paved a way for the introduction of the Three Language

Formula in 1968 for the school education. This formula lays down the following languages for

teaching:

i. The regional language and the mother tongue when the latter differs from the regional

language.

ii. Hindi or in Hindi speaking areas another Indian language, and

iii. English or any other modern European language. (Srivastava.R.N, 1994)

The Three Language Formula failed due to the following reasons:

a) It was not properly implemented by all the States. The Southern States were not ready to

teach Hindi as well as the Northern States never included any south Indian language in

the schools.

b) The load of learning several languages in school

c) The cost of arranging teachers for instruction

d) Designation of languages as first, second and third.

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2.4 National Education Policy, 2019 (NEP):

The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) has constituted the Committee

under Chairman Dr. K. Kasturirangan in June 2017 for drafting National Education Policy. The

Committee has submitted its report in May 2019. The new draft of the National Education

Policy, 2019 proposes many changes in both school and higher education and focuses more on

research and innovation besides better governance systems. Salient features are:

 The policy aims to universalize the pre-primary education by 2025 and provide

foundational literacy/numeracy for all by 2025.

 Children learn languages, most quickly between 2-8 years, and multilingualism

has great cognitive benefits for students. Therefore a three-language formula has

been proposed.

 It proposes the teaching of other classical languages and literature, including

Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Pali, Persian, and Prakrit in schools.

 A new independent State School Regulatory Authority (SSRA) to be created

 It aims to consolidate 800 universities & 40,000 colleges into around 15,000

large, multidisciplinary institutions.

 The policy proposes three types of Higher Educational Institutions (HEIs):

Research Universities, Teaching Universities and Autonomous degree-granting

colleges.

 It aims to provide autonomy to all higher education institutions. Higher education

institutions to be governed by Independent Boards with complete academic and

administrative autonomy.
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 An autonomous body called the National Research Foundation (NRF) to be set up

through an Act of Parliament.

 Rashtriya Shiksha Aayog or the National Education Commission - apex body - to

be constituted. It will be chaired by the Prime Minister and will comprise eminent

educationists, researchers, Union Ministers, representation of Chief Ministers of

States, eminent professionals from various fields.

 MHRD to be re-designated as the Ministry of Education (MoE).

 Increase in public investment by the Central and State Governments to 20% of

overall public expenditure over a 10 year period.

(NEP Draft 2019)

Summary:
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CONCLUSION:

Language is a great asset of human society. India has a rich heritage of languages which

can play a significant role towards having insights into human behavior in pluralistic

societies. But in the present situation, the multiplicity of languages has been posing many

problems in the development of a nation. Rival claims are made by various political and

cultural agencies and pressure groups regarding language privileges in different spheres

of communication, conditioned by their divergent regional, educational and economic

interests. The root cause of many of such controversies seems to be the total disregard of

elementary facts of the role of language in social and individual life.

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REFERENCES:

Beg, M.K. (1996). Sociolinguistic Perspective of Hindi and Urdu in India. New Delhi:

Bahri Publications.

Census of India. (2011). Vol-1.

Chandra, Satish. (2001). Medieval India :A History Text Book for Class X1.New Delhi:

NCERT.

Ferguson, Charles A. (1966)

Haugen, Einar. (1956). Bilingualism in the Americas. A Bibliography and Research

Guide. Alabama: University of Alabama Press.

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