Translation

Translation: Assembly of polypeptides on a ribosome

• Living cells devote more energy to the synthesis of

proteins than to any other aspect of metabolism.

• About a third of the dry mass of a cell consists of

molecules that directly participate in protein synthesis

• This reflects the importance of protein synthesis to the

existence of the organism.
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 Translation: An Overview
• Ribosomes translate the genetic message of mRNA into proteins.

• The mRNA is translated 5’ ! 3’ producing a corresponding N-

terminal ! C-terminal polypeptide.

• Amino acids bound to tRNAs are inserted in the proper sequence

due to:
– Specific binding of each amino acid to its tRNA.
– Specific base-pairing between the mRNA codon and tRNA anticodon.

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 Components of Translation
• mRNA:
– Eukaryotes: made in the nucleus, transported to the cytoplasm.
– Prokaryotes: transcription and translation occur concurrently.

• tRNA: Adaptor molecules that mediate the transfer of information

from nucleic acids to protein
• Ribosomes: manufacturing units of a cell; located in the cytoplasm.
Contain ribosomal RNA and proteins.
• Enzymes: required for the attachment of amino acids to the correct
tRNA molecule, and for peptide bond formation between amino
acids.
• Proteins: soluble factors necessary for proper initiation, elongation
and termination of translation.
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 tRNA
• small single stranded RNA molecules of 70-95 nucleotides in length,
– about 4S (Svedberg units) in size.

• In addition to A, G, C and U, tRNAs have modified bases produced by

chemical alteration of the 4 primary nucleotides.

• Each tRNA molecule is a clover leaf structure, which looks like an L-shape in
three dimensions.

• At the base of the L, three nucleotides form the anti-codon.

• The sequence of the anti-codon dictates the amino acid that binds to it.
– The anti-codon sequence is complementary to the codon for that amino acid.
– For example:
• GCA is a codon for alanine: the anticodon then is CGU, but in the 3’ to 5’ direction.

• The amino acid is carried at the 3’ hydroxyl end of the tRNA molecule.

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 tRNA
• Tertiary structure

• Amino acids must

be attached to be
functional
– Enzymatic reaction
– Need ATP
– Aminoacyl tRNA
synthase

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 tRNA
• Recognition of codon is important
• Are there tRNAs for every codon?
– So are there 61 tRNA’s?
• No actually about 40
• “Wobble” in third position of anticodon

• One anticodon can recognize several

codons…
• What are the wobble rules?
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 Characteristics of the Genetic Code:
The Wobble Hypothesis
• Wobble occurs in the anticodon.
– The third base in the codon is able to base-pair less specifically
– because it is less constrained three-dimensionally.

• allows a tRNA anticodon to recognize up to three

different codons (Figure 14.8 and Table 14.1).
– Does not obey complementary base pairing in certain cases.
– YIKES!

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 Fig. 6.9 Example of base-pairing wobble

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Peter J. Russell, iGenetics: Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
Some tRNAs
recognize more
than one codon
for amino acids
they carry

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 Question
• The anti-codon ACG can pair with
which codon(s)?
– 1) UGG
– 2) UGU
– 3) UGC
– 4) 1 and 2
– 5) 2 and 3

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 Question
• The anti-codon ACC can pair with
which codon(s)?
– 1) UGG
– 2) UGU
– 3) UGC
– 4) 1 and 2
– 5) 2 and 3

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 Enzymes
• Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases catalyze the attachment
of a tRNA molecule to its respective amino acid.
– There is at least one amino acyl tRNA synthetase for each
amino acid.
– The attachment of the amino acid activates/ charges the tRNA
molecule.
– The attachment of the aminoacid is at its carboxyl terminal.
(NH2-CH2-CO-3’tRNA5’)

• Peptidyl Transferase:
– catalyzes the sequential transfer of amino acids to the growing
chain.
– Forms the peptide bonds between amino acids
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 Ribosomes: Functions
• They are the sites of polypeptide synthesis

• They recognize features that signal the start of translation

• They ensure the accurate interpretation of the genetic code by

stabilizing the interaction between tRNA and the mRNA.

• They supply the enzymatic activity that covalently links the amino
acids in the polypeptide chain.

• They facilitate the linear reading of the genetic code by sliding

along the mRNA molecule.

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 Ribosomes: Components
• two subunits: large and small.
– Prokaryotes: 50S + 30S = 70S
– eukaryotes: 60S + 40S = 80S.

• Prokaryotes: overall smaller

– large subunit contains one rRNAs and ~31 different proteins.
– small subunit contains two rRNAs and 21 different proteins.

• Eukaryotes: overall bigger

– large subunit contains three rRNAs and 45 proteins.
– small subunit consists of one rRNAs and 33 different proteins.

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 Ribosomes: Synthesis
• In eukaryotes, rRNA synthesis and ribosome assembly
takes place in the nucleolus.

• Before translation begins, the two ribosomal subunits

exist as separate entities in the cytoplasm.

• Soon after the start of translation, they come together.

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 Ribosomes: Role in translation
• The small subunit is the one that initially binds to the mRNA.
• The larger subunit provides the enzyme activity:
•Peptidyl transferase,
•catalyzes formation of peptide bonds joining amino acids
• The assembled structure of the ribosome creates three pockets for
the binding of two molecules of tRNA.

•The far left pocket is the Exit site or E site

•It binds the deacylated tRNA (no amino acid attached)

• The one in the middle is referred to as the peptidyl or the P site:

• it binds to the tRNA holding the growing chain of polypeptide.
• The site on the right is termed the amino acyl, or the A site,
•it binds to the incoming tRNA molecule. 16 /35
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18
 Question
• One difference between prokaryote and
eukaryote ribosomes is:
– 1. Their function
– 2. Prokaryotes do not have ribosomes because
they do not have organelles
– 3. Their size
– 4. How they work

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 Mechanism of Translation
•Three steps of translation:

– Initiation: sets the stage for polypeptide synthesis.

– Elongation: causes the sequential addition of amino acids to the

polypeptide chain in a colinear fashion as determined by the
sequence of mRNA.

– Termination: Brings the polypeptide synthesis to a halt.

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 Initiation
!!he initiation codon is an AUG
! is towards the 5’ end of the mRNA molecule that is being translated.
! NOT the first 3 nucleotides!
! It determines the reading frame.

!In prokaryotes, there is a conserved region about 7 nucleotides

upstream from the initiating AUG:
! this region contains a 6-nucleotide sequence
! Shine-Dalgarno box: AGGAGG.

!The Shine-Dalgarno sequence is complementary to a region at

the 3’ end of the 16 rRNA of the small subunit;
! base pairing between these complementary sequences stabilizes the
binding of the small ribosomal subunit to the mRNA for proper
assembly.
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 Initiation: continued
! In prokaryotes, the first AUG is recognized by a special tRNA
(tRNAfMet) carrying a modified methionine: formyl methionine.
! The large subunit of the ribosome now attaches to the small subunit, to
complete the initiation process.

! In eukaryotes, the small ribosomal unit binds first to the

methylated cap (7-methyl guanosine) at the 5’ end of the mRNA.
! It then migrates to the initiation site, usually the first AUG it encounters as
it scans the mRNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction.

! In eukaryotes, the methionine need not be modified.

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Fig. 14.12 Initiation of protein synthesis in prokaryotes

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Peter J. Russell, iGenetics: Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
Translation Initiation in Eukaryotes

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 Elongation
• At the start of elongation, the mRNA is bound to the complete two subunit
ribosome,
– with the initiating tRNA in the P site,
– and the A site free for binding to the next tRNA.

• The ribosome moves along the mRNA in a 5’ to 3’ direction, in a step-wise

process, recognizing each subsequent codon.

• The peptidyl transferase enzyme then catalyzes the formation of a peptide

bond between
– the free N terminal of the amino acid at the A site,
– and the Carboxyl end of the amino acid at the P site, which is actually connected
to the tRNA.

• This disconnects the tRNA fMet from the amino acid, and the tRNA at the A
site now carries two amino acids,
– with a free N terminal and the Carboxyl terminal of the second aa connected to its
tRNA. 26 /35
Translation Elongation

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 Fig. 6.13 The formation of a peptide bond between the first two
amino acids of a polypeptide chain is catalyzed on the ribosome by
peptidyl transferase

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Peter J. Russell, iGenetics: Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
 Chain Elongation:Translocation
• During translocation the peptidyl-tRNA remains attached
to its codon, but is transferred from the ribosomal A site
to the P site by an unknown mechanism.

• The vacant A site now contains a new codon, and an

aminoacyl-tRNA with the correct anticodon can enter
and bind.

• The process repeats until a stop codon is reached.

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 Chain Elongation: Translocation
• Elongation and translocation are similar in eukaryotes, except for
differences in number and type of elongation factors and the exact
sequence of events.

• In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, simultaneous translation

occurs.
– New ribosomes may initiate as soon as the previous ribosome
has moved away from the initiation site, creating a
polyribosome (polysome).
– An average mRNA might have 8–10 ribosomes attached at a
given moment (Figure 14.15).

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 Fig. 6.14 Diagram of a polysome, a number of ribosomes each
translating the same mRNA sequentially

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Peter J. Russell, iGenetics: Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
 Termination
• When the ribosome encounters a stop codon,
– there is no tRNA available to bind to the A site of the
ribosome,
– instead a release factor binds to it.

• The details are not very clear, but once the release
factor binds, the ribosome unit falls apart,
– releasing the large and small subunits,
– the tRNA carrying the polypeptide is also released,
freeing up the polypeptide product.

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 Release Factor
Fig. 14.15
Termination of
translation
Release Factor

Release Factor

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Peter J. Russell, iGenetics: Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
 Question
• All of the following are necessary
components for translation except:
– 1) Rho protein
– 2) Peptidyl transferase
– 3) rRNA
– 4) tRNA

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 Homework Problems

•Chapter 14
•# 23, 26, 27,
•DON’T forget to take the online QUIZ!
•DON’T forget to submit the iActivity
•“Cause of CF”

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