PRINCIPLES

OF MANAGEMENT
“They say that dedicating is one of the most
beautiful acts of love one can perform. I would
argue that it is even more beautiful to dedicate this
to you without saying my name”
 PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT (MG2351)

UNIT II PLANNING
Nature and purpose of planning - Planning process - Types of plans – Objectives - -
Managing by objective (MBO) Strategies - Types of strategies - Policies - Decision
Making - Types of decision - Decision Making Process - Rational Decision Making
Process - Decision Making under different conditions.

UNIT III ORGANIZING

Nature and purpose of organizing - Organization structure - Formal and informal groups
organization - Line and Staff authority - Departmentation - Span of control -
Centralization and Decentralization - Delegation of authority - Staffing - Selection and
Recruitment - Orientation - Career Development - Career stages – Training - -
Performance Appraisal.

UNIT IV DIRECTING
Creativity and Innovation - Motivation and Satisfaction - Motivation Theories -
Leadership Styles - Leadership theories

UNIT V CONTROLLING
Process of controlling - Types of control - Budgetary and non-budgetary control
techniques - Managing Productivity - Cost Control - Purchase Control - Maintenance
Control - Quality Control - Planning operations.
 UNIT II
PLANNING

DEFINITION
According to Koontz O'Donnel - "Planning is an intellectual process, the conscious
determination of courses of action, the basing of decisions on purpose, acts and considered
estimates".

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF PLANNING

Nature of Planning
1. Planning is goal-oriented: Every plan must contribute in some positive way towards the
accomplishment of group objectives. Planning has no meaning without being related to goals.
2. Primacy of Planning: Planning is the first of the managerial functions. It precedes all other
management functions.
3. Pervasiveness of Planning: Planning is found at all levels of management. Top
management looks after strategic planning. Middle management is in charge of administrative
planning. Lower management has to concentrate on operational planning.
4. Efficiency, Economy and Accuracy: Efficiency of plan is measured by its contribution to the
objectives as economically as possible. Planning also focuses on accurate forecasts.
5. Co-ordination: Planning co-ordinates the what, who, how, where and why of planning.
Without co-ordination of all activities, we cannot have united efforts.
6. Limiting Factors: A planner must recognize the limiting factors (money, manpower etc) and
formulate plans in the light of these critical factors.
7. Flexibility: The process of planning should be adaptable to changing environmental
conditions.
8. Planning is an intellectual process: The quality of planning will vary according to the
quality of the mind of the manager.

Purpose of Planning
As a managerial function planning is important due to the following reasons:-
1. To manage by objectives: All the activities of an organization are designed to achieve
certain specified objectives. However, planning makes the objectives more concrete by focusing
attention on them.
2. To offset uncertainty and change: Future is always full of uncertainties and changes.
Planning foresees the future and makes the necessary provisions for it.
3. To secure economy in operation: Planning involves, the selection of most profitable course
of action that would lead to the best result at the minimum costs.
4. To help in co-ordination: Co-ordination is, indeed, the essence of management, the
planning is the base of it. Without planning it is not possible to co-ordinate the different activities
of an organization.
5. To make control effective: The controlling function of management relates to the
comparison of the planned performance with the actual performance. In the absence of plans, a
management will have no standards for controlling other's performance.
6. To increase organizational effectiveness: Mere efficiency in the organization is not
important; it should also lead to productivity and effectiveness. Planning enables the manager to
measure the organizational effectiveness in the context of the stated objectives and take further
actions in this direction.

Features of Planning
• It is primary function of management.
• It is an intellectual process
• Focuses on determining the objectives
• Involves choice and decision making
• It is a continuous process
• It is a pervasive function

Classification of Planning
On the basis of content
• Strategic Planning
– It is the process of deciding on Long-term objectives of the organization.
– It encompasses all the functional areas of business

• Tactical Planning
 – It involves conversion of detailed and specific plans into detailed and specific
action plans.
– It is the blue print for current action and it supports the strategic plans.

On the basis of time period

• Long term planning
– Time frame beyond five years.
– It specifies what the organization wants to become in long run.
– It involves great deal of uncertainty.
• Intermediate term planning
– Time frame between two and five years.
– It is designed to implement long term plans.
• Short term planning
– Time frame of one year or less.
– It provide basis for day to day operations.

PLANNING PROCESS
The various steps involved in planning are given below
a) Perception of Opportunities:
Although preceding actual planning and therefore not strictly a part of the planning
process, awareness of an opportunity is the real starting point for planning. It includes a
preliminary look at possible future opportunities and the ability to see them clearly and
completely, knowledge of where we stand in the light of our strengths and weaknesses, an
understanding of why we wish to solve uncertainties, and a vision of what we expect to gain.
Setting realistic objectives depends on this awareness. Planning requires realistic diagnosis of
the opportunity situation.

b) Establishing Objectives:
The first step in planning itself is to establish objectives for the entire enterprise and then
for each subordinate unit. Objectives specifying the results expected indicate the end points of
what is to be done, where the primary emphasis is to be placed, and what is to be accomplished
by the network of strategies, policies, procedures, rules, budgets and programs.
Enterprise objectives should give direction to the nature of all major plans which, by
reflecting these objectives, define the objectives of major departments. Major department
objectives, in turn, control the objectives of subordinate departments, and so on down the line.
The objectives of lesser departments will be better framed, however, if subdivision managers
understand the overall enterprise objectives and the implied derivative goals and if they are
given an opportunity to contribute their ideas to them and to the setting of their own goals.

c) Considering the Planning Premises:

Another logical step in planning is to establish, obtain agreement to utilize and disseminate
critical planning premises. These are forecast data of a factual nature, applicable basic policies,
and existing company plans. Premises, then, are planning assumptions – in other words, the
expected environment of plans in operation. This step leads to one of the major principles of
planning.
The more individuals charged with planning understand and agree to utilize consistent planning
premises, the more coordinated enterprise planning will be.
Planning premises include far more than the usual basic forecasts of population, prices, costs,
production, markets, and similar matters.
Because the future environment of plans is so complex, it would not be profitable or realistic to
make assumptions about every detail of the future environment of a plan.
Since agreement to utilize a given set of premises is important to coordinate planning, it
becomes a major responsibility of managers, starting with those at the top, to make sure that
subordinate managers understand the premises upon which they are expected to plan. It is not
unusual for chief executives in well- managed companies to force top managers with differing
views, through group deliberation, to arrive at a set of major premises that all can accept.

d) Identification of alternatives:
Once the organizational objectives have been clearly stated and the planning premises
have been developed, the manager should list as many available alternatives as possible for
reaching those objectives.
The focus of this step is to search for and examine alternative courses of action, especially
those not immediately apparent. There is seldom a plan for which reasonable alternatives do
not exist, and quite often an alternative that is not obvious proves to be the best.
The more common problem is not finding alternatives, but reducing the number of alternatives
so that the most promising may be analyzed. Even with mathematical techniques and the
computer, there is a limit to the number of alternatives that may be examined. It is therefore
usually necessary for the planner to reduce by preliminary examination the number of
alternatives to those promising the most fruitful possibilities or by mathematically eliminating,
through the process of approximation, the least promising ones.

e) Evaluation of alternatives
Having sought out alternative courses and examined their strong and weak points, the
following step is to evaluate them by weighing the various factors in the light of premises and
goals. One course may appear to be the most profitable but require a large cash outlay and a
slow payback; another may be less profitable but involve less risk; still another may better suit
the company in long–range objectives.
If the only objective were to examine profits in a certain business immediately, if the future were
not uncertain, if cash position and capital availability were not worrisome, and if most factors
could be reduced to definite data, this evaluation should be relatively easy. But typical planning
is replete with uncertainties, problems of capital shortages, and intangible factors, and so
evaluation is usually very difficult, even with relatively simple problems. A company may wish to
enter a new product line primarily for purposes of prestige; the forecast of expected results may
show a clear financial loss, but the question is still open as to whether the loss is worth the gain.
f) Choice of alternative plans
An evaluation of alternatives must include an evaluation of the premises on which the
alternatives are based. A manager usually finds that some premises are unreasonable and can
therefore be excluded from further consideration. This elimination process helps the manager
determine which alternative would best accomplish organizational objectives.

g) Formulating of Supporting Plans

After decisions are made and plans are set, the final step to give them meaning is to numberize
them by converting them to budgets. The overall budgets of an enterprise represent the sum
total of income and expenses with resultant profit or surplus and budgets of major balance–
sheet items such as cash and capital expenditures. Each department or program of a business
or other enterprise can have its own budgets, usually of expenses and capital expenditures,
which tie into the overall budget.
If this process is done well, budgets become a means of adding together the various plans and
also important standards against which planning progress can be measured.

h) Establishing sequence of activities

Once plans that furnish the organization with both long-range and short-range direction have
been developed, they must be implemented. Obviously, the organization can not directly benefit
from planning process until this step is performed.

TYPES OF PLANS / COMPONENTS OF PLANNING

In the process of planning, several plans are prepared which are known as components of
planning.
Plans can be broadly classified as
a) Strategic plans
b) Tactical plans
c) Operational plans

Operational plans lead to the achievement of tactical plans, which in turn lead to the attainment
of strategic plans. In addition to these three types of plans, managers should also develop a
contingency plan in case their original plans fail.

a) Strategic plans:
A strategic plan is an outline of steps designed with the goals of the entire organization as a
whole in mind, rather than with the goals of specific divisions or departments. It is further
classified as

i) Mission:
. The mission is a statement that reflects the basic purpose and focus of the organization which
normally remain unchanged. The mission of the company is the answer of the question : why
does the organization exists?
Properly crafted mission statements serve as filters to separate what is important from what is
not, clearly state which markets will be served and how, and communicate a sense of intended
direction to the entire organization.
Mission of Ford: “we are a global, diverse family with a proud inheritance, providing exceptional
products and services”.

ii) Objectives or goals:

Both goal and objective can be defined as statements that reflect the end towards which the
organization is aiming to achieve. However, there are significant differences between the two. A
goal is an abstract and general umbrella statement, under which specific objectives can be
clustered. Objectives are statements that describe—in precise, measurable, and obtainable
terms which reflect the desired organization’s outcomes.

iii) Strategies:
Strategy is the determination of the basic long term objectives of an organization and the
adoption of action and collection of action and allocation of resources necessary to achieve
these goals.
Strategic planning begins with an organization's mission. Strategic plans look ahead over the
next two, three, five, or even more years to move the organization from where it currently is to
where it wants to be. Requiring multilevel involvement, these plans demand harmony among all
levels of management within the organization. Top-level management develops the directional
objectives for the entire organization, while lower levels of management develop compatible
objectives and plans to achieve them. Top management's strategic plan for the entire
organization becomes the framework and sets dimensions for the lower level planning.

b) Tactical plans:
A tactical plan is concerned with what the lower level units within each division must do,
how they must do it, and who is in charge at each level. Tactics are the means needed to
activate a strategy and make it work.
Tactical plans are concerned with shorter time frames and narrower scopes than are strategic
plans. These plans usually span one year or less because they are considered short-term goals.
Long-term goals, on the other hand, can take several years or more to accomplish. Normally, it
is the middle manager's responsibility to take the broad strategic plan and identify specific
tactical actions.

c) Operational plans
The specific results expected from departments, work groups, and individuals are the
operational goals. These goals are precise and measurable. “Process 150 sales applications
each week” or “Publish 20 books this quarter” are examples of operational goals.
An operational plan is one that a manager uses to accomplish his or her job responsibilities.
Supervisors, team leaders, and facilitators develop operational plans to support tactical plans
(see the next section). Operational plans can be a single-use plan or a standing plan.
i) Single-use plans apply to activities that do not recur or repeat. A one-time
occurrence, such as a special sales program, is a single-use plan because it deals with
the who, what, where, how, and how much of an activity.
 Programme: Programme consists of an ordered list of events to be followed to
execute a project.
 Budget: A budget predicts sources and amounts of income and how much they are
used for a specific project.
ii) Standing plans are usually made once and retain their value over a period of years
while undergoing periodic revisions and updates. The following are examples of ongoing
plans:
 Policy: A policy provides a broad guideline for managers to follow when dealing with
important areas of decision making. Policies are general statements that explain how
a manager should attempt to handle routine management responsibilities. Typical
human resources policies, for example, address such matters as employee hiring,
terminations, performance appraisals, pay increases, and discipline.
 Procedure: A procedure is a set of step-by-step directions that explains how
activities or tasks are to be carried out. Most organizations have procedures for
purchasing supplies and equipment, for example. This procedure usually begins with
a supervisor completing a purchasing requisition. The requisition is then sent to the
next level of management for approval. The approved requisition is forwarded to the
purchasing department. Depending on the amount of the request, the purchasing
department may place an order, or they may need to secure quotations and/or bids
for several vendors before placing the order. By defining the steps to be taken and
 the order in which they are to be done, procedures provide a standardized way of
responding to a repetitive problem.
 Rule: A rule is an explicit statement that tells an employee what he or she can and
cannot do. Rules are “do” and “don't” statements put into place to promote the safety
of employees and the uniform treatment and behavior of employees. For example,
rules about tardiness and absenteeism permit supervisors to make discipline
decisions rapidly and with a high degree of fairness.

d) Contingency plans
Intelligent and successful management depends upon a constant pursuit of adaptation,
flexibility, and mastery of changing conditions. Strong management requires a “keeping all
options open” approach at all times — that's where contingency planning comes in.
Contingency planning involves identifying alternative courses of action that can be implemented
if and when the original plan proves inadequate because of changing circumstances.
Keep in mind that events beyond a manager's control may cause even the most carefully
prepared alternative future scenarios to go awry. Unexpected problems and events frequently
occur. When they do, managers may need to change their plans. Anticipating change during the
planning process is best in case things don't go as expected. Management can then develop
alternatives to the existing plan and ready them for use when and if circumstances make these
alternatives appropriate.

OBJECTIVES
Objectives may be defined as the goals which an organisation tries to achieve.
Objectives are described as the end- points of planning. According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "an
objective is a term commonly used to indicate the end point of a management programme."
Objectives constitute the purpose of the enterprise and without them no intelligent planning can
take place.
Objectives are, therefore, the ends towards which the activities of the enterprise are aimed.
They are present not only the end-point of planning but also the end towards which organizing,
directing and controlling are aimed. Objectives provide direction to various activities. They also
serve as the benchmark of measuring the efficiency and effectiveness of the enterprise.
Objectives make every human activity purposeful. Planning has no meaning if it is not related to
certain objectives.
Features of Objectives
 The objectives must be predetermined.
 A clearly defined objective provides the clear direction for managerial effort.
 Objectives must be realistic.
 Objectives must be measurable.
 Objectives must have social sanction.
 All objectives are interconnected and mutually supportive.
 Objectives may be short-range, medium-range and long-range.
 Objectives may be constructed into a hierarchy.

Advantages of Objectives
 Clear definition of objectives encourages unified planning.
 Objectives provide motivation to people in the organization.
 When the work is goal-oriented, unproductive tasks can be avoided.
 Objectives provide standards which aid in the control of human efforts in an
organization.
 Objectives serve to identify the organization and to link it to the groups upon which its
existence depends.
 Objectives act as a sound basis for developing administrative controls.
 Objectives contribute to the management process: they influence the purpose of the
organization, policies, personnel, leadership as well as managerial control.

Process of Setting Objectives

Objectives are the keystone of management planning. It is the most important task of
management. Objectives are required to be set in every area which directly and vitally effects
the survival and prosperity of the business. In the setting of objectives, the following points
should be borne in mind.
 Objectives are required to be set by management in every area which directly and vitally
affects the survival and prosperity of the business.
 The objectives to be set in various areas have to be identified.
 While setting the objectives, the past performance must be reviewed, since past
performance indicates what the organization will be able to accomplish in future.
  The objectives should be set in realistic terms i.e., the objectives to be set should be
reasonable and capable of attainment.
 Objectives must be consistent with one and other.
 Objectives must be set in clear-cut terms.
 For the successful accomplishment of the objectives, there should be effective
communication.

MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)

MBO was first popularized by Peter Drucker in 1954 in his book 'The practice of
Management’. It is a process of agreeing within an organization so that management and
employees buy into the objectives and understand what they are. It has a precise and written
description objectives ahead, timelines for their motoring and achievement.
The employees and manager agree to what the employee will attempt to achieve in a period
ahead and the employee will accept and buy into the objectives.
Definition
“MBO is a process whereby the superior and the mangers of an organization jointly identify its
common goals, define each individual’s major area of responsibility in terms of results expected
of him, and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution
of each of its members.”
Features of MBO
1. MBO is concerned with goal setting and planning for individual managers and their units.
2. The essence of MBO is a process of joint goal setting between a supervisor and a
subordinate.
3. Managers work with their subordinates to establish the performance goals that are
consistent with their higher organizational objectives.
4. MBO focuses attention on appropriate goals and plans.
5. MBO facilitates control through the periodic development and subsequent evaluation of
individual goals and plans.
Steps in MBO:

The typical MBO process consists of:

1) Establishing a clear and precisely defined statement of objectives for the employee
2) Developing an action plan indicating how these objectives are to be achieved
3) Reviewing the performance of the employees
4) Appraising performance based on objective achievement

1) Setting objectives:
For Management by Objectives (MBO) to be effective, individual managers must understand the
specific objectives of their job and how those objectives fit in with the overall company
objectives set by the board of directors.
The managers of the various units or sub-units, or sections of an organization should know not
only the objectives of their unit but should also actively participate in setting these objectives
and make responsibility for them.
Management by Objective (MBO) systems, objectives are written down for each level of the
organization, and individuals are given specific aims and targets.
Managers need to identify and set objectives both for themselves, their units, and their
organizations.

2) Developing action plans

Actions plans specify the actions needed to address each of the top organizational issues and
to reach each of the associated goals, who will complete each action and according to what
timeline. An overall, top-level action plan that depicts how each strategic goal will be reached is
developed by the top level management. The format of the action plan depends on the objective
of the organization.

3) Reviewing Progress:
Performance is measured in terms of results. Job performance is the net effect of an employee's
effort as modified by abilities, role perceptions and results produced. Effort refers to the amount
of energy an employee uses in performing a job. Abilities are personal characteristics used in
performing a job and usually do not fluctuate widely over short periods of time. Role perception
refers to the direction in which employees believe they should channel their efforts on their jobs,
and they are defined by the activities and behaviors they believe are necessary.

4) Performance appraisal:
Performance appraisals communicate to employees how they are performing their jobs, and
they establish a plan for improvement. Performance appraisals are extremely important to both
employee and employer, as they are often used to provide predictive information related to
possible promotion. Appraisals can also provide input for determining both individual and
organizational training and development needs. Performance appraisals encourage
performance improvement. Feedback on behavior, attitude, skill or knowledge clarifies for
employees the job expectations their managers hold for them. In order to be effective,
performance appraisals must be supported by documentation and management commitment.

Advantages
 Motivation – Involving employees in the whole process of goal setting and increasing
employee empowerment. This increases employee job satisfaction and commitment.
 Better communication and Coordination – Frequent reviews and interactions between
superiors and subordinates helps to maintain harmonious relationships within the
organization and also to solve many problems.
 Clarity of goals
 Subordinates have a higher commitment to objectives they set themselves than those
imposed on them by another person.
 Managers can ensure that objectives of the subordinates are linked to the organization's
objectives.

Limitations
There are several limitations to the assumptive base underlying the impact of managing by
objectives, including:
 It over-emphasizes the setting of goals over the working of a plan as a driver of outcomes.
 It underemphasizes the importance of the environment or context in which the goals are set.
That context includes everything from the availability and quality of resources, to relative
buy-in by leadership and stake-holders.
 Companies evaluated their employees by comparing them with the "ideal" employee. Trait
appraisal only looks at what employees should be, not at what they should do.
When this approach is not properly set, agreed and managed by organizations, self-centered
employees might be prone to distort results, falsely representing achievement of targets that
were set in a short-term, narrow fashion. In this case, managing by objectives would be
counterproductive.

STRATEGIES
The term 'Strategy' has been adapted from war and is being increasingly used in
business to reflect broad overall objectives and policies of an enterprise. Literally speaking, the
term 'Strategy' stands for the war-art of the military general, compelling the enemy to fight as
per out chosen terms and conditions.
According to Koontz and O' Donnell, "Strategies must often denote a general programme of
action and deployment of emphasis and resources to attain comprehensive objectives".
Strategies are plans made in the light of the plans of the competitors because a modern
business institution operates in a competitive environment. They are a useful framework for
guiding enterprise thinking and action. A perfect strategy can be built only on perfect knowledge
of the plans of others in the industry. This may be done by the management of a firm putting
itself in the place of a rival firm and trying to estimate their plans.
Characteristics of Strategy
 It is the right combination of different factors.
 It relates the business organization to the environment.
 It is an action to meet a particular challenge, to solve particular problems or to attain
desired objectives.
 Strategy is a means to an end and not an end in itself.
 It is formulated at the top management level.
 It involves assumption of certain calculated risks.

Strategic Planning Process / Strategic Formulation Process

1. Input to the Organization: Various Inputs (People, Capital, Management and Technical
skills, others) including goals input of claimants (Employees, Consumers, Suppliers,
Stockholders, Government, Community and others)need to be elaborated.
2. Industry Analysis: Formulation of strategy requires the evaluation of the attractiveness
of an industry by analyzing the external environment. The focus should be on the kind of
compaction within an industry, the possibility of new firms entering the market, the
availability of substitute products or services, the bargaining positions of the suppliers,
and buyers or customers.
3. Enterprise Profile: Enterprise profile is usually the starting point for determining where
the company is and where it should go. Top managers determine the basic purpose of
the enterprise and clarify the firm’s geographic orientation.
4. Orientation, Values, and Vision of Executives: The enterprise profile is shaped by
people, especially executives, and their orientation and values are important for
formulation the strategy. They set the organizational climate, and they determine the
direction of the firm though their vision. Consequently, their values, their preferences,
and their attitudes toward risk have to be carefully examined because they have an
impact on the strategy.
5. Mission (Purpose), Major Objectives, and Strategic Intent: Mission or Purpose is the
answer to the question: What is our business? The major Objectives are the end points
towards which the activates of the enterprise are directed. Strategic intent is the
commitment (obsession) to win in the competitive environment, not only at the top-level
but also throughout the organization.
6. Present and Future External Environment: The present and future external
environment must be assessed in terms of threats and opportunities.
 7. Internal Environment: Internal Environment should be audited and evaluated with
respect to its resources and its weaknesses, and strengths in research and
development, production, operation, procurement, marketing and products and services.
Other internal factors include, human resources and financial resources as well as the
company image, the organization structure and climate, the planning and control system,
and relations with customers.
8. Development of Alternative Strategies: Strategic alternatives are developed on the
basis of an analysis of the external and internal environment. Strategies may be
specialize or concentrate. Alternatively, a firm may diversify, extending the operation into
new and profitable markets. Other examples of possible strategies are joint ventures,
and strategic alliances which may be an appropriate strategy for some firms.
9. Evaluation and Choice of Strategies: Strategic choices must be considered in the light
of the risk involved in a particular decision. Some profitable opportunities may not be
pursued because a failure in a risky venture could result in bankruptcy of the firm.
Another critical element in choosing a strategy is timing. Even the best product may fail if
it is introduced to the market at an inappropriate time.
10. Medium/Short Range Planning, Implementation through Reengineering the
Organization Structure, Leadership and Control: Implementation of the Strategy
often requires reengineering the organization, staffing the organization structure and
providing leadership. Controls must also be installed monitoring performance against
plans.
11. Consistency Testing and Contingency Planning: The last key aspect of the strategic
planning process is the testing for consistency and preparing for contingency plans.

TYPES OF STRATEGIES
According to Michel Porter, the strategies can be classified into three types. They are
a) Cost leadership strategy
b) Differentiation strategy
c) Focus strategy

The following table illustrates Porter's generic strategies:

a) Cost Leadership Strategy
This generic strategy calls for being the low cost producer in an industry for a given level of
quality. The firm sells its products either at average industry prices to earn a profit higher than
that of rivals, or below the average industry prices to gain market share. In the event of a price
war, the firm can maintain some profitability while the competition suffers losses. Even without a
price war, as the industry matures and prices decline, the firms that can produce more cheaply
will remain profitable for a longer period of time. The cost leadership strategy usually targets a
broad market.
Some of the ways that firms acquire cost advantages are by improving process efficiencies,
gaining unique access to a large source of lower cost materials, making optimal outsourcing and
vertical integration decisions, or avoiding some costs altogether. If competing firms are unable
to lower their costs by a similar amount, the firm may be able to sustain a competitive
advantage based on cost leadership.
Firms that succeed in cost leadership often have the following internal strengths:
 Access to the capital required to make a significant investment in production assets; this
investment represents a barrier to entry that many firms may not overcome.
 Skill in designing products for efficient manufacturing, for example, having a small
component count to shorten the assembly process.
 High level of expertise in manufacturing process engineering.
 Efficient distribution channels.
Each generic strategy has its risks, including the low-cost strategy. For example, other firms
may be able to lower their costs as well. As technology improves, the competition may be able
to leapfrog the production capabilities, thus eliminating the competitive advantage. Additionally,
several firms following a focus strategy and targeting various narrow markets may be able to
achieve an even lower cost within their segments and as a group gain significant market share.

b) Differentiation Strategy
A differentiation strategy calls for the development of a product or service that offers unique
attributes that are valued by customers and that customers perceive to be better than or
different from the products of the competition. The value added by the uniqueness of the
product may allow the firm to charge a premium price for it. The firm hopes that the higher price
will more than cover the extra costs incurred in offering the unique product. Because of the
product's unique attributes, if suppliers increase their prices the firm may be able to pass along
the costs to its customers who cannot find substitute products easily.
Firms that succeed in a differentiation strategy often have the following internal strengths:
 Access to leading scientific research.
 Highly skilled and creative product development team.
 Strong sales team with the ability to successfully communicate the perceived strengths
of the product.
 Corporate reputation for quality and innovation.
The risks associated with a differentiation strategy include imitation by competitors and changes
in customer tastes. Additionally, various firms pursuing focus strategies may be able to achieve
even greater differentiation in their market segments.

c) Focus Strategy
The focus strategy concentrates on a narrow segment and within that segment attempts to
achieve either a cost advantage or differentiation. The premise is that the needs of the group
can be better serviced by focusing entirely on it. A firm using a focus strategy often enjoys a
high degree of customer loyalty, and this entrenched loyalty discourages other firms from
competing directly.
Because of their narrow market focus, firms pursuing a focus strategy have lower volumes and
therefore less bargaining power with their suppliers. However, firms pursuing a differentiation-
focused strategy may be able to pass higher costs on to customers since close substitute
products do not exist.
Firms that succeed in a focus strategy are able to tailor a broad range of product development
strengths to a relatively narrow market segment that they know very well.
Some risks of focus strategies include imitation and changes in the target segments.
Furthermore, it may be fairly easy for a broad-market cost leader to adapt its product in order to
compete directly. Finally, other focusers may be able to carve out sub-segments that they can
serve even better.

A Combination of Generic Strategies

These generic strategies are not necessarily compatible with one another. If a firm attempts to
achieve an advantage on all fronts, in this attempt it may achieve no advantage at all. For
example, if a firm differentiates itself by supplying very high quality products, it risks
undermining that quality if it seeks to become a cost leader. Even if the quality did not suffer, the
firm would risk projecting a confusing image. For this reason, Michael Porter argued that to be
successful over the long-term, a firm must select only one of these three generic strategies.
Otherwise, with more than one single generic strategy the firm will be "stuck in the middle" and
will not achieve a competitive advantage.
Porter argued that firms that are able to succeed at multiple strategies often do so by creating
separate business units for each strategy. By separating the strategies into different units
having different policies and even different cultures, a corporation is less likely to become "stuck
in the middle."
However, there exists a viewpoint that a single generic strategy is not always best because
within the same product customers often seek multi-dimensional satisfactions such as a
combination of quality, style, convenience, and price. There have been cases in which high
quality producers faithfully followed a single strategy and then suffered greatly when another
firm entered the market with a lower-quality product that better met the overall needs of the
customers.

POLICIES
Policies are general statements or understandings that guide managers’ thinking in
decision making. They usually do not require action but are intended to guide managers in their
commitment to the decision they ultimately make.

The first step in the process of policy formulation, as shown in the diagram below, is to
capture the values or principles that will guide the rest of the process and form the basis on
which to produce a statement of issues. The statement of issues involves identifying the
opportunities and constraints affecting the local housing market, and is to be produced by
thoroughly analyzing the housing market. The kit provides the user with access to a housing
data base to facilitate this analysis.
The statement of issues will provide the basis for the formulation of a set of housing goals and
objectives, designed to address the problems identified and to exploit the opportunities which
present themselves.

The next step is to identify and analyze the various policy options which can be applied to
achieve the set of goals and objectives. The options available to each local government will
depend on local circumstances as much as the broader context and each local authority will
have to develop its own unique approach to addressing the housing needs of its residents.
An implementation program for realizing the policy recommendations must then be prepared,
addressing budgetary and programming requirements, and allocating roles and responsibilities.
Finally, the implementation of the housing strategy needs to be systematically monitored and
evaluated against the stated goals and objectives, and the various components of the strategy
modified or strengthened, as required.
At each step of the way, each component of the strategy needs to be discussed and debated,
and a public consultation process engaged in. The extent of consultation and the participants
involved will vary with each step.

Essentials of Policy Formulation

The essentials of policy formation may be listed as below:
 A policy should be definite, positive and clear. It should be understood by everyone in
the organization.
 A policy should be translatable into the practices.
 A policy should be flexible and at the same time have a high degree of permanency.
 A policy should be formulated to cover all reasonable anticipatable conditions.
 A policy should be founded upon facts and sound judgment.
 A policy should conform to economic principles, statutes and regulations.
 A policy should be a general statement of the established rule.

Importance of Policies
Policies are useful for the following reasons:
 They provide guides to thinking and action and provide support to the subordinates.
 They delimit the area within which a decision is to be made.
  They save time and effort by pre-deciding problems and
 They permit delegation of authority to mangers at the lower levels.

DECISION MAKING
The word decision has been derived from the Latin word "decidere" which means
"cutting off". Thus, decision involves cutting off of alternatives between those that are desirable
and those that are not desirable.
In the words of George R. Terry, "Decision-making is the selection based on some criteria from
two or more possible alternatives".

Characteristics of Decision Making

 Decision making implies that there are various alternatives and the most desirable
alternative is chosen to solve the problem or to arrive at expected results.
 The decision-maker has freedom to choose an alternative.
 Decision-making may not be completely rational but may be judgemental and emotional.
 Decision-making is goal-oriented.
 Decision-making is a mental or intellectual process because the final decision is made by
the decision-maker.
 A decision may be expressed in words or may be implied from behaviour.
 Choosing from among the alternative courses of operation implies uncertainty about the final
result of each possible course of operation.
 Decision making is rational. It is taken only after a thorough analysis and reasoning and
weighing the consequences of the various alternatives.

TYPES OF DECISIONS
a) Programmed and Non-Programmed Decisions: Herbert Simon has grouped organizational
decisions into two categories based on the procedure followed. They are:
i) Programmed decisions: Programmed decisions are routine and repetitive and are
made within the framework of organizational policies and rules. These policies and rules
are established well in advance to solve recurring problems in the organization.
Programmed decisions have short-run impact. They are, generally, taken at the lower
level of management.
 ii) Non-Programmed Decisions: Non-programmed decisions are decisions taken to
meet non-repetitive problems. Non-programmed decisions are relevant for solving
unique/ unusual problems in which various alternatives cannot be decided in advance. A
common feature of non-programmed decisions is that they are novel and non-recurring
and therefore, readymade solutions are not available. Since these decisions are of high
importance and have long-term consequences, they are made by top level management.
b) Strategic and Tactical Decisions: Organizational decisions may also be classified as
strategic or tactical.
i) Strategic Decisions: Basic decisions or strategic decisions are decisions which are of
crucial importance. Strategic decisions a major choice of actions concerning allocation of
resources and contribution to the achievement of organizational objectives. Decisions
like plant location, product diversification, entering into new markets, selection of
channels of distribution, capital expenditure etc are examples of basic or strategic
decisions.
ii) Tactical Decisions: Routine decisions or tactical decisions are decisions which are
routine and repetitive. They are derived out of strategic decisions. The various features
of a tactical decision are as follows:
 Tactical decision relates to day-to-day operation of the organization and has to
be taken very frequently.
 Tactical decision is mostly a programmed one. Therefore, the decision can be
made within the context of these variables.
 The outcome of tactical decision is of short-term nature and affects a narrow part
of the organization.
 The authority for making tactical decisions can be delegated to lower level
managers because: first, the impact of tactical decision is narrow and of short-
term nature and Second, by delegating authority for such decisions to lower-level
managers, higher level managers are free to devote more time on strategic
decisions.
DECISION MAKING PROCESS
The decision making process is presented in the figure below:

1. Specific Objective: The need for decision making arises in order to achieve certain specific
objectives. The starting point in any analysis of decision making involves the determination of
whether a decision needs to be made.
2. Problem Identification: A problem is a felt need, a question which needs a solution. In the
words of Joseph L Massie "A good decision is dependent upon the recognition of the right
problem". The objective of problem identification is that if the problem is precisely and
specifically identifies, it will provide a clue in finding a possible solution. A problem can be
identified clearly, if managers go through diagnosis and analysis of the problem.
Diagnosis: Diagnosis is the process of identifying a problem from its signs and
symptoms. A symptom is a condition or set of conditions that indicates the existence of a
problem. Diagnosing the real problem implies knowing the gap between what is and
what ought to be, identifying the reasons for the gap and understanding the problem in
relation to higher objectives of the organization.
Analysis: Diagnosis gives rise to analysis. Analysis of a problem requires:
 Who would make decision?
 What information would be needed?
 From where the information is available?
Analysis helps managers to gain an insight into the problem.
3. Search for Alternatives: A problem can be solved in several ways; however, all the ways
cannot be equally satisfying. Therefore, the decision maker must try to find out the various
alternatives available in order to get the most satisfactory result of a decision. A decision maker
can use several sources for identifying alternatives:
  His own past experiences
 Practices followed by others and
 Using creative techniques.
4. Evaluation of Alternatives: After the various alternatives are identified, the next step is to
evaluate them and select the one that will meet the choice criteria. /the decision maker must
check proposed alternatives against limits, and if an alternative does not meet them, he can
discard it. Having narrowed down the alternatives which require serious consideration, the
decision maker will go for evaluating how each alternative may contribute towards the objective
supposed to be achieved by implementing the decision.
5. Choice of Alternative: The evaluation of various alternatives presents a clear picture as to
how each one of them contribute to the objectives under question. A comparison is made
among the likely outcomes of various alternatives and the best one is chosen.
6. Action: Once the alternative is selected, it is put into action. The actual process of decision
making ends with the choice of an alternative through which the objectives can be achieved.
7. Results: When the decision is put into action, it brings certain results. These results must
correspond with objectives, the starting point of decision process, if good decision has been
made and implemented properly. Thus, results provide indication whether decision making and
its implementation is proper.

Characteristics of Effective Decisions

An effective decision is one which should contain three aspects. These aspects are given
below:
 Action Orientation: Decisions are action-oriented and are directed towards relevant and
controllable aspects of the environment. Decisions should ultimately find their utility in
implementation.
 Goal Direction: Decision making should be goal-directed to enable the organization to meet
its objectives.
 Effective in Implementation: Decision making should take into account all the possible
factors not only in terms of external context but also in internal context so that a decision
can be implemented properly.
RATIONAL DECISION MAKING MODEL

The Rational Decision Making Model is a model which emerges from Organizational Behavior.
The process is one that is logical and follows the orderly path from problem identification
through solution. It provides a structured and sequenced approach to decision making. Using
such an approach can help to ensure discipline and consistency is built into your decision
making process.

The Six-Step Rational Decision-Making Model

1. Define the problem.
2. Identify decision criteria
3. Weight the criteria
4. Generate alternatives
5. Rate each alternative on each criterion
6. Compute the optimal decision
1) Defining the problem
This is the initial step of the rational decision making process. First the problem is identied and
then defined to get a clear view of the situation.

2) Identify decision criteria

Once a decision maker has defined the problem, he or she needs to identify the decision criteria
that will be important in solving the problem. In this step, the decision maker is determining
what’s relevant in making the decision.
This step brings the decision maker’s interests, values, and personal preferences into the
process.
Identifying criteria is important because what one person thinks is relevant, another may not.
Also keep in mind that any factors not identified in this step are considered as irrelevant to the
decision maker.

3) Weight the criteria

The decision-maker weights the previously identified criteria in order to give them correct priority
in the decision.

4) Generate alternatives
The decision maker generates possible alternatives that could succeed in resolving the
problem. No attempt is made in this step to appraise these alternatives, only to list them.

5) Rate each alternative on each criterion

The decision maker must critically analyze and evaluate each one. The strengths and weakness
of each alternative become evident as they compared with the criteria and weights established
in second and third steps.

6) Compute the optimal decision

Evaluating each alternative against the weighted criteria and selecting the alternative with the
highest total score.
DECISION MAKING UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS
The conditions for making decisions can be divided into three types. Namely a) Certainty, b)
Uncertainty and c) Risk

Virtually all decisions are made in an environment to at least some uncertainty However; the
degree will vary from relative certainty to great uncertainty. There are certain risks involved in
making decisions.

a) Certainty:
In a situation involving certainty, people are reasonably sure about what will happen when they
make a decision. The information is available and is considered to be reliable, and the cause
and effect relationships are known.

b) Uncertainty
In a situation of uncertainty, on the other hand, people have only a meager database, they do
not know whether or not the data are reliable, and they are very unsure about whether or not the
situation may change.
Moreover, they cannot evaluate the interactions of the different variables. For example, a
corporation that decides to expand its Operation to an unfamiliar country may know little about
the country, culture, laws, economic environment, and politics. The political situation may be
volatile that even experts cannot predict a possible change in government.

c) Risk
In a situation with risks, factual information may exist, but it may be incomplete. 1o improve
decision making One may estimate the objective probability of an outcome by using, for
example, mathematical models On the other hand, subjective probability, based on judgment
and experience may be used

All intelligent decision makers dealing with uncertainty like to know the degree and nature of the
risk they are taking in choosing a course of action. One of the deficiencies in using the
traditional approaches of operations research for problem solving is that many of the data used
in model are merely estimates and others are based on probabilities. The ordinary practice is to
have staff specialists conic up with best estimates.
Virtually every decision is based on the interaction of a number of important variables, many of
which has e an element of uncertainty but, perhaps, a fairly high degree of probability. Thus, the
wisdom of launching a new product might depend on a number of critical variables: the cost of
introducing the product, the cost of producing it, the capital investment that will he required, the
price that can be set for the product, the size of the potential market, and the share of the total
market that it will represent.
 UNIT III
ORGANIZING

DEFINITION
According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Organization involves the grouping of activities
necessary to accomplish goals and plans, the assignment of these activities to appropriate
departments and the provision of authority, delegation and co-ordination."
Organization involves division of work among people whose efforts must be co-ordinated to
achieve specific objectives and to implement pre-determined strategies.

NATURE OR CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZING

From the study of the various definitions given by different management experts we get
the following information about the characteristics or nature of organization,
(1) Division of Work: Division of work is the basis of an organization. In other words, there can
be no organization without division of work. Under division of work the entire work of business is
divided into many departments .The work of every department is further sub-divided into sub-
works. In this way each individual has to do the saran work repeatedly which gradually makes
that person an expert.
(2) Coordination: Under organizing different persons are assigned different works but the aim
of all these persons happens to be the some - the attainment of the objectives of the enterprise.
Organization ensures that the work of all the persons depends on each other’s work even
though it happens to be different. The work of one person starts from where the work of another
person ends. The non-completion of the work of one person affects the work of everybody.
Therefore, everybody completes his work in time and does not hinder the work of others. It is
thus, clear that it is in the nature of an organization to establish coordination among different
works, departments and posts in the enterprise.
(3) Plurality of Persons: Organization is a group of many persons who assemble to fulfill a
common purpose. A single individual cannot create an organization.
(4) Common Objectives: There are various parts of an organization with different functions to
perform but all move in the direction of achieving a general objective.
(5) Well-defined Authority and Responsibility: Under organization a chain is established
between different posts right from the top to the bottom. It is clearly specified as to what will be
the authority and responsibility of every post. In other words, every individual working in the
organization is given some authority for the efficient work performance and it is also decided
simultaneously as to what will be the responsibility of that individual in case of unsatisfactory
work performance.
(6) Organization is a Structure of Relationship: Relationship between persons working on
different posts in the organization is decided. In other words, it is decided as to who will be the
superior and who will be the subordinate. Leaving the top level post and the lowest level post
everybody is somebody's superior and somebody's subordinate. The person working on the top
level post has no superior and the person working on the lowest level post has no subordinate.
(7) Organization is a Machine of Management: Organization is considered to be a machine of
management because the efficiency of all the functions depends on an effective organization. In
the absence of organization no function can be performed in a planned manner. It is appropriate
to call organization a machine of management from another point of view. It is that machine in
which no part can afford tube ill-fitting or non-functional. In other words, if the division of work is
not done properly or posts are not created correctly the whole system of management
collapses.
(8) Organization is a Universal Process: Organization is needed both in business and non-
business organizations. Not only this, organization will be needed where two or mom than two
people work jointly. Therefore, organization has the quality of universality. (9) Organization is a
Dynamic Process: Organization is related to people and the knowledge and experience of the
people undergo a change. The impact of this change affects the various functions of the
organizations. Thus, organization is not a process that can be decided for all times to come but
it undergoes changes according to the needs. The example in this case can be the creation or
abolition of a new post according to the need.

IMPORTANCE OR ADVANTAGES OF ORGANIZING

Organization is an instrument that defines relations among different people which helps
them to understand as in who happens to be their superior and who is their subordinate. This
information helps in fixing responsibility and developing coordination. In such circumstances the
objectives of the organization can be easily achieved. That is why, it is said that Organization Is
a mechanism of management. In addition to that it helps in the other functions of management
like planning, staffing, leading, controlling, etc. The importance of organization or its merits
becomes clear from the following facts,
(1) Increase In Managerial Efficiency: A good and balanced organization helps the managers
to increase their efficiency. Managers, through the medium of organization, make a proper
distribution of the whole work among different people according to their ability.
(2) Proper Utilization of Resources: Through the medium of organization optimum utilization
of all the available human and material resources of an enterprise becomes possible. Work is
allotted to every individual according to his ability and capacity and conditions ant created to
enable him to utilize his ability to the maximum extent. For example, if an employee possesses
the knowledge of modem machinery but the modem machinery is not available in the
organization, in that case, efforts are made to make available the modem machinery.
(3) Sound Communication Possible: Communication is essential for taking the right decision
at the right time. However, the establishment of a good communication system is possible only
through an organization. In an organization the time of communication is decided so that all the
useful information reaches the officers concerned which. in turn, helps the decision-making.
(4) Facilitates Coordination: In order to attain successfully the objectives of the organization,
coordination among various activities in the organization is essential. Organization is the only
medium which makes coordination possible. Under organization the division of work is made in
such a manner as to make all the activities complementary to each other increasing their inter-
dependence. Inter-dependence gives rise to the establishment of relations which, in turn,
increases coordination.
(5) Increase in Specialization: Under organization the whole work is divided into different
parts. Competent persons are appointed to handle all the sub-works and by handling a
particular work repeatedly they become specialists. This enables them to have maximum work
performance in the minimum time while the organization gets the benefit of specialization.
(6) Helpful in Expansion: A good organization helps the enterprise in facing competition. When
an enterprise starts making available good quality product at cheap rates, it increases the
demand for its products. In order to meet the increasing demand for its products an organization
has to expand its business. On the other hand, a good organization has an element of flexibility
which far from impeding the expansion work encourages it.
ORGANIZING PROCESS
Organization is the process of establishing relationship among the members of the
enterprise. The relationships are created in terms of authority and responsibility. To organize is
to harmonize, coordinate or arrange in a logical and orderly manner. Each member in the
organization is assigned a specific responsibility or duty to perform and is granted the
corresponding authority to perform his duty. The managerial function of organizing consists in
making a rational division of work into groups of activities and tying together the positions
representing grouping of activities so as to achieve a rational, well coordinated and orderly
structure for the accomplishment of work. According to Louis A Allen, "Organizing involves
identification and grouping the activities to be performed and dividing them among the
individuals and creating authority and responsibility relationships among them for the
accomplishment of organizational objectives." The various steps involved in this process are:

a) Determination of Objectives:
It is the first step in building up an organization. Organization is always related to certain
objectives. Therefore, it is essential for the management to identify the objectives before starting
any activity. Organization structure is built on the basis of the objectives of the enterprise. That
means, the structure of the organization can be determined by the management only after
knowing the objectives to be accomplished through the organization. This step helps the
management not only in framing the organization structure but also in achieving the enterprise
objectives with minimum cost and efforts. Determination of objectives will consist in deciding as
to why the proposed organization is to be set up and, therefore, what will be the nature of the
work to be accomplished through the organization.
b) Enumeration of Objectives:
If the members of the group are to pool their efforts effectively, there must be proper
division of the major activities. The first step in organizing group effort is the division of the total
job into essential activities. Each job should be properly classified and grouped. This will enable
the people to know what is expected of them as members of the group and will help in avoiding
duplication of efforts. For example, the work of an industrial concern may be divided into the
following major functions – production, financing, personnel, sales, purchase, etc.

c) Classification of Activities:
The next step will be to classify activities according to similarities and common purposes
and functions and taking the human and material resources into account. Then, closely related
and similar activities are grouped into divisions and departments and the departmental activities
are further divided into sections.

d) Assignment of Duties:
Here, specific job assignments are made to different subordinates for ensuring a
certainty of work performance. Each individual should be given a specific job to do according to
his ability and made responsible for that. He should also be given the adequate authority to do
the job assigned to him. In the words of Kimball and Kimball - "Organization embraces the
duties of designating the departments and the personnel that are to carry on the work, defining
their functions and specifying the relations that are to exist between department and
individuals."

e) Delegation of Authority:
Since so many individuals work in the same organization, it is the responsibility of
management to lay down structure of relationship in the organization. Authority without
responsibility is a dangerous thing and similarly responsibility without authority is an empty
vessel. Everybody should clearly know to whom he is accountable; corresponding to the
responsibility authority is delegated to the subordinates for enabling them to show work
performance. This will help in the smooth working of the enterprise by facilitating delegation of
responsibility and authority.
ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE
An organization structure is a framework that allots a particular space for a particular
department or an individual and shows its relationship to the other. An organization structure
shows the authority and responsibility relationships between the various positions in the
organization by showing who reports to whom. It is an established pattern of relationship among
the components of the organization.

March and Simon have stated that-"Organization structure consists simply of those aspects of
pattern of behavior in the organization that are relatively stable and change only slowly." The
structure of an organization is generally shown on an organization chart. It shows the authority
and responsibility relationships between various positions in the organization while designing
the organization structure, due attention should be given to the principles of sound organization.

Significance of Organization Structure

 Properly designed organization can help improve teamwork and productivity by providing a
framework within which the people can work together most effectively.
 Organization structure determines the location of decision-making in the organization.
 Sound organization structure stimulates creative thinking and initiative among organizational
members by providing well defined patterns of authority.
 A sound organization structure facilitates growth of enterprise by increasing its capacity to
handle increased level of authority.
 Organization structure provides the pattern of communication and coordination.
 The organization structure helps a member to know what his role is and how it relates to
other roles.

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

Modern organizational structures have evolved from several organizational theories,
which have identified certain principles as basic to any organization structure.
a) Line and Staff Relationships:
Line authority refers to the scalar chain, or to the superior-subordinate linkages, that
extend throughout the hierarchy (Koontz, O'Donnell and Weihrich). Line employees are
responsible for achieving the basic or strategic objectives of the organization, while staff plays a
supporting role to line employees and provides services. The relationship between line and staff
is crucial in organizational structure, design and efficiency. It is also an important aid to
information processing and coordination.
b) Departmentalization:
Departmentalization is a process of horizontal clustering of different types of functions
and activities on any one level of the hierarchy. Departmentalization is conventionally based on
purpose, product, process, function, personal things and place.
c) Span of Control:
This refers to the number of specialized activities or individuals supervised by one
person. Deciding the span of control is important for coordinating different types of activities
effectively.
d) De-centralization and Centralization:
De-centralization refers to decision making at lower levels in the hierarchy of authority. In
contrast, decision making in a centralized type of organizational structure is at higher levels. The
degree of centralization and de-centralization depends on the number of levels of hierarchy,
degree of coordination, specialization and span of control.
Every organizational structure contains both centralization and de-centralization, but to varying
degrees. The extent of this can be determined by identifying how much of the decision making
is concentrated at the top and how much is delegated to lower levels. Modern organizational
structures show a strong tendency towards de-centralization.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANIZATION

The formal organization refers to the structure of jobs and positions with clearly defined
functions and relationships as prescribed by the top management. This type of organization is
built by the management to realize objectives of an enterprise and is bound by rules, systems
and procedures. Everybody is assigned a certain responsibility for the performance of the given
task and given the required amount of authority for carrying it out. Informal organization, which
does not appear on the organization chart, supplements the formal organization in achieving
organizational goals effectively and efficiently. The working of informal groups and leaders is not
as simple as it may appear to be. Therefore, it is obligatory for every manager to study
thoroughly the working pattern of informal relationships in the organization and to use them for
achieving organizational objectives.

FORMAL ORGANIZATION
Chester I Bernard defines formal organization as -"a system of consciously coordinated
activities or forces of two or more persons. It refers to the structure of well-defined jobs, each
bearing a definite measure of authority, responsibility and accountability." The essence of formal
organization is conscious common purpose and comes into being when persons–
(i) Are able to communicate with each other
(ii) Are willing to act and
(iii) Share a purpose.
The formal organization is built around four key pillars. They are:
 Division of labor
 Scalar and functional processes
 Structure and
 Span of control
Thus, a formal organization is one resulting from planning where the pattern of structure has
already been determined by the top management.

Characteristic Features of formal organization

 Formal organization structure is laid down by the top management to achieve organizational
goals.
 Formal organization prescribes the relationships amongst the people working in the
organization.
 The organization structures is consciously designed to enable the people of the organization
to work together for accomplishing the common objectives of the enterprise
 Organization structure concentrates on the jobs to be performed and not the individuals who
are to perform jobs.
 In a formal organization, individuals are fitted into jobs and positions and work as per the
managerial decisions. Thus, the formal relations in the organization arise from the pattern of
responsibilities that are created by the management.
 A formal organization is bound by rules, regulations and procedures.
 In a formal organization, the position, authority, responsibility and accountability of each
level are clearly defined.
 Organization structure is based on division of labor and specialization to achieve efficiency
in operations.
 A formal organization is deliberately impersonal. The organization does not take into
consideration the sentiments of organizational members.
 The authority and responsibility relationships created by the organization structure are to be
honored by everyone.
 In a formal organization, coordination proceeds according to the prescribed pattern.

Advantages of formal organization

 The formal organization structure concentrates on the jobs to be performed. It, therefore,
makes everybody responsible for a given task.
 A formal organization is bound by rules, regulations and procedures. It thus ensures law and
order in the organization.
 The organization structure enables the people of the organization to work together for
accomplishing the common objectives of the enterprise

Disadvantages or criticisms of formal organization

 The formal organization does not take into consideration the sentiments of organizational
members.
 The formal organization does not consider the goals of the individuals. It is designed to
achieve the goals of the organization only.
 The formal organization is bound by rigid rules, regulations and procedures. This makes the
achievement of goals difficult.

INFORMAL ORGANIZATION
Informal organization refers to the relationship between people in the organization based
on personal attitudes, emotions, prejudices, likes, dislikes etc. an informal organization is an
organization which is not established by any formal authority, but arises from the personal and
social relations of the people. These relations are not developed according to procedures and
regulations laid down in the formal organization structure; generally large formal groups give
rise to small informal or social groups. These groups may be based on same taste, language,
culture or some other factor. These groups are not pre-planned, but they develop automatically
within the organization according to its environment.
Characteristics features of informal organization
 Informal organization is not established by any formal authority. It is unplanned and arises
spontaneously.
 Informal organizations reflect human relationships. It arises from the personal and social
relations amongst the people working in the organization.
 Formation of informal organizations is a natural process. It is not based on rules, regulations
and procedures.
 The inter-relations amongst the people in an informal organization cannot be shown in an
organization chart.
 In the case of informal organization, the people cut across formal channels of
communications and communicate amongst themselves.
 The membership of informal organizations is voluntary. It arises spontaneously and not by
deliberate or conscious efforts.
 Membership of informal groups can be overlapping as a person may be member of a
number of informal groups.
 Informal organizations are based on common taste, problem, language, religion, culture, etc.
it is influenced by the personal attitudes, emotions, whims, likes and dislikes etc. of the
people in the organization.

Benefits of Informal organization

 It blends with the formal organization to make it more effective.
 Many things which cannot be achieved through formal organization can be achieved through
informal organization.
 The presence of informal organization in an enterprise makes the managers plan and act
more carefully.
 Informal organization acts as a means by which the workers achieve a sense of security and
belonging. It provides social satisfaction to group members.
 An informal organization has a powerful influence on productivity and job satisfaction.
 The informal leader lightens the burden of the formal manager and tries to fill in the gaps in
the manager's ability.
 Informal organization helps the group members to attain specific personal objectives.
 Informal organization is the best means of employee communication. It is very fast.
 Informal organization gives psychological satisfaction to the members. It acts as a safety
valve for the emotional problems and frustrations of the workers of the organization because
they get a platform to express their feelings.
 It serves as an agency for social control of human behavior.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANIZATION

Formal Organization Informal Organization
1. Formal organization is established with the explicit 1. Informal organization springs on its
aim of achieving well-defined goals. own. Its goals are ill defined and
intangible.
2. Formal organization is bound together by 2. Informal organization is characterized
authority relationships among members. A by a generalized sort of power
hierarchical structure is created, constituting top relationships. Power in informal
management, middle management and supervisory organization has bases other than
management. rational legal right.
3. Formal organization recognizes certain tasks 3. Informal organization does not have
which are to be carried out to achieve its goals. any well-defined tasks.
4. The roles and relationships of people in formal 4. In informal organization the
organization are impersonally defined relationships among people are
interpersonal.
5. In formal organization, much emphasis is placed 5. Informal organization is characterized
on efficiency, discipline, conformity, consistency and by relative freedom, spontaneity, by
control. relative freedom, spontaneity,
homeliness and warmth.
6. In formal organization, the social and 6. In informal organization the
psychological needs and interests of members of the sociopsychological needs, interests and
organization get little attention. aspirations of members get priority.
7. The communication system in formal organization 7. In informal organization, the
follows certain pre-determined patterns and paths. communication pattern is haphazard,
intricate and natural.
8. Formal organization is relatively slow to respond 8. Informal organization is dynamic and
and adapt to changing situations and realities. very vigilant. It is sensitive to its
surroundings.
LINE AND STAFF AUTHORITY
In an organization, the line authority flows from top to bottom and the staff authority is
exercised by the specialists over the line managers who advise them on important matters.
These specialists stand ready with their specialty to serve line mangers as and when their
services are called for, to collect information and to give help which will enable the line officials
to carry out their activities better. The staff officers do not have any power of command in the
organization as they are employed to provide expert advice to the line officers. The 'line'
maintains discipline and stability; the 'staff' provides expert information. The line gets out the
production, the staffs carries on the research, planning, scheduling, establishing of standards
and recording of performance. The authority by which the staff performs these functions is
delegated by the line and the performance must be acceptable to the line before action is taken.
The following figure depicts the line and staff authority:

Types of Staff
The staff position established as a measure of support for the line managers may take the
following forms:
1. Personal Staff: Here the staff official is attached as a personal assistant or adviser to the line
manager. For example, Assistant to managing director.
2. Specialized Staff: Such staff acts as the fountainhead of expertise in specialized areas like R
& D, personnel, accounting etc.
3. General Staff: This category of staff consists of a set of experts in different areas who are
meant to advise and assist the top management on matters called for expertise. For example,
Financial advisor, technical advisor etc.

Features of line and staff organization

 Under this system, there are line officers who have authority and command over the
subordinates and are accountable for the tasks entrusted to them. The staff officers are
specialists who offer expert advice to the line officers to perform their tasks efficiently.
 Under this system, the staff officers prepare the plans and give advice to the line officers
and the line officers execute the plan with the help of workers.
 The line and staff organization is based on the principle of specialization.
Advantages
 It brings expert knowledge to bear upon management and operating problems. Thus, the
line managers get the benefit of specialized knowledge of staff specialists at various
levels.
 The expert advice and guidance given by the staff officers to the line officers benefit the
entire organization.
 As the staff officers look after the detailed analysis of each important managerial activity,
it relieves the line managers of the botheration of concentrating on specialized functions.
 Staff specialists help the line managers in taking better decisions by providing expert
advice. Therefore, there will be sound managerial decisions under this system.
 It makes possible the principle of undivided responsibility and authority, and at the same
time permits staff specialization. Thus, the organization takes advantage of functional
organization while maintaining the unity of command.
 It is based upon planned specialization.
 Line and staff organization has greater flexibility, in the sense that new specialized
activities can be added to the line activities without disturbing the line procedure.

Disadvantages
 Unless the duties and responsibilities of the staff members are clearly indicated by
charts and manuals, there may be considerable confusion throughout the organization
as to the functions and positions of staff members with relation to the line supervisors.
 There is generally a conflict between the line and staff executives. The line managers
feel that staff specialists do not always give right type of advice, and staff officials
generally complain that their advice is not properly attended to.
 Line managers sometimes may resent the activities of staff members, feeling that
prestige and influence of line managers suffer from the presence of the specialists.
 The staff experts may be ineffective because they do not get the authority to implement
their recommendations.
 This type of organization requires the appointment of large number of staff officers or
experts in addition to the line officers. As a result, this system becomes quite expensive.
 Although expert information and advice are available, they reach the workers through
the officers and thus run the risk of misunderstanding and misinterpretation.
  Since staff managers are not accountable for the results, they may not be performing
their duties well.
 Line mangers deal with problems in a more practical manner. But staff officials who are
specialists in their fields tend to be more theoretical. This may hamper coordination in
the organization.

DEPARTMENTATION BY DIFFERENT STRATEGIES

DEPARTMENTATION refers to the process of grouping activities into departments.
Departmentation is the process of grouping of work activities into departments, divisions, and
other homogenous units.

Key Factors in Departmentation

 It should facilitate control.
 It should ensure proper coordination.
 It should take into consideration the benefits of specialization.
 It should not result in excess cost.
 It should give due consideration to Human Aspects.

Departmentation takes place in various patterns like departmentation by functions, products,

customers, geographic location, process, and its combinations.

a) FUNCTIONAL DEPARTMENTATION
Functional departmentation is the process of grouping activities by functions performed.
Activities can be grouped according to function (work being done) to pursue economies of scale
by placing employees with shared skills and knowledge into departments for example human
resources, finance, production, and marketing. Functional departmentation can be used in all
types of organizations.
Advantages:
 Advantage of specialization
 Easy control over functions
 Pinpointing training needs of manager
 It is very simple process of grouping activities.
Disadvantages:
 Lack of responsibility for the end result
 Overspecialization or lack of general management
 It leads to increase conflicts and coordination problems among departments.

b) PRODUCT DEPARTMENTATION

Product departmentation is the process of grouping activities by product line. Tasks can
also be grouped according to a specific product or service, thus placing all activities related to
the product or the service under one manager. Each major product area in the corporation is
under the authority of a senior manager who is specialist in, and is responsible for, everything
related to the product line. Dabur India Limited is the India’s largest Ayurvedic medicine
manufacturer is an example of company that uses product departmentation. Its structure is
based on its varied product lines which include Home care, Health care, Personal care and
Foods.
Advantages
 It ensures better customer service
 Unprofitable products may be easily determined
 It assists in development of all around managerial talent
 Makes control effective
 It is flexible and new product line can be added easily.
Disadvantages
 It is expensive as duplication of service functions occurs in various product divisions
 Customers and dealers have to deal with different persons for complaint and information
of different products.

c) CUSTOMER DEPARTMENTATION

Customer departmentation is the process of grouping activities on the basis of common

customers or types of customers. Jobs may be grouped according to the type of customer
served by the organization. The assumption is that customers in each department have a
common set of problems and needs that can best be met by specialists. UCO is the one of the
largest commercial banks of India is an example of company that uses customer
departmentation. Its structure is based on various services which includes Home loans,
Business loans, Vehicle loans and Educational loans.
Advantages
 It focused on customers who are ultimate suppliers of money
 Better service to customer having different needs and tastes
 Development in general managerial skills
Disadvantages
 Sales being the exclusive field of its application, co-ordination may appear difficult
between sales function and other enterprise functions.
 Specialized sales staff may become idle with the downward movement of sales to any
specified group of customers.

d) GEOGRAPHIC DEPARTMENTATION

Geographic departmentation is the process of grouping activities on the basis of

territory. If an organization's customers are geographically dispersed, it can group jobs based
on geography. For example, the organization structure of Coca-Cola Ltd has reflected the
company’s operation in various geographic areas such as Central North American group,
Western North American group, Eastern North American group and European group
Advantages
 Help to cater to the needs of local people more satisfactorily.
 It facilitates effective control
 Assists in development of all-round managerial skills
Disadvantages
 Communication problem between head office and regional office due to lack of means of
communication at some location
 Coordination between various divisions may become difficult.
 Distance between policy framers and executors
 It leads to duplication of activities which may cost higher.
e) PROCESS DEPARTMENTATION

Geographic departmentation is the process of grouping activities on the basis of product

or service or customer flow. Because each process requires different skills, process
departmentation allows homogenous activities to be categorized. For example, Bowater
Thunder Bay, a Canadian company that harvests trees and processes wood into newsprint and
pulp. Bowater has three divisions namely tree cutting, chemical processing, and finishing (which
makes newsprint).

Departmentation by process: -
Advantages
• Oriented towards end result.
• Professional identification is maintained.
• Pinpoints product-profit responsibility.
Disadvantage
• Conflict in organization authority exists.
• Possibility of disunity of command.
• Requires managers effective in human relation

f) MARTIX DEPARTMENTATION
 In actual practice, no single pattern of grouping activities is applied in the organization
structure with all its levels. Different bases are used in different segments of the enterprise.
Composite or hybrid method forms the common basis for classifying activities rather than one
particular method,. One of the mixed forms of organization is referred to as matrix or grid
organization’s According to the situations, the patterns of Organizing varies from case to case.
The form of structure must reflect the tasks, goals and technology if the originations the type of
people employed and the environmental conditions that it faces. It is not unusual to see firms
that utilize the function and project organization combination. The same is true for process and
project as well as other combinations. For instance, a large hospital could have an accounting
department, surgery department, marketing department, and a satellite center project team that
make up its organizational structure.
Advantages
 Efficiently manage large, complex tasks
 Effectively carry out large, complex tasks
Disadvantages
 Requires high levels of coordination
 Conflict between bosses
 Requires high levels of management skills
SPAN OF CONTROL

Span of Control means the number of subordinates that can be managed efficiently and
effectively by a superior in an organization. It suggests how the relations are designed between
a superior and a subordinate in an organization.

Factors Affecting Span of control:

a) Capacity of Superior:
Different ability and capacity of leadership, communication affect management of
subordinates.
b) Capacity of Subordinates:
Efficient and trained subordinates affects the degree of span of management.
c) Nature of Work:
Different types of work require different patterns of management.
d) Degree of Centralization or Decentralization:
Degree of centralization or decentralization affects the span of management by affecting
the degree of involvement of the superior in decision making.
e) Degree of Planning:
Plans which can provide rules, procedures in doing the work higher would be the degree
of span of management.
f) Communication Techniques:
Pattern of communication, its means, and media affect the time requirement in
managing subordinates and consequently span of management.
g) Use of Staff Assistance:
Use of Staff assistance in reducing the work load of managers enables them to manage
more number of subordinates.
h) Supervision of others:
If subordinate receives supervision form several other personnel besides his direct
supervisor. In such a case, the work load of direct superior is reduced and he can
supervise more number of persons.

Span of control is of two types:

1. Narrow span of control: Narrow Span of control means a single manager or supervisor
oversees few subordinates. This gives rise to a tall organizational structure.
Advantages:
• Close supervision
• Close control of subordinates
• Fast communication
Disadvantages:
• Too much control
• Many levels of management
• High costs
• Excessive distance between lowest level and highest level

2. Wide span of control: Wide span of control means a single manager or supervisor oversees
a large number of subordinates. This gives rise to a flat organizational structure.

Advantages:
• More Delegation of Authority
• Development of Managers
• Clear policies
Disadvantages:
• Overloaded supervisors
 • Danger of superiors loss of control
• Requirement of highly trained managerial personnel
• Block in decision making

CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION

CENTRALIZATION:
It is the process of transferring and assigning decision-making authority to higher levels
of an organizational hierarchy. The span of control of top managers is relatively broad, and
there are relatively many tiers in the organization.

Characteristics
 Philosophy / emphasis on: top-down control, leadership, vision, strategy.
 Decision-making: strong, authoritarian, visionary, charismatic.
 Organizational change: shaped by top, vision of leader.
 Execution: decisive, fast, coordinated. Able to respond quickly to major issues and changes.
 Uniformity. Low risk of dissent or conflicts between parts of the organization.

Advantages of Centralization
 Provide Power and prestige for manager
 Promote uniformity of policies, practices and decisions
 Minimal extensive controlling procedures and practices
 Minimize duplication of function

Disadvantages of Centralization
 Neglected functions for mid. Level, and less motivated beside personnel.
 Nursing supervisor functions as a link officer between nursing director and first-line
management.

DECENTRALIZATION:
It is the process of transferring and assigning decision-making authority to lower levels of
an organizational hierarchy. The span of control of top managers is relatively small, and there
are relatively few tears in the organization, because there is more autonomy in the lower ranks.
Characteristics
 Philosophy / emphasis on: bottom-up, political, cultural and learning dynamics.
 Decision-making: democratic, participative, detailed.
 Organizational change: emerging from interactions, organizational dynamics.
 Execution: evolutionary, emergent. Flexible to adapt to minor issues and changes.
 Participation, accountability. Low risk of not-invented-here behavior.

Three Forms of decentralization

 De-concentration. The weakest form of decentralization. Decision making authority is
redistributed to lower or regional levels of the same central organization.
 Delegation. A more extensive form of decentralization. Through delegation the
responsibility for decision-making are transferred to semi-autonomous organizations not
wholly controlled by the central organization, but ultimately accountable to it.
 Devolution. A third type of decentralization is devolution. The authority for decision-
making is transferred completely to autonomous organizational units.

Advantages of Decentralization
 Raise morale and promote interpersonal relationships
 Relieve from the daily administration
 Bring decision-making close to action
 Develop Second-line managers
 Promote employee’s enthusiasm and coordination
 Facilitate actions by lower-level managers

Disadvantages of Decentralization
 Top-level administration may feel it would decrease their status
 Managers may not permit full and maximum utilization of highly qualified personnel
 Increased costs. It requires more managers and large staff
 It may lead to overlapping and duplication of effort

Centralization and Decentralization are two opposite ways to transfer decision-making power
and to change the organizational structure of organizations accordingly.
There must be a good balance between centralization and decentralization of authority and
power. Extreme centralization and decentralization must be avoided.

DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY
A manager alone cannot perform all the tasks assigned to him. In order to meet the
targets, the manager should delegate authority. Delegation of Authority means division of
authority and powers downwards to the subordinate. Delegation is about entrusting someone
else to do parts of your job. Delegation of authority can be defined as subdivision and sub-
allocation of powers to the subordinates in order to achieve effective results.
Elements of Delegation
1. Authority - in context of a business organization, authority can be defined as the power and
right of a person to use and allocate the resources efficiently, to take decisions and to give
orders so as to achieve the organizational objectives. Authority must be well- defined. All
people who have the authority should know what is the scope of their authority is and they
shouldn’t misutilize it. Authority is the right to give commands, orders and get the things
done. The top level management has greatest authority. Authority always flows from top to
bottom. It explains how a superior gets work done from his subordinate by clearly explaining
what is expected of him and how he should go about it. Authority should be accompanied
with an equal amount of responsibility. Delegating the authority to someone else doesn’t
imply escaping from accountability. Accountability still rest with the person having the utmost
authority.
2. Responsibility - is the duty of the person to complete the task assigned to him. A person
who is given the responsibility should ensure that he accomplishes the tasks assigned to
him. If the tasks for which he was held responsible are not completed, then he should not
give explanations or excuses. Responsibility without adequate authority leads to discontent
and dissatisfaction among the person. Responsibility flows from bottom to top. The middle
level and lower level management holds more responsibility. The person held responsible
for a job is answerable for it. If he performs the tasks assigned as expected, he is bound for
praises. While if he doesn’t accomplish tasks assigned as expected, then also he is
answerable for that.
3. Accountability - means giving explanations for any variance in the actual performance from
the expectations set. Accountability cannot be delegated. For example, if ’A’ is given a task
with sufficient authority, and ’A’ delegates this task to B and asks him to ensure that task is
done well, responsibility rest with ’B’, but accountability still rest with ’A’. The top level
 management is most accountable. Being accountable means being innovative as the person
will think beyond his scope of job. Accountability ,in short, means being answerable for the
end result. Accountability can’t be escaped. It arises from responsibility.

DELEGATION PROCESS
The steps involved in delegation are given below

1. Allocation of duties – The delegator first tries to define the task and duties to the
subordinate. He also has to define the result expected from the subordinates. Clarity of
duty as well as result expected has to be the first step in delegation.
2. Granting of authority – Subdivision of authority takes place when a superior divides
and shares his authority with the subordinate. It is for this reason; every subordinate
should be given enough independence to carry the task given to him by his superiors.
The managers at all levels delegate authority and power which is attached to their job
positions. The subdivision of powers is very important to get effective results.
3. Assigning of Responsibility and Accountability – The delegation process does not
end once powers are granted to the subordinates. They at the same time have to be
obligatory towards the duties assigned to them. Responsibility is said to be the factor or
obligation of an individual to carry out his duties in best of his ability as per the directions
of superior. Therefore, it is that which gives effectiveness to authority. At the same time,
responsibility is absolute and cannot be shifted.
 4. Creation of accountability – Accountability, on the others hand, is the obligation of the
individual to carry out his duties as per the standards of performance. Therefore, it is
said that authority is delegated, responsibility is created and accountability is imposed.
Accountability arises out of responsibility and responsibility arises out of authority.
Therefore, it becomes important that with every authority position an equal and opposite
responsibility should be attached.

Therefore every manager, i.e., the delegator has to follow a system to finish up the delegation
process. Equally important is the delegatee’s role which means his responsibility and
accountability is attached with the authority over to here.

STAFFING
Staffing involves filling the positions needed in the organization structure by appointing
competent and qualified persons for the job.
The staffing process encompasses man power planning, recruitment, selection, and training.

a) Manpower requirements:
Manpower Planning which is also called as Human Resource Planning consists of
putting right number of people, right kind of people at the right place, right time, doing the right
things for which they are suited for the achievement of goals of the organization. The primary
function of man power planning is to analyze and evaluate the human resources available in the
organization, and to determine how to obtain the kinds of personnel needed to staff positions
ranging from assembly line workers to chief executives.

b) Recruitment:
Recruitment is the process of finding and attempting to attract job candidates who are
capable of effectively filling job vacancies.
Job descriptions and job specifications are important in the recruiting process because they
specify the nature of the job and the qualifications required of job candidates.
c) Selection:
Selecting a suitable candidate can be the biggest challenge for any organization. The
success of an organization largely depends on its staff. Selection of the right candidate builds
the foundation of any organization's success and helps in reducing turnovers.

d) Training and Development:

Training and Development is a planned effort to facilitate employee learning of job-
related behaviors in order to improve employee performance. Experts sometimes distinguish
between the terms “training” and “development”; “training” denotes efforts to increase employee
skills on present jobs, while “development” refers to efforts oriented toward improvements
relevant to future jobs. In practice, though, the distinction is often blurred (mainly because
upgrading skills in present jobs usually improves performance in future jobs).

RECRUITMENT PROCESS
Recruitment is the process of finding and attempting to attract job candidates who are
capable of effectively filling job vacancies. The recruitment process consists of the following
steps
 Identification of vacancy
 Preparation of job description and job specification
 Selection of sources
 Advertising the vacancy
 Managing the response
a) Identification of vacancy:
The recruitment process begins with the human resource department receiving requisitions
for recruitment from any department of the company. These contain:
• Posts to be filled
• Number of persons
• Duties to be performed
• Qualifications required

b) Preparation of job description and job specification:

A job description is a list of the general tasks, or functions, and responsibilities of a position.
It may often include to whom the position reports, specifications such as the qualifications or
skills needed by the person in the job, or a salary range. A job specification describes the
knowledge, skills, education, experience, and abilities you believe are essential to performing a
particular job.

c) Selection of sources:
Every organization has the option of choosing the candidates for its recruitment
processes from two kinds of sources: internal and external sources. The sources within the
organization itself (like transfer of employees from one department to other, promotions) to fill a
position are known as the internal sources of recruitment. Recruitment candidates from all the
other sources (like outsourcing agencies etc.) are known as the external sources of
the recruitment.

d) Advertising the vacancy:

After choosing the appropriate sources, the vacancy is communicated to the candidates
by means of a suitable media such as television, radio, newspaper, internet, direct mail etc.

e) Managing the response:

After receiving an adequate number of responses from job seekers, the sieving process
of the resumes begins. This is a very essential step of the recruitment selection process,
because selecting the correct resumes that match the job profile, is very important. Naturally, it
has to be done rather competently by a person who understands all the responsibilities
associated with the designation in its entirety. Candidates with the given skill set are then
chosen and further called for interview. Also, the applications of candidates that do not match
the present nature of the position but may be considered for future requirements are filed
separately and preserved.
The recruitment process is immediately followed by the selection process.

JOB ANALYSIS
Job Analysis is the process of describing and recording aspects of jobs and specifying
the skills and other requirements necessary to perform the job.
The outputs of job analysis are
a) Job description
b) Job specification
Job Description
A job description (JD) is a written statement of what the job holder does, how it is done, under
what conditions it is done and why it is done. It describes what the job is all about, throwing light
on job content, environment and conditions of employment. It is descriptive in nature and
defines the purpose and scope of a job. The main purpose of writing a job description is to
differentiate the job from other jobs and state its outer limits.
Contents
A job description usually covers the following information:
 Job title: Tells about the job title, code number and the department where it is done.
 Job summary: A brief write-up about what the job is all about.
 Job activities: A description of the tasks done, facilities used, extent of supervisory help,
etc.
 Working conditions: The physical environment of job in terms of heat, light, noise and
other hazards.
 Social environment: Size of work group and interpersonal interactions required to do the
job.

Job Specification
Job specification summarizes the human characteristics needed for satisfactory job completion.
It tries to describe the key qualifications someone needs to perform the job successfully. It
spells out the important attributes of a person in terms of education, experience, skills,
knowledge and abilities (SKAs) to perform a particular job. The job specification is a logical
outgrowth of a job description. For each job description, it is desirable to have a job
specification. This helps the organization to find what kinds of persons are needed to take up
specific jobs.
Contents
A job specification usually covers the following information:
 Education
 Experience
 Skill, Knowledge, Abilities
 Work Orientation Factors
 Age
SELECTION PROCESS
Selecting a suitable candidate can be the biggest challenge for any organisation. The
success of an organization largely depends on its staff. Selection of the right candidate builds
the foundation of any organization's success and helps in reducing turnovers.
Though there is no fool proof selection procedure that will ensure low turnover and high profits,
the following steps generally make up the selection process-

a) Initial Screening
This is generally the starting point of any employee selection process. Initial Screening
eliminates unqualified applicants and helps save time. Applications received from various
sources are scrutinized and irrelevant ones are discarded.

b) Preliminary Interview
It is used to eliminate those candidates who do not meet the minimum eligibility criteria laid
down by the organization. The skills, academic and family background, competencies and
interests of the candidate are examined during preliminary interview. Preliminary interviews are
less formalized and planned than the final interviews. The candidates are given a brief up about
the company and the job profile; and it is also examined how much the candidate knows about
the company. Preliminary interviews are also called screening interviews.

c) Filling Application Form

An candidate who passes the preliminary interview and is found to be eligible for the job is
asked to fill in a formal application form. Such a form is designed in a way that it records the
personal as well professional details of the candidates such as age, qualifications, reason for
leaving previous job, experience, etc.
d) Personal Interview
Most employers believe that the personal interview is very important. It helps them in obtaining
more information about the prospective employee. It also helps them in interacting with the
candidate and judging his communication abilities, his ease of handling pressure etc. In some
Companies, the selection process comprises only of the Interview.

e) References check
Most application forms include a section that requires prospective candidates to put down
names of a few references. References can be classified into - former employer, former
customers, business references, reputable persons. Such references are contacted to get a
feedback on the person in question including his behaviour, skills, conduct etc.

f) Background Verification
A background check is a review of a person's commercial, criminal and (occasionally) financial
records. Employers often perform background checks on employers or candidates for
employment to confirm information given in a job application, verify a person's identity, or
ensure that the individual does not have a history of criminal activity, etc., that could be an issue
upon employment.

g) Final Interview
Final interview is a process in which a potential employee is evaluated by an employer for
prospective employment in their organization. During this process, the employer hopes to
determine whether or not the applicant is suitable for the job. Different types of tests are
conducted to evaluate the capabilities of an applicant, his behaviour, special qualities etc.
Separate tests are conducted for various types of jobs.

h) Physical Examination
If all goes well, then at this stage, a physical examination is conducted to make sure that the
candidate has sound health and does not suffer from any serious ailment.

i) Job Offer
A candidate who clears all the steps is finally considered right for a particular job and is
presented with the job offer. An applicant can be dropped at any given stage if considered unfit
for the job.

Employee Induction / Orientation

Orientation or induction is the process of introducing new employees to an organization, to their

specific jobs & departments, and in some instances, to their community.

Purposes of Orientation
Orientation isn't a nicety! It is used for the following purposes:
1. To Reduce Startup-Costs:
Proper orientation can help the employee get "up to speed" much more quickly, thereby
reducing the costs associated with learning the job.
2. To Reduce Anxiety:
Any employee, when put into a new, strange situation, will experience anxiety that can
impede his or her ability to learn to do the job. Proper orientation helps to reduce anxiety that
results from entering into an unknown situation, and helps provide guidelines for behaviour and
conduct, so the employee doesn't have to experience the stress of guessing.
3. To Reduce Employee Turnover:
Employee turnover increases as employees feel they are not valued, or are put in
positions where they can't possibly do their jobs. Orientation shows that the organization values
the employee, and helps provide tools necessary for succeeding in the job.
4. To Save Time for Supervisor & Co-Workers:
 Simply put, the better the initial orientation, the less likely supervisors and co-workers
will have to spend time teaching the employee.
5. To Develop Realistic Job Expectations, Positive Attitudes and Job Satisfaction:
It is important that employees learn early on what is expected of them, and what to
expect from others, in addition to learning about the values and attitudes of the organization.
While people can learn from experience, they will make many mistakes that are unnecessary
and potentially damaging.

An orientation program principally conveys 3 types of information, namely:

a) General information about the daily work routine to be followed
b) A review of the organization’s history, founders, objectives, operations & products or
services, as well as how the employee’s job contributes to the organization’s needs.
c) A detailed presentation of the organization’s policies, work rules & employee benefits.

Two Kinds of Orientation

There are two related kinds of orientation. The first we will call Overview Orientation, and deals
with the basic information an employee will need to understand the broader system he or she
works in.
Overview Orientation includes helping employees understand:
 Management in general
 Department and the branch
 Important policies
 General procedures (non-job specific)
 Information about compensation
 Accident prevention measures
 Employee and union issues (rights, responsibilities)
 Physical facilities
Often, Overview Orientation can be conducted by the personnel department with a little help
from the branch manager or immediate supervisor, since much of the content is generic in
nature.
The second kind of orientation is called Job-Specific Orientation, and is the process that is used
to help employees understand:
 Function of the organization,
 Responsibilities,
  Expectations,
 Duties
 Policies, procedures, rules and regulations
 Layout of workplace
 Introduction to co-workers and other people in the broader organization.

Job specific orientation is best conducted by the immediate supervisor, and/or manager, since
much of the content will be specific to the individual. Often the orientation process will be
ongoing, with supervisors and co-workers supplying coaching.

CARRER DEVELOPMENT
Career development not only improves job performance but also brings about the
growth of the personality. Individuals not only mature regarding their potential capacities but
also become better individuals.
Purpose of development
Management development attempts to improve managerial performance by imparting
 Knowledge
 Changing attitudes
 Increasing skills
The major objective of development is managerial effectiveness through a planned and a
deliberate process of learning. This provides for a planned growth of managers to meet the
future organizational needs.

Development Process:
The development process consists of the following steps
1. Setting Development Objectives:
It develops a framework from which executive need can be determined.
2. Ascertaining Development Needs:
It aims at organizational planning & forecast the present and future growth.
3. Determining Development Needs:
This consists of
 Appraisal of present management talent
 Management Manpower Inventory
The above two processes will determine the skill deficiencies that are relative to the future
needs of the organization.
4. Conducting Development Programs:
It is carried out on the basis of needs of different individuals, differences in their attitudes
and behavior, also their physical, intellectual and emotional qualities. Thus a comprehensive
and well conceived program is prepared depending on the organizational needs and the
time & cost involved.
5. Program Evaluation:
It is an attempt to assess the value of training in order to achieve organizational objectives.

TRAINING
 Training is a process of learning a sequence of programmed behaviour. It improves the
employee's performance on the current job and prepares them for an intended job.
Purpose of Training:
1) To improve Productivity: Training leads to increased operational productivity and increased
company profit.
2) To improve Quality: Better trained workers are less likely to make operational mistakes.
3) To improve Organizational Climate: Training leads to improved production and product
quality which enhances financial incentives. This in turn increases the overall morale of the
organization.
4) To increase Health and Safety: Proper training prevents industrial accidents.
5) Personal Growth: Training gives employees a wider awareness, an enlarged skill base and
that leads to enhanced personal growth.

Steps in Training Process:

1) Identifying Training needs: A training program is designed to assist in providing solutions for
specific operational problems or to improve performance of a trainee.
 Organizational determination and Analysis: Allocation of resources that relate to
organizational goal.
 Operational Analysis: Determination of a specific employee behaviour required for a
particular task.
  Man Analysis: Knowledge, attitude and skill one must possess for attainment of
organizational objectives
2) Getting ready for the job: The trainer has to be prepared for the job. And also who needs to
be trained - the newcomer or the existing employee or the supervisory staff.
Preparation of the learner:
 Putting the learner at ease
 Stating the importance and ingredients of the job
 Creating interest
 Placing the learner as close to his normal working position
 Familiarizing him with the equipment, materials and trade terms
3) Presentation of Operation and Knowledge: The trainer should clearly tell, show, illustrate and
question in order to convey the new knowledge and operations. The trainee should be
encouraged to ask questions in order to indicate that he really knows and understands the job.
4) Performance Try out: The trainee is asked to go through the job several times. This gradually
builds up his skill, speed and confidence.
5) Follow-up: This evaluates the effectiveness of the entire training effort

TRAINING METHODS
Training methods can be broadly classified as on-the-job training and off-the-job taining
a) On-the-job training
On the job training occurs when workers pick up skills whilst working along side experienced
workers at their place of work. For example this could be the actual assembly line or offices
where the employee works. New workers may simply “shadow” or observe fellow employees
to begin with and are often given instruction manuals or interactive training programmes to work
through.
b) Off-the-job training
This occurs when workers are taken away from their place of work to be trained. This may
take place at training agency or local college, although many larger firms also have their own
training centres. Training can take the form of lectures or self-study and can be used to develop
more general skills and knowledge that can be used in a variety of situations.
The various types of off-the-job training are
(i) Instructor presentation: The trainer orally presents new information to the trainees, usually
through lecture. Instructor presentation may include classroom lecture, seminar, workshop, and
the like.
(ii) Group discussion: The trainer leads the group of trainees in discussing a topic.
(iii) Demonstration: The trainer shows the correct steps for completing a task, or shows an
example of a correctly completed task.
(iv) Assigned reading: The trainer gives the trainees reading assignments that provide new
information.
(v) Exercise: The trainer assigns problems to be solved either on paper or in real situations
related to the topic of the training activity.
(vi) Case study: The trainer gives the trainees information about a situation and directs them to
come to a decision or solve a problem concerning the situation.
(vii) Role play: Trainees act out a real-life situation in an instructional setting.
(viii) Field visit and study tour: Trainees are given the opportunity to observe and interact with
the problem being solved or skill being learned.

CAREER STAGES
What people want from their careers also varies according to the stage of one's career.
What may have been important in an early stage may not be important in a later one. Four
distinct career stages have been identified: trial, establishment/advancement, mid-career, and
late career. Each stage represents different career needs and interests of the individual

a) Trial stage: The trial stage begins with an individual's exploration of career-related matters
and ends usually at about age 25 with a commitment on the part of the individual to a particular
occupation. Until the decision is made to settle down, the individual may try a number of jobs
and a number of organizations. Unfortunately for many organizations, this trial and exploration
stage results in high level of turnover among new employees. Employees in this stage need
opportunities for self-exploration and a variety of job activities or assignments.

b) Establishment Stage: The establishment/advancement stage tends to occur between ages

25 and 44. In this stage, the individual has made his or her career choice and is concerned with
achievement, performance, and advancement. This stage is marked by high employee
productivity and career growth, as the individual is motivated to succeed in the organization and
in his or her chosen occupation. Opportunities for job challenge and use of special
competencies are desired in this stage. The employee strives for creativity and innovation
through new job assignments. Employees also need a certain degree of autonomy in this stage
so that they can experience feelings of individual achievement and personal success.

c) Mid Career Crisis Sub Stage: The period occurring between the mid-thirties and mid-forties
during which people often make a major reassessment of their progress relative to their original
career ambitions and goals.

d) Maintenance stage: The mid-career stage, which occurs roughly between the ages 45 and
64, has also been referred to as the maintenance stage. This stage is typified by a continuation
of established patterns of work behavior. The person is no longer trying to establish a place for
himself or herself in the organization, but seeks to maintain his or her position. This stage is
viewed as a mid-career plateau in which little new ground is broken. The individual in this stage
may need some technical updating in his or her field. The employee should be encouraged to
develop new job skills in order to avoid early stagnation and decline.

e) Late-career stage: In this stage the career lessens in importance and the employee plans for
retirement and seeks to develop a sense of identity outside the work environment.

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
Performance appraisal is the process of obtaining, analyzing and recording information
about the relative worth of an employee. The focus of the performance appraisal is measuring
and improving the actual performance of the employee and also the future potential of the
employee. Its aim is to measure what an employee does.

Objectives of Performance appraisal:

 To review the performance of the employees over a given period of time.
 To judge the gap between the actual and the desired performance.
 To help the management in exercising organizational control.
 Helps to strengthen the relationship and communication between superior – subordinates
and management – employees.
 To diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of the individuals so as to identify the training
and development needs of the future.
 To provide feedback to the employees regarding their past performance.
 Provide information to assist in the other personal decisions in the organization.
 Provide clarity of the expectations and responsibilities of the functions to be performed by
the employees.
 To judge the effectiveness of the other human resource functions of the organization such
as recruitment, selection, training and development.
 To reduce the grievances of the employees.

Process of performance appraisal:

a) Establishing performance standards:

The first step in the process of performance appraisal is the setting up of the
standards which will be used to as the base to compare the actual performance of the
employees. This step requires setting the criteria to judge the performance of the employees as
successful or unsuccessful and the degrees of their contribution to the organizational goals and
objectives. The standards set should be clear, easily understandable and in measurable terms.
In case the performance of the employee cannot be measured, great care should be taken to
describe the standards.

b) Communicating the standards:

After establishing the standards, it is the responsibility of the management to
communicate the standards to all the employees of the organization.
The employees should be informed and the standards should be clearly explained to the. This
will help them to understand their roles and to know what exactly is expected from them. The
standards should also be communicated to the appraisers or the evaluators and if required, the
standards can also be modified at this stage itself according to the relevant feedback from the
employees or the evaluators.

c) Measuring the actual performance:

The most difficult part of the Performance appraisal process is measuring the actual
performance of the employees that is the work done by the employees during the specified
period of time. It is a continuous process which involves monitoring the performance throughout
the year. This stage requires the careful selection of the appropriate techniques of
measurement, taking care that personal bias does not affect the outcome of the process and
providing assistance rather than interfering in an employees work.

d) Comparing the actual with the desired performance:

The actual performance is compared with the desired or the standard performance. The
comparison tells the deviations in the performance of the employees from the standards set.
The result can show the actual performance being more than the desired performance or, the
actual performance being less than the desired performance depicting a negative deviation in
the organizational performance. It includes recalling, evaluating and analysis of data related to
the employees’ performance.

e) Discussing results:
The result of the appraisal is communicated and discussed with the employees on
one-to-one basis. The focus of this discussion is on communication and listening. The results,
the problems and the possible solutions are discussed with the aim of problem solving and
reaching consensus. The feedback should be given with a positive attitude as this can have an
effect on the employees’ future performance. The purpose of the meeting should be to solve the
problems faced and motivate the employees to perform better.

f) Decision making:
The last step of the process is to take decisions which can be taken either to improve the
performance of the employees, take the required corrective actions, or the related HR decisions
like rewards, promotions, demotions, transfers etc.
 UNIT IV
DIRECTING
DEFINITION
"Activating deals with the steps a manager takes to get sub-ordinates and others
to carry out plans" - Newman and Warren.
Directing concerns the total manner in which a manager influences the actions of subordinates.
It is the final action of a manager in getting others to act after all preparations have been
completed.

Characteristics
 Elements of Management
 Continuing Function
 Pervasive Function
 Creative Function
 Linking function
 Management of Human Factor

Scope of Directing
 Initiates action
 Ensures coordination
 Improves efficiency
 Facilitates change
 Assists stability and growth

Elements of Directing
The three elements of directing are
 Motivation
 Leadership
 Communication
CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION
Often used interchangeably, they should to be considered separate and distinct.
Creativity can be described as problem identification and idea generation and innovation is
considered as idea selection, development and commercialization.
Creativity is creation of new ideas and Innovation is implementation of the new ideas.
There cannot be innovation without creativity. There can be creativity without innovation but it
has no value.
Steps involved in creativity

a) Preparation: This is the first stage at which the base for creativity and innovation is defined;
the mind is prepared for subsequent use in creative thinking. During preparation the individual is
encouraged to appreciate the fact that every opportunity provides situations that can educate
and experiences from which to learn.
The creativity aspect is kindled through a quest to become more knowledgeable. This can be
done through reading about various topics and/or subjects and engaging in discussions with
others. Taking part in brainstorming sessions in various forums like professional and trade
association seminars, and taking time to study other countries and cultures to identify viable
opportunities is also part of preparation. Of importance is the need to cultivate a personal ability
to listen and learn from others.

b) Investigation: This stage of enhancing entrepreneurial creativity and innovation involves the
business owner taking time to study the problem at hand and what its various components are.
c) Transformation: The information thus accumulated and acquired should then be subjected
to convergent and divergent thinking which will serve to highlight the inherent similarities and
differences. Convergent thinking will help identify aspects that are similar and connected while
divergent thinking will highlight the differences. This twin manner of thinking is of particular
importance in realizing creativity and innovation for the following reasons:
 One will be able to skim the details and see what the bigger picture is
the situation/problem's components can be reordered and in doing so new patterns can
be identified.
 It will help visualize a number of approaches that can be used to simultaneously tackle
the problem and the opportunity.
 One's decision-making abilities will be bettered such that the urge to make snap
decisions will be resisted.

d) Incubation: At this stage in the quest for creativity and innovation it is imperative that the
subconscious reflect on the accumulated information, i.e. through incubation, and this can be
improved or augmented when the entrepreneur:
 Engages in an activity completely unrelated to the problem/opportunity under scrutiny.
 Takes time to daydream i.e. letting the mind roam beyond any restrictions self-imposed
or otherwise.
 Relax and play
 Study the problem/opportunity in a wholly different environment

e) Illumination: This happens during the incubation stage and will often be spontaneous. The
realizations from the past stages combine at this instance to form a breakthrough.

f) Verification: This is where the entrepreneur attempts to ascertain whether the creativity of
thought and the action of innovation are truly effective as anticipated. It may involve activities
like simulation, piloting, prototype building, test marketing, and various experiments. While the
tendency to ignore this stage and plunge headlong with the breakthrough may be tempting, the
transformation stage should ensure that the new idea is put to the test.
MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION

MOTIVATION
"Motivation" is a Latin word, meaning "to move". Human motives are internalized goals within
individuals. Motivation may be defined as those forces that cause people to behave in certain
ways. Motivation encompasses all those pressures and influences that trigger, channel, and
sustain human behavior. Most successful managers have learned to understand the concept of
human motivation and are able to use that understanding to achieve higher standards of
subordinate work performance.

According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Motivation is a class of drives, needs, wishes and similar
forces".

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATION

Psychologists generally agree that all behavior is motivated, and that people have reasons for
doing the things they do or for behaving in the manner that they do. Motivating is the work a
manager performs to inspire, encourage and impel people to take required action.

The characteristics of motivation are given below:-

 Motivation is an Internal Feeling

Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which generates in the mind of an individual the
feeling that he lacks certain things and needs those things. Motivation is a force within an
individual that drives him to behave in a certain way.

 Motivation is Related to Needs

Needs are deficiencies which are created whenever there is a physiological or psychological
imbalance. In order to motivate a person, we have to understand his needs that call for
satisfaction.

 Motivation Produces Goal-Directed Behaviour

Goals are anything which will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. An individual's behavior is
directed towards a goal.
 Motivation can be either Positive or Negative
Positive or incentive motivation is generally based on reward. According to Flippo - "positive
motivation is a process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of
gain or reward".
Negative or fear motivation is based on force and fear. Fear causes persons to act in a certain
way because they are afraid of the consequences if they don't.

IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
A manager's primary task is to motivate others to perform the tasks of the organization.
Therefore, the manager must find the keys to get subordinates to come to work regularly and on
time, to work hard, and to make positive contributions towards the effective and efficient
achievement of organizational objectives. Motivation is an effective instrument in the hands of a
manager for inspiring the work force and creating confidence in it. By motivating the work force,
management creates "will to work" which is necessary for the achievement of organizational
goals. The various benefits of motivation are:-
 Motivation is one of the important elements in the directing process. By motivating the
workers, a manager directs or guides the workers' actions in the desired direction for
accomplishing the goals of the organization.
 Workers will tend to be as efficient as possible by improving upon their skills and knowledge
so that they are able to contribute to the progress of the organization thereby increasing
productivity.
 For performing any tasks, two things are necessary. They are: (a) ability to work and (b)
willingness to work. Without willingness to work, ability to work is of no use. The willingness
to work can be created only by motivation.
 Organizational effectiveness becomes, to some degree, a question of management's ability
to motivate its employees, to direct at least a reasonable effort towards the goals of the
organization.
 Motivation contributes to good industrial relations in the organization. When the workers are
motivated, contented and disciplined, the frictions between the workers and the
management will be reduced.

 Motivation is the best remedy for resistance to changes. When changes are introduced in an
organization, generally, there will be resistance from the workers. But if the workers of an
 organization are motivated, they will accept, introduce and implement the changes whole
heartily and help to keep the organization on the right track of progress.
 Motivation facilitates the maximum utilization of all factors of production, human, physical
and financial resources and thereby contributes to higher production.
 Motivation promotes a sense of belonging among the workers. The workers feel that the
enterprise belongs to them and the interest of the enterprise is their interests.
 Many organizations are now beginning to pay increasing attention to developing their
employees as future resources upon which they can draw as they grow and develop.

SATISFACTION
Employee satisfaction (Job satisfaction) is the terminology used to describe whether
employees are happy and contented and fulfilling their desires and needs at work. Many
measures purport that employee satisfaction is a factor in employee motivation, employee goal
achievement, and positive employee morale in the workplace.
Employee satisfaction, while generally a positive in your organization, can also be a downer if
mediocre employees stay because they are satisfied with your work environment.
Factors contributing to employee satisfaction include treating employees with respect, providing
regular employee recognition, empowering employees, offering above industry-average benefits
and compensation, providing employee perks and company activities, and positive management
within a success framework of goals, measurements, and expectations.
Employee satisfaction is often measured by anonymous employee satisfaction surveys
administered periodically that gauge employee satisfaction in areas such as:
 management,
 understanding of mission and vision,
 empowerment,
 teamwork,
 communication, and
 Coworker interaction.
The facets of employee satisfaction measured vary from company to company.
A second method used to measure employee satisfaction is meeting with small groups of
employees and asking the same questions verbally. Depending on the culture of the company,
either method can contribute knowledge about employee satisfaction to managers and
employees.
JOB DESIGN
It is the process of Work arrangement (or rearrangement) aimed at reducing or
overcoming job dissatisfaction and employee alienation arising from repetitive and
mechanistic tasks. Through job design, organizations try to raise productivity levels
by offering non-monetary rewards such as greater satisfaction from a sense of personal
achievement in meeting the increased challenge and responsibility of one's work.

Approaches to job design include:

 Job Enlargement: Job enlargement changes the jobs to include more
and/ or different tasks. Job enlargement should add interest to the work but may
or may not give employees more responsibility.
 Job Rotation: Job rotation moves employees f rom one task to another. I t
distributes the group tasks among a number of employees.
 Job Enrichment: Job enrichment allows employees to assume more
responsibility, accountability, and independence when learning new tasks or to
allow for greater participation and new opportunities.

TYPES OF MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES

If a manager wants to get work done by his employees, he may either hold out a promise of a
reward (positive motivation) or he/she may install fear (negative motivation). Both these types
are widely used by managements.

a) Positive Motivation:
This type of motivation is generally based on reward. A positive motivation involves the
possibility of increased motive satisfaction. According to Flippo - "Positive motivation is a
process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain or
reward". Incentive motivation is the "pull" mechanism. The receipt of awards, due recognition
and praise for work-well done definitely lead to good team spirit, co-operation and a feeling of
happiness.
 Positive motivation include:-
 Praise and credit for work done
 Wages and Salaries
  Appreciation
 A sincere interest in subordinates as individuals
 Delegation of authority and responsibility

b) Negative Motivation:
This type of motivation is based on force and fear. Fear causes persons to act in a certain way
because they fear the consequences. Negative motivation involves the possibility of decreased
motive satisfaction. It is a "push" mechanism. The imposition of punishment frequently results in
frustration among those punished, leading to the development of maladaptive behaviour. It also
creates a hostile state of mind and an unfavourable attitude to the job. However, there is no
management which has not used the negative motivation at some time or the other.

MOTIVATION THEORIES
Some of the motivation theories are discussed below

a) McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y:

McGregor states that people inside the organization can be managed in two ways. The
first is basically negative, which falls under the category X and the other is basically positive,
which falls under the category Y. After viewing the way in which the manager dealt with
employees, McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human beings is based
on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior
towards subordinates according to these assumptions.

Under the assumptions of theory X :

 Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
 Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or threatened with
punishment to achieve goals.
 Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal directions are issued.
 Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors and display
little ambition.
In contrast under the assumptions of theory Y :
 Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play.
  People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they are committed to those
goals.
 Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and exercise imagination,
ingenuity and creativity in solving the problems of the organization.
 That the way the things are organized, the average human being’s brainpower is only
partly used.

On analysis of the assumptions it can be detected that theory X assumes that lower-order
needs dominate individuals and theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate
individuals. An organization that is run on Theory X lines tends to be authoritarian in nature, the
word “authoritarian” suggests such ideas as the “power to enforce obedience” and the “right to
command.” In contrast Theory Y organizations can be described as “participative”, where the
aims of the organization and of the individuals in it are integrated; individuals can achieve their
own goals best by directing their efforts towards the success of the organization.

b) Abraham Maslow’s “Need Hierarchy Theory”:

One of the most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the hierarchy of needs theory
put forth by psychologist Abraham Maslow. Maslow saw human needs in the form of a
hierarchy, ascending from the lowest to the highest, and he concluded that when one set of
needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivator.
As per his theory these needs are:
(i) Physiological needs:
These are important needs for sustaining the human life. Food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep,
medicine and education are the basic physiological needs which fall in the primary list of need
satisfaction. Maslow was of an opinion that until these needs were satisfied to a degree to
maintain life, no other motivating factors can work.
(ii) Security or Safety needs:
These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of the fear of losing a job, property, food
or shelter. It also includes protection against any emotional harm.
(iii) Social needs:
Since people are social beings, they need to belong and be accepted by others. People try to
satisfy their need for affection, acceptance and friendship.
(iv) Esteem needs:
According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong, they tend to want to be
held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of need produces such satisfaction
as power, prestige status and self-confidence. It includes both internal esteem factors like self-
respect, autonomy and achievements and external esteem factors such as states, recognition
and attention.
(v) Need for self-actualization:
Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is the drive to become what one is
capable of becoming; it includes growth, achieving one’s potential and self-fulfillment. It is to
maximize one’s potential and to accomplish something.

All of the needs are structured into a hierarchy and only once a lower level of need has been
fully met, would a worker be motivated by the opportunity of having the next need up in the
hierarchy satisfied. For example a person who is dying of hunger will be motivated to achieve a
basic wage in order to buy food before worrying about having a secure job contract or the
respect of others.
A business should therefore offer different incentives to workers in order to help them fulfill each
need in turn and progress up the hierarchy. Managers should also recognize that workers are
not all motivated in the same way and do not all move up the hierarchy at the same pace. They
may therefore have to offer a slightly different set of incentives from worker to worker.

c) Frederick Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory:

 Frederick has tried to modify Maslow’s need Hierarchy theory. His theory is also known
as two-factor theory or Hygiene theory. He stated that there are certain satisfiers and
dissatisfiers for employees at work. Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic
factors are associated with dissatisfaction. He devised his theory on the question: “What do
people want from their jobs?” He asked people to describe in detail, such situations when they
felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. From the responses that he received, he concluded
that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a
job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He states that presence of certain factors in
the organization is natural and the presence of the same does not lead to motivation. However,
their non-presence leads to de-motivation. In similar manner there are certain factors, the
absence of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence has motivational impact.
Examples of Hygiene factors are:
Security, status, relationship with subordinates, personal life, salary, work conditions,
relationship with supervisor and company policy and administration.
Examples of Motivational factors are:
Growth prospectus job advancement, responsibility, challenges, recognition and achievements.

d) Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory:

The most widely accepted explanations of motivation have been propounded by Victor
Vroom. His theory is commonly known as expectancy theory. The theory argues that the
strength of a tendency to act in a specific way depends on the strength of an expectation that
the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual to make this simple, expectancy theory says that an employee can be motivated to
perform better when there is a belief that the better performance will lead to good performance
appraisal and that this shall result into realization of personal goal in form of some reward.
Therefore an employee is:
Motivation = Valence x Expectancy.
The theory focuses on three things:
 Efforts and performance relationship
 Performance and reward relationship
 Rewards and personal goal relationship

e) Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory:

 Alderfer has tried to rebuild the hierarchy of needs of Maslow into another model named
ERG i.e. Existence – Relatedness – Growth. According to him there are 3 groups of core needs
as mentioned above. The existence group is concerned mainly with providing basic material
existence. The second group is the individuals need to maintain interpersonal relationship with
other members in the group. The final group is the intrinsic desire to grow and develop
personally. The major conclusions of this theory are :
 In an individual, more than one need may be operative at the same time.
 If a higher need goes unsatisfied than the desire to satisfy a lower need intensifies.
 It also contains the frustration-regression dimension.

f) McClelland’s Theory of Needs:

David McClelland has developed a theory on three types of motivating needs :
(i) Need for Power
(ii) Need for Affiliation
(iii) Need for Achievement
Basically people for high need for power are inclined towards influence and control. They like to
be at the center and are good orators. They are demanding in nature, forceful in manners and
ambitious in life. They can be motivated to perform if they are given key positions or power
positions.
In the second category are the people who are social in nature. They try to affiliate themselves
with individuals and groups. They are driven by love and faith. They like to build a friendly
environment around themselves. Social recognition and affiliation with others provides them
motivation.
People in the third area are driven by the challenge of success and the fear of failure. Their
need for achievement is moderate and they set for themselves moderately difficult tasks. They
are analytical in nature and take calculated risks. Such people are motivated to perform when
they see at least some chances of success.
McClelland observed that with the advancement in hierarchy the need for power and
achievement increased rather than Affiliation. He also observed that people who were at the
top, later ceased to be motivated by this drives.

g) Stacey Adams’ Equity Theory:

As per the equity theory of J. Stacey Adams, people are motivated by their beliefs about
the reward structure as being fair or unfair, relative to the inputs. People have a tendency to use
subjective judgment to balance the outcomes and inputs in the relationship for comparisons
between different individuals. Accordingly:

If people feel that they are not equally rewarded they either reduce the quantity or quality of
work or migrate to some other organization. However, if people perceive that they are rewarded
higher, they may be motivated to work harder.

h) Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory:

B.F. Skinner, who propounded the reinforcement theory, holds that by designing the
environment properly, individuals can be motivated. Instead of considering internal factors like
impressions, feelings, attitudes and other cognitive behavior, individuals are directed by what
happens in the environment external to them. Skinner states that work environment should be
made suitable to the individuals and that punishment actually leads to frustration and de-
motivation. Hence, the only way to motivate is to keep on making positive changes in the
external environment of the organization.
LEADERSHIP
Definition
Leadership is defined as influence, the art or process of influencing people so that they
will strive willingly and enthusiastically toward the achievement of group goals.
- Leaders act to help a group attain objectives through the maximum application of its
capabilities.
- Leaders must instill values – whether it be concern for quality, honesty and
calculated risk taking or for employees and customers.

Importance of Leadership
1. Aid to authority
2. Motive power to group efforts
3. Basis for co operation
4. Integration of Formal and Informal Organization.

LEADERSHIP STYLES
The leadership style we will discuss here are:
a) Autocratic style
b) Democratic Style
c) Laissez Faire Style

a) Autocratic style
Manager retains as much power and decision-making authority as possible. The manager does
not consult employees, nor are they allowed to give any input. Employees are expected to obey
orders without receiving any explanations. The motivation environment is produced by creating
a structured set of rewards and punishments.

Autocratic leadership is a classical leadership style with the following characteristics:

 Manager seeks to make as many decisions as possible
 Manager seeks to have the most authority and control in decision making
 Manager seeks to retain responsibility rather than utilize complete delegation
 Consultation with other colleagues in minimal and decision making becomes a solitary
process
 Managers are less concerned with investing their own leadership development, and prefer
to simply work on the task at hand.

Advantages
● Reduced stress due to increased control
● A more productive group ‘while the leader is watching’
● Improved logistics of operations
● Faster decision making

Disadvantages
● Short-termistic approach to management.
● Manager perceived as having poor leadership skills
● Increased workload for the manager
● People dislike being ordered around
● Teams become dependent upon their leader

b) Democratic Style
Democratic Leadership is the leadership style that promotes the sharing of responsibility,
the exercise of delegation and continual consultation.

The style has the following characteristics:

 Manager seeks consultation on all major issues and decisions.
 Manager effectively delegate tasks to subordinates and give them full control and
responsibility for those tasks.
 Manager welcomes feedback on the results of intiatives and the work environment.
 Manager encourages others to become leaders and be involved in leadership development.

Advantages
● Positive work environment
● Successful initiatives
● Creative thinking
● Reduction of friction and office politics
● Reduced employee turnover

Disadvantages
● Takes long time to take decisions
● Danger of pseudo participation
● Like the other styles, the democratic style is not always appropriate. It is most successful
when used with highly skilled or experienced employees or when implementing operational
changes or resolving individual or group problems.

c) Laissez-Faire Style
This French phrase means “leave it be” and is used to describe a leader who leaves
his/her colleagues to get on with their work. The style is largely a "hands off" view that tends to
minimize the amount of direction and face time required.

Advantages
 No work for the leader
 Frustration may force others into leadership roles
 Allows the visionary worker the opportunity to do what they want, free from interference
 Empowers the group

Disadvantages
● It makes employees feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager.
● The manager cannot provide regular feedback to let employees know how well they are
doing.
● Managers are unable to thank employees for their good work.
● The manager doesn’t understand his or her responsibilities and is hoping the employees
can cover for him or her.
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
The various leadership theories are

a) Great Man Theory:

Assumptions
 Leaders are born and not made.
 Great leaders will arise when there is a great need.

Description
Early research on leadership was based on the study of people who were already great leaders.
These people were often from the aristocracy, as few from lower classes had the opportunity to
lead. This contributed to the notion that leadership had something to do with breeding.
The idea of the Great Man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that in times of
need, a Great Man would arise, almost by magic. This was easy to verify, by pointing to people
such as Eisenhower and Churchill, let alone those further back along the timeline, even to
Jesus, Moses, Mohammed and the Buddah.

Discussion
Gender issues were not on the table when the 'Great Man' theory was proposed. Most leaders
were male and the thought of a Great Woman was generally in areas other than leadership.
Most researchers were also male, and concerns about androcentric bias were a long way from
being realized.

b) Trait Theory:
Assumptions
 People are born with inherited traits.
 Some traits are particularly suited to leadership.
 People who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient) combination of traits.
Description
Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day, which was of
people having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was thus put on discovering these
traits, often by studying successful leaders, but with the underlying assumption that if other
people could also be found with these traits, then they, too, could also become great leaders.

McCall and Lombardo (1983) researched both success and failure identified four primary traits
by which leaders could succeed or 'derail':
Emotional stability and composure: Calm, confident and predictable, particularly when under
stress.
Admitting error: Owning up to mistakes, rather than putting energy into covering up.
Good interpersonal skills: able to communicate and persuade others without resort to negative
or coercive tactics.
Intellectual breadth: Able to understand a wide range of areas, rather than having a narrow (and
narrow-minded) area of expertise.

c) Behavioral Theory:
Assumptions
 Leaders can be made, rather than are born.
 Successful leadership is based in definable, learnable behavior.

Description
Behavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or capabilities. Rather, they look at
what leaders actually do.
If success can be defined in terms of describable actions, then it should be relatively easy for
other people to act in the same way. This is easier to teach and learn then to adopt the more
ephemeral 'traits' or 'capabilities'.

d) Participative Leadership:
Assumptions
 Involvement in decision-making improves the understanding of the issues involved by
those who must carry out the decisions.
 People are more committed to actions where they have involved in the relevant decision-
making.
 People are less competitive and more collaborative when they are working on joint
goals.
  When people make decisions together, the social commitment to one another is greater
and thus increases their commitment to the decision.
 Several people deciding together make better decisions than one person alone.

Description
A Participative Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve other people in
the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superiors and other stakeholders. Often,
however, as it is within the managers' whim to give or deny control to his or her subordinates,
most participative activity is within the immediate team. The question of how much influence
others are given thus may vary on the manager's preferences and beliefs, and a whole
spectrum of participation is possible

e) Situational Leadership:
Assumptions
 The best action of the leader depends on a range of situational factors.

Description
When a decision is needed, an effective leader does not just fall into a single preferred style. In
practice, as they say, things are not that simple.
Factors that affect situational decisions include motivation and capability of followers. This, in
turn, is affected by factors within the particular situation. The relationship between followers and
the leader may be another factor that affects leader behavior as much as it does follower
behavior.
The leaders' perception of the follower and the situation will affect what they do rather than the
truth of the situation. The leader's perception of themselves and other factors such as stress
and mood will also modify the leaders' behavior.

f) Contingency Theory:
Assumptions
 The leader's ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors, including the
leader's preferred style, the capabilities and behaviors of followers and also various
other situational factors.

Description
Contingency theories are a class of behavioral theory that contend that there is no one best way
of leading and that a leadership style that is effective in some situations may not be successful
in others.
An effect of this is that leaders who are very effective at one place and time may become
unsuccessful either when transplanted to another situation or when the factors around them
change.
Contingency theory is similar to situational theory in that there is an assumption of no simple
one right way. The main difference is that situational theory tends to focus more on the
behaviors that the leader should adopt, given situational factors (often about follower behavior),
whereas contingency theory takes a broader view that includes contingent factors about leader
capability and other variables within the situation.

g) Transactional Leadership:
Assumptions
 People are motivated by reward and punishment.
 Social systems work best with a clear chain of command.
 When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede all authority to
their manager.
 The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do.

Description
The transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is
required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders. Punishments
are not always mentioned, but they are also well-understood and formal systems of discipline
are usually in place.

The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby the
subordinate is given a salary and other benefits, and the company (and by implication the
subordinate's manager) gets authority over the subordinate.

When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are considered to be fully
responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to carry it out. When
things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for
their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding).
h)Transformational Leadership:
Assumptions
 People will follow a person who inspires them.
 A person with vision and passion can achieve great things.
 The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy.

Description
Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and uplifting experience. They put
passion and energy into everything. They care about you and want you to succeed.
Transformational Leaders are often charismatic, but are not as narcissistic as pure Charismatic
Leaders, who succeed through a belief in themselves rather than a belief in others.
One of the traps of Transformational Leadership is that passion and confidence can easily be
mistaken for truth and reality.
Transformational Leaders, by definition, seek to transform. When the organization does not
need transforming and people are happy as they are, then such a leader will be frustrated. Like
wartime leaders, however, given the right situation they come into their own and can be
personally responsible for saving entire companies.
 UNIT V
CONTROLLING
DEFINITION
Control is the process through which managers assure that actual activities conform to
planned activities.
In the words of Koontz and O'Donnell - "Managerial control implies measurement of
accomplishment against the standard and the correction of deviations to assure attainment of
objectives according to plans."

Nature & Purpose of Control

 Control is an essential function of management
 Control is an ongoing process
 Control is forward – working because pas cannot be controlled
 Control involves measurement
 The essence of control is action
 Control is an integrated system

CONTROL PROCESS
The basic control process involves mainly these steps as shown in Figure

a) The Establishment of Standards:

Because plans are the yardsticks against which controls must be revised, it follows logically that
the first step in the control process would be to accomplish plans. Plans can be considered as
the criterion or the standards against which we compare the actual performance in order to
figure out the deviations.
Examples for the standards
 Profitability standards: In general, these standards indicate how much the company
would like to make as profit over a given time period- that is, its return on investment.
 Market position standards: These standards indicate the share of total sales in a
particular market that the company would like to have relative to its competitors.
 Productivity standards: How much that various segments of the organization should
produce is the focus of these standards.
 Product leadership standards: These indicate what must be done to attain such a
position.
 Employee attitude standards: These standards indicate what types of attitudes the
company managers should strive to indicate in the company’s employees.
 Social responsibility standards: Such as making contribution to the society.
 Standards reflecting the relative balance between short and long range goals.

b) Measurement of Performance:

The measurement of performance against standards should be on a forward looking basis so

that deviations may be detected in advance by appropriate actions. The degree of difficulty in
measuring various types of organizational performance, of course, is determined primarily by
the activity being measured. For example, it is far more difficult to measure the performance of
highway maintenance worker than to measure the performance of a student enrolled in a
college level management course.

c) Comparing Measured Performance to Stated Standards:

When managers have taken a measure of organizational performance, their next step in
controlling is to compare this measure against some standard. A standard is the level of activity
established to serve as a model for evaluating organizational performance. The performance
evaluated can be for the organization as a whole or for some individuals working within the
organization. In essence, standards are the yardsticks that determine whether organizational
performance is adequate or inadequate.
d) Taking Corrective Actions:
After actual performance has been measured compared with established performance
standards, the next step in the controlling process is to take corrective action, if
necessary. Corrective action is managerial activity aimed at bringing organizational performance
up to the level of performance standards. In other words, corrective action focuses on correcting
organizational mistakes that hinder organizational performance. Before taking any corrective
action, however, managers should make sure that the standards they are using were properly
established and that their measurements of organizational performance are valid and reliable.
At first glance, it seems a fairly simple proposition that managers should take corrective action
to eliminate problems - the factors within an organization that are barriers to organizational goal
attainment. In practice, however, it is often difficult to pinpoint the problem causing some
undesirable organizational effect.

BARRIERS FOR CONTROLLING

There are many barriers, among the most important of them:
 Control activities can create an undesirable overemphasis on short-term production as
opposed to long- term production.
 Control activities can increase employees' frustration with their jobs and thereby reduce
morale. This reaction tends to occur primarily where management exerts too much
control.
 Control activities can encourage the falsification of reports.
 Control activities can cause the perspectives of organization members to be too narrow
for the good of the organization.
 Control activities can be perceived as the goals of the control process rather than the
means by which corrective action is taken.

REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFECTIVE CONTROL

The requirements for effective control are
a) Control should be tailored to plans and positions
This means that, all control techniques and systems should reflect the plans they are designed
to follow. This is because every plan and every kind and phase of an operation has its unique
characteristics.
b) Control must be tailored to individual managers and their responsibilities
This means that controls must be tailored to the personality of individual managers. This
because control systems and information are intended to help individual managers carry out
their function of control. If they are not of a type that a manager can or will understand, they will
not be useful.
c) Control should point up exceptions as critical points
This is because by concentration on exceptions from planned performance, controls based on
the time honored exception principle allow managers to detect those places where their
attention is required and should be given. However, it is not enough to look at exceptions,
because some deviations from standards have little meaning and others have a great deal of
significance.
d) Control should be objective
This is because when controls are subjective, a manager’s personality may influence judgments
of performance inaccuracy. Objective standards can be quantitative such as costs or man hours
per unit or date of job completion. They can also be qualitative in the case of training programs
that have specific characteristics or are designed to accomplish a specific kind of upgrading of
the quality of personnel.
e) Control should be flexible
This means that controls should remain workable in the case of changed plans, unforeseen
circumstances, or outsight failures.Much flexibility in control can be provided by having
alternative plans for various probable situations.
f) Control should be economical
This means that control must worth their cost. Although this requirement is simple, its practice is
often complex. This is because a manager may find it difficult to know what a particular system
is worth, or to know what it costs.
g) Control should lead to corrective actions
This is because a control system will be of little benefit if it does not lead to corrective action,
control is justified only if the indicated or experienced deviations from plans are corrected
through appropriate planning, organizing, directing, and leading.

TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

The control systems can be classified into three types namely feed forward, concurrent and
feedback control systems.
a) Feed forward controls: They are preventive controls that try to anticipate problems and take
corrective action before they occur. Example – a team leader checks the quality, completeness
and reliability of their tools prior to going to the site.
b) Concurrent controls: They (sometimes called screening controls) occur while an activity is
taking place. Example – the team leader checks the quality or performance of his members
while performing.
c) Feedback controls: They measure activities that have already been completed. Thus
corrections can take place after performance is over. Example – feedback from facilities
engineers regarding the completed job.

BUDGETARY CONTROL

Definition: Budgetary Control is defined as "the establishment of budgets, relating the

responsibilities of executives to the requirements of a policy, and the continuous comparison of
actual with budgeted results either to secure by individual action the objective of that policy or to
provide a base for its revision.

Salient features:
a. Objectives: Determining the objectives to be achieved, over the budget period, and the
policy(ies) that might be adopted for the achievement of these ends.
b. Activities: Determining the variety of activities that should be undertaken for achievement of
the objectives.
c. Plans: Drawing up a plan or a scheme of operation in respect of each class of activity, in
physical a well as monetary terms for the full budget period and its parts.
d. Performance Evaluation: Laying out a system of comparison of actual performance by each
person section or department with the relevant budget and determination of causes for the
discrepancies, if any.
e. Control Action: Ensuring that when the plans are not achieved, corrective actions are taken;
and when corrective actions are not possible, ensuring that the plans are revised and objective
achieved

CLASSIFICATION OF BUDGETS
Budgets may be classified on the following bases –

a) BASED ON TIME PERIOD:

(i) Long Term Budget
Budgets which are prepared for periods longer than a year are called LongTerm
Budgets. Such Budgets are helpful in business forecasting and forward planning.
Eg: Capital Expenditure Budget and R&D Budget.
(ii) Short Term Budget
Budgets which are prepared for periods less than a year are known as ShortTerm
Budgets. Such Budgets are prepared in cases where a specific action has to be
immediately taken to bring any variation under control.
Eg: Cash Budget.
 b) BASED ON CONDITION:
(i) Basic Budget
A Budget, which remains unaltered over a long period of time, is called Basic
Budget.
(ii) Current Budget
A Budget, which is established for use over a short period of time and is related to
the current conditions, is called Current Budget.

c) BASED ON CAPACITY:
(i) Fixed Budget
It is a Budget designed to remain unchanged irrespective of the level of activity
actually attained. It operates on one level of activity and less than one set of
conditions. It assumes that there will be no change in the prevailing conditions, which
is unrealistic.
(ii) Flexible Budget
It is a Budget, which by recognizing the difference between fixed, semi variable and
variable costs is designed to change in relation to level of activity attained. It consists
of various budgets for different levels of activity

d) BASED ON COVERAGE:
(i) Functional Budget
Budgets, which relate to the individual functions in an organization, are known as
Functional Budgets, e.g. purchase Budget, Sales Budget, Production Budget, plant
Utilization Budget and Cash Budget.
(ii) Master Budget
It is a consolidated summary of the various functional budgets. It serves as the basis
upon which budgeted Profit & Loss Account and forecasted Balance Sheet are built
up.

BUDGETARY CONTROL TECHNIQUES

The various types of budgets are as follows
i) Revenue and Expense Budgets:
The most common budgets spell out plans for revenues and operating expenses in
rupee terms. The most basic of revenue budget is the sales budget which is a formal and
detailed expression of the sales forecast. The revenue from sales of products or services
furnishes the principal income to pay operating expenses and yield profits. Expense budgets
may deal with individual items of expense, such as travel, data processing, entertainment,
advertising, telephone, and insurance.

ii) Time, Space, Material, and Product Budgets:

Many budgets are better expressed in quantities rather than in monetary terms. e.g.
direct-labor-hours, machine-hours, units of materials, square feet allocated, and units produced.
The Rupee cost would not accurately measure the resources used or the results intended.

iii) Capital Expenditure Budgets:

Capital expenditure budgets outline specifically capital expenditures for plant,
machinery, equipment, inventories, and other items. These budgets require care because they
give definite form to plans for spending the funds of an enterprise. Since a business takes a
long time to recover its investment in plant and equipment, (Payback period or gestation period)
capital expenditure budgets should usually be tied in with fairly long-range planning.

iv) Cash Budgets:

The cash budget is simply a forecast of cash receipts and disbursements against which
actual cash "experience" is measured. The availability of cash to meet obligations as they fall
due is the first requirement of existence, and handsome business profits do little good when tied
up in inventory, machinery, or other noncash assets.

v) Variable Budget:
The variable budget is based on an analysis of expense items to determine how
individual costs should vary with volume of output.
Some costs do not vary with volume, particularly in so short a period as 1 month, 6
months, or a year. Among these are depreciation, property taxes and insurance, maintenance of
plant and equipment, and costs of keeping a minimum staff of supervisory and other key
personnel. Costs that vary with volume of output range from those that are completely variable
to those that are only slightly variable.
The task of variable budgeting involves selecting some unit of measure that reflects
volume; inspecting the various categories of costs (usually by reference to the chart of
accounts); and, by statistical studies, methods of engineering analyses, and other means,
determining how these costs should vary with volume of output.

vi) Zero Based Budget:

The idea behind this technique is to divide enterprise programs into "packages"
composed of goals, activities, and needed resources and then to calculate costs for each
package from the ground up. By starting the budget of each package from base zero, budgeters
calculate costs afresh for each budget period; thus they avoid the common tendency in
budgeting of looking only at changes from a previous period.

Advantages
There are a number of advantages of budgetary control:
 Compels management to think about the future, which is probably the most important
feature of a budgetary planning and control system. Forces management to look ahead,
to set out detailed plans for achieving the targets for each department, operation and
(ideally) each manager, to anticipate and give the organization purpose and direction.
 Promotes coordination and communication.
 Clearly defines areas of responsibility. Requires managers of budget centre’s to be
made responsible for the achievement of budget targets for the operations under their
personal control.
 Provides a basis for performance appraisal (variance analysis). A budget is basically a
yardstick against which actual performance is measured and assessed. Control is
provided by comparisons of actual results against budget plan. Departures from budget
can then be investigated and the reasons for the differences can be divided into
controllable and non-controllable factors.
 Enables remedial action to be taken as variances emerge.
 Motivates employees by participating in the setting of budgets.
 Improves the allocation of scarce resources.
 Economises management time by using the management by exception principle.

Problems in budgeting
 Whilst budgets may be an essential part of any marketing activity they do have a number
of disadvantages, particularly in perception terms.
  Budgets can be seen as pressure devices imposed by management, thus resulting in:
a) bad labour relations
b) inaccurate record-keeping.
 Departmental conflict arises due to:
a) disputes over resource allocation
b) departments blaming each other if targets are not attained.
 It is difficult to reconcile personal/individual and corporate goals.
 Waste may arise as managers adopt the view, "we had better spend it or we will lose it".
This is often coupled with "empire building" in order to enhance the prestige of a
department.
 Responsibility versus controlling, i.e. some costs are under the influence of more than
one person, e.g. power costs.
 Managers may overestimate costs so that they will not be blamed in the future should
they overspend.

NON-BUDGETARY CONTROL TECHNIQUES

There are, of course, many traditional control devices not connected with budgets, although
some may be related to, and used with, budgetary controls. Among the most important of these
are: statistical data, special reports and analysis, analysis of break- even points, the operational
audit, and the personal observation.

i) Statistical data:
Statistical analyses of innumerable aspects of a business operation and the clear presentation
of statistical data, whether of a historical or forecast nature are, of course, important to control.
Some managers can readily interpret tabular statistical data, but most managers prefer
presentation of the data on charts.

ii) Break- even point analysis:

An interesting control device is the break even chart. This chart depicts the relationship of sales
and expenses in such a way as to show at what volume revenues exactly cover expenses.

iii) Operational audit:

Another effective tool of managerial control is the internal audit or, as it is now coming to be
called, the operational audit. Operational auditing, in its broadest sense, is the regular and
independent appraisal, by a staff of internal auditors, of the accounting, financial, and other
operations of a business.

iv) Personal observation:

In any preoccupation with the devices of managerial control, one should never overlook the
importance of control through personal observation.

v) PERT:
The Program (or Project) Evaluation and Review Technique, commonly abbreviated PERT, is a
is a method to analyze the involved tasks in completing a given project, especially the time
needed to complete each task, and identifying the minimum time needed to complete the total
project.

vi) GANTT CHART:

A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule. Gantt charts illustrate the
start and finish dates of the terminal elements and summary elements of a project. Terminal
elements and summary elements comprise the work breakdown structure of the project. Some
Gantt charts also show the dependency (i.e., precedence network) relationships between
activities.

PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity refers to the ratio between the output from production processes to its input.
Productivity may be conceived of as a measure of the technical or engineering efficiency of
production. As such quantitative measures of input, and sometimes output, are emphasized.

Typical Productivity Calculations

Measures of size and resources may be combined in many different ways. The three common
approaches to defining productivity based on the model of Figure 2 are referred to as physical,
functional, and economic productivity. Regardless of the approach selected, adjustments may
be needed for the factors of diseconomy of scale, reuse, requirements churn, and quality at
delivery.
a) Physical Productivity

This is a ratio of the amount of product to the resources consumed (usually effort). Product may
be measured in lines of code, classes, screens, or any other unit of product. Typically, effort is
measured in terms of staff hours, days, or months. The physical size also may be used to
estimate software performance factors (e.g., memory utilization as a function of lines of code).

b) Functional Productivity

This is a ratio of the amount of the functionality delivered to the resources consumed
(usually effort). Functionality may be measured in terms of use cases, requirements, features, or
function points (as appropriate to the nature of the software and the development method).
Typically, effort is measured in terms of staff hours, days, or months. Traditional measures of
Function Points work best with information processing systems. The effort involved in
embedded and scientific software is likely to be underestimated with these measures, although
several variations of Function Points have been developed that attempt to deal with this issue.

c) Economic Productivity

This is a ratio of the value of the product produced to the cost of the resources used to
produce it. Economic productivity helps to evaluate the economic efficiency of an organization.
Economic productivity usually is not used to predict project cost because the outcome can be
affected by many factors outside the control of the project, such as sales volume, inflation,
interest rates, and substitutions in resources or materials, as well as all the other factors that
affect physical and functional measures of productivity. However, understanding economic
productivity is essential to making good decisions about outsourcing and subcontracting. The
basic calculation of economic productivity is as follows:

Economic Productivity = Value/Cost

PROBLEMS IN MEASUREMENT OF PRODUCTIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE WORKERS

Productivity implies measurement, which in turn, is an essential step in the control
process. Although there is a general agreement about the need for improving productivity, there
is little consensus about the fundamental causes of the problem and what to do about them.
The blame has been assigned to various factors. Some people place it on the greater proportion
of less skilled workers with respect to the total labor force, but others disagree. There are those
who see cutback in research and the emphasis on immediate results as the main culprit.
Another reason given for the productivity dilemma is the growing affluence of people, which
makes them less ambitious. Still others cite the breakdown in family structure, the workers’
attitudes, and government policies and regulations. Another problem is that the measurement
of skills work is relatively easy, but it becomes more difficult for knowledge work. The difference
between the two kinds is the relative use of knowledge and skills.

COST CONTROL
Cost control is the measure taken by management to assure that the cost objectives set
down in the planning stage are attained and to assure that all segments of the organization
function in a manner consistent with its policies.

Steps involved in designing process of cost control system:

• Establishing norms: To exercise cost control it is essential to establish norms, targets or
parameters which may serve as yardsticks to achieve the ultimate objective. These
standards, norms or targets may be set on the basis of research, study or past actual.
• Appraisal: The actual results are compared with the set norms to ascertain the degree of
utilization of men, machines and materials. The deviations are analyzed so as to arrive at
the causes which are controllable and uncontrollable.
• Corrective measures: The variances are reviewed and remedial measures or revision of
targets, norms, standards etc., as required are taken.

Advantages of cost control

• Better utilization of resources
• To prepare for meeting a future competitive position.
• Reasonable price for the customers
• Firm standing in domestic and export markets.
• Improved methods of production and use of latest manufacturing techniques which have
the effect of rising productivity and minimizing cost.
 • By a continuous search for improvement creates proper climate for the increase
efficiency.
• Improves the image of company for long-term benefits.
• Improve the rate of return on investment.

PURCHASE CONTROL
Purchase control is an element of material control. Material procurement is known as the
purchase function. The functional responsibility of purchasing is that of the purchase manager
or the purchaser. Purchasing is an important function of materials management because in
purchase of materials, a substantial portion of the company's finance is committed which affects
cash flow position of the company. Success of a business is to a large extent influenced by the
efficiency of its purchase organization. The advantages derived from a good and adequate
system of the purchase control are as follows:

a) Continuous availability of materials: It ensures the continuous flow of materials. so

production work may not be held up for want of materials. A manufacturer can complete
schedule of production in time.
b) Purchasing of right quantity: Purchase of right quantity of materials avoids locking up of
working capital. It minimizes risk of surplus and obsolete stores. It means there should not be
possibility of overstocking and understocking.
c) Purchasing of right quality: Purchase of materials of proper quality and specification avoids
waste of materials and loss in production. Effective purchase control prevents wastes and
losses of materials right from the purchase till their consumptions. It enables the management to
reduce cost of production.
d) Economy in purchasing: The purchasing of materials is a highly specialized function. By
purchasing materials at reasonable prices, the efficient purchaser is able to make a valuable
contribution to the success of a business.
e) Works as information centre: It serves as a function centre on the materials knowledge
relating to prices, sources of supply, specifications, mode of delivery, etc. By providing
continuous information to the management it is possible to prepare planning for production.
f) Development of business relationship: Purchasing of materials from the best market and
from reliable suppliers develops business relationships. The result is that there may be smooth
supply of materials in time and so it avoid disputes and financial losses.
g) Finding of alternative source of supply: If a particular supplier fails to supply the materials
in time, it is possible to develop alternate sources of supply. the effect of this is that the
production work is not disturbed.
h) Fixing responsibilities: Effective purchase control fix the responsibilities of operating units
and individuals connected with the purchase, storage and handling of materials.

In short, the basic objective of the effective purchase control is to ensure continuity of supply of
requisite quantity of material, to avoid held up of production and loss in production and at the
same time reduces the ultimate cost of the finished products.

MAINTENANCE CONTROL
Maintenance department has to excercise effective cost control, to carry out the
maintenance functions in a pre-specified budget, which is possible only through the following
measures:

First line supervisors must be apprised of the cost information of the various materials so that
the objective of the management can be met without extra expenditure on maintenance
functions

A monthly review of the budget provisions and expenditures actually incurred in respect of each
center/shop will provide guidlines to the departmental head to exercise better cost control.
The total expenditure to be incurred can be uniformly spread over the year for better budgetary
control. however, the same may not be true in all cases particularly where overhauling of
equipment has to be carried out due to unforseen breakdowns. some budgetary provisions must
be set aside, to meet out unforeseen exigencies.

The controllable elements of cost such as manpower cost and material cost can be discussed
with the concerned personnel, which may help in reducing the total cost of maintenance.
Emphasis should be given to reduce the overhead expenditures, as other expenditures cannot
be compromised.

It is observed through studies that the manpower cost is normally fixed, but the same way
increase due to overtime cost. however, the material cost, which is the prime factor in
maintenance cost, can be reduced by timely inspections designed, to detect failures. If the
inspection is carried out as per schedule, the total failure of parts may be avoided, which
otherwise would increase the maintenance cost. the proper handling of the equipment by the
operators also reduces the frequency of repair and material requirements. Operators, who
check their equipment regularly and use it within the operating limits, can help avoid many
unwanted repairs. In the same way a good record of equipment failures/ maintenance would
indicate the nature of failures, which can then be corrected even permanently.

QUALITY CONTROL
Quality control refers to the technical process that gathers, examines, analyze & report
the progress of the project & conformance with the performance requirements

The steps involved in quality control process are

1) Determine what parameter is to be controlled.
2) Establish its criticality and whether you need to control before, during or after results are
produced.
3) Establish a specification for the parameter to be controlled which provides limits of
acceptability and units of measure.
4) Produce plans for control which specify the means by which the characteristics will be
achieved and variation detected and removed.
5) Organize resources to implement the plans for quality control.
6) Install a sensor at an appropriate point in the process to sense variance from
specification.
7) Collect and transmit data to a place for analysis.
8) Verify the results and diagnose the cause of variance.
9) Propose remedies and decide on the action needed to restore the status quo.
10) Take the agreed action and check that the variance has been corrected.

Advantages and disadvantages

 Advantages include better products and services ultimately establishing a good
reputation for a company and higher revenue from having more satisfied customers.
 Disadvantages include needing more man power/operations to maintain quality control
and adding more time to the initial process.
PLANNING OPERATIONS
An operational planning is a subset of strategic work plan. It describes short-term ways
of achieving milestones and explains how, or what portion of, a strategic plan will be put into
operation during a given operational period, in the case of commercial application, a fiscal year
or another given budgetary term. An operational plan is the basis for, and justification of an
annual operating budget request. Therefore, a five-year strategic plan would need five
operational plans funded by five operating budgets.
Operational plans should establish the activities and budgets for each part of the organization
for the next 1 – 3 years. They link the strategic plan with the activities the organization will
deliver and the resources required to deliver them.
An operational plan draws directly from agency and program strategic plans to describe agency
and program missions and goals, program objectives, and program activities. Like a strategic
plan, an operational plan addresses four questions:
 Where are we now?
 Where do we want to be?
 How do we get there?
 How do we measure our progress?
The OP is both the first and the last step in preparing an operating budget request. As the first
step, the OP provides a plan for resource allocation; as the last step, the OP may be modified to
reflect policy decisions or financial changes made during the budget development process.
Operational plans should be prepared by the people who will be involved in implementation.
There is often a need for significant cross-departmental dialogue as plans created by one part of
the organization inevitably have implications for other parts.
Operational plans should contain:
 clear objectives
 activities to be delivered
 quality standards
 desired outcomes
 staffing and resource requirements
 implementation timetables
 a process for monitoring progress.
why coordination is considered as the essence of management!
Apart from these five functions, there is one more important function which every
manager has to perform. This is called coordination. It is not only a function but it is the
essence of managCoordination can be defined as “Synchronization of efforts from the
stand-point of time and the sequence of execution”. In general coordination means
bringing together the activities and resources of organisation and bringing harmony in
them.

Coordination is the base or primary function of every manager because various

departments of an organisation are working independently and there is need to relate
and integrate their activities.

Coordination: The Essence of Management:

Coordination brings unity of action and integrates different activities of organisation.
Coordination is considered as the essence of management because of following reasons

1. Coordination is needed to perform all the functions of management::

(i) In planning coordination is required between main plan and supportive plans of different
departments.

(ii) In organising coordination is required between different resources of an organization and also
between authority responsibility and accountability.

(iii) In staffing coordination is required between skill of a person and job assigned to him, between
efficiency and compensation etc.

(iv) In directing function coordination is required between superior and subordinates, between
orders, instructions, guidelines and suggestions etc.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

(v) In controlling function coordination is required between standards and actual performance.

2. Coordination is required at all the levels:

(i) Top level requires coordination to integrate all the activities of organisation and lead the efforts of
all the individuals in one common direction.

(ii) Coordination is required at middle level to balance the activities of different departments so that
these can work as a part of one organisation only.

(iii) Lower level requires coordination to integrate the activities of workers towards achievement of
organisational objectives.
3. Coordination is the most important function of an organization:
Any company which fails to coordinate its activities cannot survive and run successfully for a long
period of time.

For example, Allwyn Company, established in 1942, was the first company to produce a double-
decker bus. It was running successfully as a leading electronic industry, especially in refrigeration
industry. By the end of 1980 the company faced the problem of coordination. There was lack of
balance and integration of different activities; as a result the company started facing huge losses and
by 1993 company had an accumulated loss of Rs. 168 crore. Company failed to balance its
departmental activities and product folios.

Difference between Coordination and Cooperation:

Basis Coordination Cooperation

1. Meaning Coordination is an Cooperation is a

orderly arrangement voluntary effort of
of group efforts to individuals to
maintain harmony help one other.
among individual
efforts toward
accomplishment of
common goals.

2. Nature Coordination is a Cooperation is an

system evolved effort that arises
deliberately by the out of informal
managers relations.

3. Need Coordination is the Cooperation is a

essence of voluntary act that
 management and arises out of
essential for informal relations
achievement of with the desire to
common goals of an work together.
organisation.

4. Managerial Coordination is Cooperation is a

function implicit and voluntary effort of
inherent in all individuals to
functions of an work together
organization; hence with the intention
it is also known as of helping one
essence of other.
management.

5. Relations Can be achieved Arises out of

through both formal informal relations
and informal only
relations.

6. Scope Wider scope as it Narrow scope

includes though it helps to
cooperation. establish
coordination.

(1) Coordination Integrates Group Effort:

The need for coordination is felt when group effort is needed for the accomplishment of
an objective. In short, it can be said that coordination is related to group effort and not
individual effort. The question of coordination does not arise, if the job is done by one
person only.

(2) Coordination Ensures Unity of Action:

The nature of coordination is of creating unity in action. It means during coordinating
process an effort is made to create unity among the various activities of an organisation.
For example, the purchase and sales departments have to coordinate their efforts so that
supply of goods takes place according to purchase orders.
(3) Coordination is a Continuous Process:
It is not a job which can be performed once and for all, but its need is felt at every step.
Many activities are performed in a business. Sometimes or the other, if any one of the
activities goes on fluctuating either for more or less than required, the whole
organisational balance is disrupted. Thus, a close watch has to be kept on all the
activities to maintain the balance.

(4) Coordination is an All-pervasive Function:

Pervasiveness refers to that truth which is applicable to all spheres (business and non-
business organisations) and places uniformly. The nature of coordination is pervasive.
Like making of timetable in an educational institution is an apt example of establishing
coordination.

In the game of cricket, the placement of players at pre-determined positions is nothing

but coordination. In the same manner, to synchronise the activities of different
departments, like purchase, sales, production, finance, etc. in a business organisation is
coordination.

(5) Coordination is the Responsibility of All Managers:

Coordination is needed at all the three, i.e., top, middle and lower managerial levels.
Different activities performed at all the levels are equally important. Thus it is the
responsibility of all the managers that they make efforts to establish coordination. That
is why, it could not be said that coordination is of more importance to any one particular
managerial level or a manager.

(6) Coordination is a Deliberate Function:

Coordination is never established by itself but it is a deliberate effort. Only cooperation
does not suffice but coordination is also needed. For example, a teacher aspires to teach
effectively (this is cooperation) but the timetable is not prepared in the school (this is
lack of coordination).

In this situation, classes cannot be arranged for. Here, the effort made by the teacher is
meaningless, in the absence of coordination. On the other hand, in the absence of
cooperation, coordination dissatisfies the employees. Thus, both are required at a given
point of time.