Chapter - 1

POLITICAL AND SOCIAL BACKGROUND

OF KERALA
 Chapter - 1

POLITICAL AND SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF KERALA

The name Kerala originated from the term Keralam, which is

generally assumed to mean the land of the Cheras. According to Dr. Gundert,

Keran is the Canarase dialectical form of Cheran, that is Cheras, the country

between Gokarnam and Cumari.' The word Cheral in Tamil means the declivity

of a hill or a mountain slope. In the 'Keralolpathi' the name Kerala get

mentioned as it is associated with Perumal the then ruler of Kerala. Another

theory connects the name with Keram standing for 'Nalikera', meaning coconut

- a commodity that the state produces in abundance.^

Boundaries

Kerala, God's own country has had the distinction of being an independent

socio-geographical and political entity from very early days. Its unique

geographical position and peculiar physical features have invested Kerala with a

distinct identity. Kerala is bordered by Kamataka to the North and NorthEast,

Tamil Nadu to the South and South East and the Arabian Sea in the West. Kerala

lies between the high Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea on the west, the width

of the state varies from 35 km to 120 km. The State has a coast of length 590 km

1. Komattil Achutha Menon, Ancient Kerala, Trichur, 1961, p. 7.

2. A. Sreedhra Menon, A Survey of Kerala History, D.C. Books, Kottayam, 1967, p. 27.
3. C.A. Innes, Malabar Gazetteer Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, 1997,
p. 28.
 15
(390 m). Kerala State lies between 8° 18' and 12°48' North latitude between

74°52' and ITIA' East longitudes. ^

Passes

Passes in Kerala also play a significant role in the interstate relation. The

major gap in the Palghat is about 20 miles broad. Here, by whatever great

Natural Agency the break occurred, the mountain appears thrown back and

heaped up as if some overwhelming deluge had burst out, sweeping them to the

left and right.^ On either side, tower the giant Nilgiris and Anamalas. The

Palghat gap has moulded the climate of the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. In

addition to Palghat gap, there are also others like the Peramabi Ghat, which

gives access to Coorg and the Periya and Tamarasseri Ghats.^ These gaps have

promoted contacts between Kerala and Mysore which served as routes of

invasion. Another important pass in the Ghats is the Aramboli (Aruvamozhi)

Pass, through which passes the trunk road of Tirunelveli to Trivandrum. It was

through this pass that the Tamil powers invaded South Travancore in the early

period.^ The Aramboly Pass, though now situated outside Kerala, has played a

crucial role in the military history of Kerala.

In the poetic form of Mahakavi Vallathol Mother Kerala "sleeps with her

head on the lap of the Sahayadri clad in green" and her feet pillowed on the

crystal ocean sand, Kumari at one end and the Lord Gokama on the others.

4. Adoor K.K. Ramachandran Nair (ed.), Kerala State Gazetteer, Vol. I, Government
Press, Thiruvananthapuram, p. 289.
5. William Logan, Malabar Manual, Vol. II, Government Press, Madras, 1951, p.5
6. A.K. Gopalan, Kerala Past and Present, Chinta Publishers, Trivandrum, 1982, p. 10.
7. Ibid.,p.\\.
8. A. Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History, D.C. Books, Kottayam, 2008, p. 14.
 16
According to geographical features the state can be divided into hills valley,

midland, plains, and the sear board. ^ The Western Ghats which range along the

eastern boarder constitute the hills and valleys in its upper range, while the lower

ranges of the forest are interspersed with plantains plantations. ^° The midland

stretches along the coastal plain with sandy soil stretches over the western side

of the state between the two, the midland plains, where agriculture is the main

occupation. The state has an area of 38,863 km^ (15,005 sq. miles). '^

Mountains and Hills

The mountains and hills of Kerala have played a vital part in its History.

The Western Ghats have informed almost an unbroken wall guarding the Eastern

frontier and helped the people of Kerala to lead a sheltered life of their own
19

through the centuries.

The ghats range from 300 ft to more than 800 ft above the sea level. The

Anamudi peak the high range of Idukki district rises to a highest of 8,841 ft and

represents the highest point in India, the South of the Himalayas. The

Agasthyakutam, the southernmost peak in the ghats is 6, 132 ft above the sea

level and figures in the peculiar tradition connected with Agastyamuni. Some of

the hills of Kerala are important from the political and cultural point of view;

they are Karinkulam 8455 ft Mukuthi 8330 ft and Devimala 8273 ft.*^

9. G. Krishnan Nadar, Historiography and History of Kerala, Learners Books House,

Kottayam, 1981,p.l.
10. A. SreedharaMenon, op. c/r., pp. 13-14.
11. India 2001, A Reference Annual, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,
Government of India, New Delhi, p. 1149.
12. T.K. Velupillai, The Travancore State Manual, Vol. II, Trivandrum, 1940, p. 403.
13. Manorama Year Book, Mathew K.M. (ed.), Kottayam, 2009, p. 645.
 17
Climate

The climate is pleasant and mild all through the year. The state has a

tropical climate and therefore does not experience distinct seasons. The Kerala

state gets rain from the southwest monsoons and northeast monsoons. December,

January and February are the coldest months while March, April and May are

hottest months. The average level of annual rainfall in the state is quite high,

being in the neighbourhood of about 96". The highest rainfall in the state occurs

in the high ranges of Idukki district while it amounts to over 200". '*

Rivers

Kerala is rich in water potential. There are 41 west flowing rivers in the

state in addition to three east flowing rivers.'^ The lengthiest are Periyar 244 km,

Bharathapuzha also called Nila 209 km, Pamba 176 km, Chaliyar 169 km,

Chalakkudy 130 km, Achenkovil 128 km and Movatupuzha 121 km. All the

rivers are relatively small and the average lengthy being about 40 km.'

Lakes and Backwaters

Kerala is also blessed with lakes or backwaters. The important of them are

Vembanad Lake, the Ashtamudi Lake, the Sathankotta Kayal, Kodungallur

Kayal, Periyar Lake, Vellayani Kayal, Kumbala, Kalnad and Kalav

Kayamkulam Lake. The Vembanad lake is the biggest Lake stretching from

Alleppey to Cochin. The backwaters provide facilities for cheap and easy means

14. Stephen Hschreicker, Encylopaedia of Climate and Weather, Vol. 11, Oxford, 1996,
p. 598.
15. A. Sreedhra Menon, op. cit., pp. 17-18.
16. Agur.M., Church History ofTravancore, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1990,
p. 918.
 18
of conveyance and unite distant parts of the country and contribute their share to

the industrial and commercial development of the country.'^

Fauna and Flora

Much of Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the

Western Ghats. Almost one fourth of India's 10,000 plant species are found in the state.

Among the almost 4,000 flowering plant species (1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala

and 159 threatened) are 900 species of medicinal plants.

Its 9,400 km of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests

(lower and middle elevations 3,470 km^), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests

(mid-elevations 4,100 km and 100 km , respectively), and montane subtropical and

-y

temperate {shola) forests (highest elevations 100 km ). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is

forested.'^ Two of the world's Ramsar Convention listed wetlands Lake Sasthamkotta

and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km of the vast Nilgiri

Biosphere Reserve. Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,

much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from clearfelling. Kerala's fauna

are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: 102 species of mammals

(56 of which are endemic), 453 species of birds, 202 species of freshwater fishes, 169

species of reptiles (139 of them endemic), and 89 species of amphibians (86 endemic).

These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides,

salinization, and resource extraction.

Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical

dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats. Here, there are more than 1,000

17. G. Krishnan Nadar, Histography and History of Kerala, Learners Book House,
Kottayam, p. 4.
18. K.P. Padmanabha Menon, History of Kerala, Vol. I, Asian Educational Services,
Kottayam, 1981, p.4.
19. Ibid., p. 8.
 19
species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild black pepper, wild

cardamom, the calamus rattan palm (a type of climbing palm), and aromatic vetiver.

Living among them are such fauna as Indian Elephant, Bengal Tiger, Indian Leopard,

Nilgiri Tahr, Common Palm Civet, and Grizzled Giant Squirrel. Reptiles include the

King Cobra, viper, python, and Mugger Crocodile. Kerala's birds are legion—Malabar

Trogon, the Great Hombill, Kerala Laughingthrush, Darter, and Southern Hill Myna

are several emblematic species. In lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as kadu

(stinging catfish) and Choottachi are found.

The variations in climate and seasons have had their impact on vegetation

and the development of agriculture. Kerala is also rich in fauna and flora. Its

forest abounds in a variety of animals and birds. The aromatic plants and spices

of Kerala attracted the attention of foreigners even from time immemorial. Such

spices are peppar, cardamom, cinnamon and ginger were exported from ancient

Kerala to the centuries of Asia, and Europe and they continue to earn valuable

foreign exchange even now. It was the demand for the pepper (black gold) of

Kerala that brought European powers like Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and

the English to the state of Kerala in Modem Times.

The forest of Kerala abound in some of the rarest species of timber. Teak

wood from Kerala found its way to foreign countries even centuries before the

dawn of the Christian era. The magnificent teak of Kerala forests appears to have

been used for the manufacture of the ships that fought in the battle of Trafalgar

and brought victory to Nelson. ^^

20. wvAv. Wikipedia. org/wiki/Kerala

21. Manorama Year Book, 2003, Trivandrum, p. 517.
22. G. Krishnan Nadar, op. cit., p. 16.
 20
The People

The Kerala occupies 12* rank in population among the Indian states. As

per the Census of 2011, the total population of Kerala is 3,33,87,677. The

population mainly comprised people of three religions viz. the Hindus,

Christians and Muslims. The people in the Hindu fold were broadly divided into

two, the high castes (savarnas) and the low castes (avarnas). ^^ A vast majority

of Hindu population were treated as low castes and untouchables. Hinduism was

the predominant religion in Kerala. In Kerala, the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and

Nairs were called the caste Hindus (savarnas). The other Hindus are called the

outcastes {avarnas) or the Backward Communities.^''

Festivals

Kerala is the home of many festivals. Most of them have religious fervor

inspired by Hindu mythology. Onam is the most typical festival of Malayalis. It

is celebrated during the harvest season in the month of Chingam (August -

September) Onam celebrates the home coming of Mahabali, the legendary

king, who ruled over the Kerala in an age of plenty. But he was pushed down to

internal regions by Vishnu in the guise of Vamana. Navarathri is celebrated as

Saraswathi Pooja in Kerala. Mahasivaratri is also celebrated in Kerala on the

banks of Periyar River as a spectacular festival which can be compared to

Kumbhamela. The 41 days festival, which coincides with Mahkaravilakku

23. CM. Agur, op. cit., pp. 9-10.

24. George Jacob, Religious life of the Ilavas of Kerala change and continutiy, ISCPK,
Delhi, 1995, p. 3.
25. K.R. Raghava Variar, "Temple Festivals in Medieval Keala", Journal of Kerala
Studies, T.K. Ravindran, (ed.). Vol. V, Trivandrum, 1998, p. 56.
 21
festival in Sabarimala Ayyappan Temple. The Main Christian festivals are

Christmas and Easter. The Muslims celebrate Bakrid, Ramzan and Muharram. ^^

The Polity of Kerala

The ancient History of Kerala is shrouded with several legends. The most

popular legend is related to Parasurama, the Brahmin avatar (incarnation) of

Lord Vishnu. Legend has it that Parasurama threw his Parasu or axe across the

sea from Gokamam to Kanyakumari and water receded upto the spot where it

fell. The tract of territory so thrown up is said to have constituted the land of

Kerala, otherwise called Bhargavashetram or Parasuramakshetram - God's

own country.

The ancient history of Travancore is the history of the largest political

segment of Kerala, the others being Cochin and Malabar. The ruling family of

Travancore traces its descent from the old Chera dynasty, which was a part of

Tamil Ay Dynasty. ^^ Ays ruled the Travancore between 300 BC and 600 AD. ^^

The disintegration of the second Chera Empire paved the way for feudalism in

Travancore and it divided the country into small estates and principalities. The

most important among them were Venad, Attingal, Kayamkulam, Desinganad,

Purabbad, Tekkumbkur and Vadakkumkur.

26. Mircca Eliade, The Encyclopeadia of Religion, Vol. Ill, New York, 1987, p. 348.
27. A. Sreedhara Menon, op. cit., p. 20.
28. Ibid.,p.2\.
29. Chera Dynsty is one of the three great Tamiidynasties that exercised sovereighty in
South India during the ancient period. The other two are Chola and Pandy a dynaties
respectively.
30. The regions was ruled by the Ay Dynasty during the first Sangham age (Circa 300 BC -
600 AD) and was the scene of many battes between the Kulasekaras and the Cholas
during the second Sangam Age.(Circa 850 - 1400 AD) when Vizhinjam the capital, was
sacked by the Cholas. Later the area was termed Venad
 22
Travancore attained its territorial configuration during the reign of

Maharaja Marthandavarma (1729-1755 AD) who enlarged the kingdom of

Venad, consolidated the royal authority, reorganized administration and founded

the Modem Travancore.^' He reintroduced the land tax in 1739. When the

Kingdom expanded the administration became unwieldly, the Maharaja formed a

ministry, headed by the Dewan. Marthandavarma transformed Kerala into a

'Hindu State' where Brahmanism reigned Supreme. ^^

The succession lists of Marthanda Varma are as below:

1) Karthika Tirunal Rama Varma (Dharma Raja) (1758 AD to 1798 AD)

2) BalaRamavarma (1798 AD - 1810 AD)

3) Rani Lakshmi Bai (1810 AD to 1815 AD)

4) The Regency of Gauri Parvathi Bai (1815 AD -1829 AD)

5) Swati Thirunal (1829 AD - 1847 AD)

6) Uthram Thirunal Marthandavarma (1847 AD -1860 AD)

7) Ayilyam Thirunal (1860 AD -1880 AD)

8) Visakham Thirunal (1880 AD -1885 AD)

9) Sri Mulam Thirunal (1885 AD -1924 AD)

10) Maha Rani Sethu Lekshmi Bai (1924 A.D. - 1931 A.D.

11) Sri Chitra Thirunal Balaramavarma (1931 AD -1948 AD)

31. Suresh Kumar, Political Evolutions in Kerala, Travancore 1859-1938, Phoenix

Publishing House, Mew Delhi, 1982, pp. 14-15.
32. lbid.,p.\6.
 23
The region of Sri Chitra Thirunal Balarama Varma (1931-1948) constituted

a period of constitutional, administrative and social reforms.^^ His period

witnessed political struggles, the Temple Entry Proclamation of 1936, the

establishment of Travancore University in 1937^'' and the formation of the

Travancore State Congress in 1938.

Kerala since Independence

After India gained her independence in 1947, the movement for a united

(Akiya) Kerala gathered momentum and thus Travancore and Cochin were

merged to form Thiru-Kochi on 1 Jul 1949. The united Travancore-Cochin state

was established Trivandrum as its capital, while High Court was established at
-ye

Kochi. Maharaja of Travancore became the Rajapramukh of the new state. On

1 January 1950, Travancore-Cochin was recognized as a state. For that the States

Reorganization Commission was constituted by the Central Government. The

commission created a report on 1955 recommending the reorganization of

India's states an linguistic basis. Accordingly the State Reorganization Act was

passed in 1956 by the Parliament. On 1^' November 1956, the state of Kerala was

formed merging the Malabar district and Travancore-Cochin excluding four

southern taluks of Agasteeswaram, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode which

were merged to Tamil Nadu. In 1957, in the Kerala Legislative Assembly

election, E.M.S. Namboodiripad contested as the Communist Party

33. V. Nagam Aiya, The Travancore State Manual, Vol. 1, Asian Educational Services,
(reprint), New Delhi, 1906., p. 512.
34. CM. Agur, op. cit., p. 683.
35. K. Ramachandran Nair, The History of Trade Union Movement in Kerala, Published by
the Kerala Institute of Labour and Employment, Trivandrum in Association with
MANAK Publications Pvt. Ltd., Kile 2006, p. 119.
 24
candidate and he became the first Chief Minister of Kerala on 5* April 1957.

Thiruvananthapuram is the capital city of Kerala. Allapuzha, Eranakulam,

Idukki, Kannur, Kasargod, Kollam, Kozhikode, Kottayam, Malappuram,

Palghat, Pattanamthitta, Thiruvananthapuram, Thrissur and Wyanad are the

fourteen districts in Kerala.

Social Condition

During the early period Kerala society included a variety of castes like

Brahmins, Nairs, Vellalars, Ezhavas, Nadars, Pulayas, Parayas. Among them

Brahmins enjoyed the highest status. Malayali Brahmins were known as

Namboodiris. Having seen the extreme rigidity of caste rules and their harsh

enforcement in Kerala Swami Vivekananda called it "is a veritable lunatic

asylum of India". Gandhiji expressed the view that "in a place so beautiful, so

lovely, there should be unloveliness in man against man was and is a matter of

deepest grief to me. The world outside has a right to measure Hinduism by its

manifestation in this State. Unfortunately for Hinduism, unfortunately for the

State, and unfortunately even for all India there is not much credit to the State in

the matter of untouchability".

Caste system which became very prominent in North India came to the

Dravidian South comparatively later, for the earliest Tamil literature shows a

society divided in to tribal groups with little sense of precedence of one over the

other. Succeeding centuries saw the gradual hardening of class, until south

Indian Brahmins became even stricter in their ritual observances and South

36. Swami Vivekananda, The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol. Ill, Calcutta,
1964, p. 294.
37. Mahadeva Desai, Epic ofTravancore, Navjeevan Karunalaya, Ahmadabad, 1937, pp. 3-4.
 25
Indian untouchables even more debased than those of the North. Early Tamil

literature gives no evidence of caste, but the growth of Aryan influence and the

development of a more complex political and economic structure produced a

system in some ways more rigid than that of the North.^^ There were no

unanimous opinions among historians about the origin of caste system in Kerala.

Tradition ascribes the creation of caste to Parasurama, the leader of the first

Brahmin colony. The scheme attributed to him consists of sixty four divisions

evolved by permutations and combinations. T.K.Velu Pillai, in his Travancore

State Manual, states that, the early Aryan society introduced the four fold

division of caste in to Kerala. The immigrants claimed superiority in caste and

refused to recognise any class of inhabitants of the land as Brahmins. The ruling

families were however, recognised as Kshatriyas, The bulk of the people were

stigmatized as Sudras, while a few were recognised as Vaisyas. In course of

time, the newcomers of the Nambutiri class adopted many of the customs and

usages of the older inhabitants and imposed on them some of their own.

Socially, a distinction was maintained between the different sections of the

population. The Nambutiris being the priestly order wielded great influence

over the others. Society was divided into groups according to the nature of the

occupation followed by the members. '^^

38. A.L. Basham, The Wonder that was India, London, 2004, p. 139.
39. Ibid., p.\5l.
40. Vijay K. Gupta, Social Development and Demographic Changes in South India, M.D.
Publicatons Pvt. Ltd., 1994, p. 18.
 26
Caste Divisions

Caste system was an instrument to top up Brahmin supremacy in the

society. "*' The term Brahmin is derived from Brahma the creator of God and it

was said that from whose mouth Brahmins have sprung and hence the name

Brahmins. ''^

Brahmins

Brahmins occupied the apex of the caste hierarchy. They were broadly

divided in to two classes Nambutiris or Malayala Brahmins, indigenous to the

country, and Foreign Brahmins, originally from other parts of India, especially

from Canara, Maratta, Tulu and Tamil countries, but are settled in Kerala.'^''

Malayala Brahmins were subdivided in to six categories, of which Nambutiris

stood at the apex. The sub-divisions were so fantastic that among the

Nambutiris themselves there were not less than ten sub-divisions.'*'* The

foreign Brahmins included two classes - Pancha Dravida Brahmins, and Pancha

Gauda Brahmins. Though comparatively few in number, they were the only

class that were free from all social and religious disabilities and enjoyed perfect

liberty of action. The whole framework of Hinduism had been adapted to the

comfort and exaltation of the Brahmin. His word was law; his smile conferred

happiness and salvation, his power with heaven was unlimited. He was the

41. T.K. Velupillai, The Travancore State Manual, Vol. I, Trivandrum, Govt, of Travancore
1990, p. 422.
42. V. Nagam Aiya, The Travancore State Manual, Vol. I, Kerala State Gazeteers
Department, Trivandrum, 1909, (Reprint).
43. Samuel Mateer, The Land of Charity, A Descriptive Account of Travancore and Its
People, John Snow and Co., London, 1971, p.29.
44. V. Nagam Aiya, The Travancore State Manual, Vol.11, Trivandrum, (reprint), 1906,
p.247.
 27
professedly the pure and exalted priest, separate from all that was "common or

unclean".

The Nambutiri Brahmins were regarded as peculiarly sacred, and was

exalted far beyond the foreign Brahmins. They claimed to be the aboriginal

proprietors of the soil, to whom the ancestors of the present rajahs and chiefs

were indebted for all that they possessed. Their headquarters were at Alvancheri

in the Cochin State, where the Chief Nambutiri resides. The highest class of

Nambutiris, with rare exceptions, refused to resided under the sway of the Sudra

king of Travancore, and any of the female going South of Quilon was said to low

caste. Hence the Nambutiris resided within the limits of Travancore was not

recognised as the purest class. ^

These proud and arrogant Brahmins were not numerous in the South, but

chiefly inhabited the Central and Northern provinces of Travancore, and Cochin

and Malabar area. Their manner of life was usually very secluded, and many

devoted tViems elves especially to the performance of religious ceremonies in

connection with the temples. In all the great religious observances of the Rajah,

these priests were the principal celebrants, and were treated with every mark of

reverence and respect. They rarely entered the arena of political life, and it was

only in 1863 that the first instance occurred of a youth of this caste entering the

high school at the capital, for the purpose of learning English. In consequence of

their seclusion, caste prejudices, and strict attention to ceremonial purity, these

Brahmins were inaccessible to the European missionaries.

45. Samuel Mateer, op.cit., pp.27-28.

46. V. Nagam Aiya,/6/c?., p. 36.
 28
The Nambutiri Brahmins were often wealthy, and resided in large

comfortable houses. Their women were carefully concealed from the public

gaze; and, when venturing out of the house, were enveloped in clothes, or

covered by an immense umbrella. The Females were said to be distinguished by

their beauty, and they enjoyed the privilege of wearing golden bracelets. The

eldest son alone in the family was allowed to marry in regular form with a

female of his own caste. The others, the junior members had just temporary

connections, 'sambandham' or marriage relations, with Nair ladies, who

regarded it as a high honour to receive Nambutiris as their visitors."^^

The low morality that struck Hindu Society in Kerala had its roots in the

Brahmin profligacy."*^ Craze for sex among the Nambutiris brought about

degeneration in the Kerala Society. They transformed the honoured female

servants of Gods, devadasis, in to legal prostitutes and the honour and purity of

temples became degenerated. Sambandham alliance, granted the junior

members of the Brahmin family the freedom to cohabit with any Sudra or Nair

Women and the Nair women regarded it as a high honour to receive the visits of

a Nambutiri.'*^ They took it for granted that women of their community and that

of the lower tiers were created for the enjoyment of the Namboothiri. Absolute

freedom in sexual life was the right of every male Brahmin and absolute

surrender or every female. Smarthavicharam was introduced to maintain the

47. Ibid.,pAO.
48. T.K. Ravindran, Vaikom Satyagraha and Gandhi Kerala Historical Society, Trivandrum,
1975, p.l2.
49. Samuel Mateer, Life in Travancore, W.H.Allen and Co, London, 1882, p. 3.
 29
purity of this caste. Such smarthavicharams for checking the prostitution of

Nambutiri women were common in ancient days.^^

There was no bar with regard to the debauchedness of the Brahmins with

Nair women. The Brahmins did not hesitate to brand as immoral and immodest

those women of the humbler castes who refused to expose, at the approach of the

Brahmin, their breasts, ripping open their upper cloth. Till recent times, the

custom of the lower caste women, going to the Nambutiri illoms, removing the

upper garment, was strictly observed throughout Kerala.

The Nambutiri Brahmins were the real rulers of Kerala from the 11*

century to the 16* century. The kings were the servants of the Nambutiris.

They were masters in the arts and sciences of war as well as learning and

scholarship and this enabled them to establish their supremacy over kings and

rulers. They were the law makers and hence they were above the king and

outside the orbit of law. They owned allegiance to only their caste chief,

Alvancheri Thamprakkal, who had the exclusive authority to punish them. The

law spared the Brahmins from the death penalty even for most heinous crimes,

while members of untouchable castes who committed such ordinary offences as

theft were punished with death penalty.^' According to sacred laws to kill

Brahmin was equivalent to Brahmahatya, the most heinous crime.

The upper caste Brahmins enjoyed several immunities and privileges

which were denied to the lower castes. Political power and authority in the land

lay concentrated in the hands of the Brahmins. The existence of royal families

50. Elamkulam, P.N. Kunjan Pillai, Studies in Kerala History, National Book House,
Kottayam, 1970, p. 199.
51. A. Sreedhara Menon, Survey of Kerala History, D.C. Book House, Kottayam, 1967, p.69.
 30
which had matrimonial connections with Kshatriyas and Nairs eventually

learned heavily from the Brahmin officers, who were imported from outsides for

assistance in the discharge of their duties, helped the upper castes to get

them 3 elves entrenched in position of authority. It was the special privilege of

the Brahmin Judges, vaidikar as they were called, to pass judgments in all

important cases.^^

From 11* century to 18* century dominance was established by

Brahminical Hinduism with its ceremonies, beliefs, witchcraft, practices,

traditions, etc. They became the masters of the temple centered society. They

were the temple authority and administered the temple lands. Rulers and

common people were obliged to bow before the Brahmins. They possessed

large acres of landed property by personal and administered Devaswam lands.

When the practice of Brahmadeyam and Devadanam became popular they

become more powerful. This management of temples and mismanagement of

temple properties made the Brahmins Janmis. In the medieval period the

Brahmins introduced a feudal set-up based on the monopolistic military service

of the Nairs. Kerala witnessed worst form of land lordism during the period. As

priests and trustees of temples, the Brahmins became the owners of temple lands,

assumed the status of Janmis or landlords. They also became both temporal and

spiritual heads and accumulated incalculable wealth. The domination of the

Nambutiris paved the way for degenerated society in the medieval Kerala. This

52. A. Sreedhara Menon, Cultural Heritage of Kerala, Viswanathan Printers and Publishers,
Reprint, Kottayam, 1967, p. 271.
 31
state of affairs continued till the establishent of British domination which was

followed by the advent of Indian renaissance.

Kshatriyas

The Kshatriyas constituted only a microscopic minority in Kerala.^^ The

caste of Kshatriyas in Kerala comprises a few families, some of which were sub-

divided in to smaller branches and were closely related to one another. In

Cochin State the Kshatriyas included the members of the family of His Highness

the Raja. The members of the family of the chief of Crangannur and others were

called thambans and thirumulpads. The principal Thamban families were related

to the ruling families, and were considered superior in social status to those of

the Thirumulpads.^'*

The Kshatriya caste may be described according to the Sastras, as a

sankara or hybrid caste originating from the sexual connection of the Brahmins

with Kshatriya women. But in Kerala the fact is that, there was no Kshatriya

caste as such. It was created by the Brahmins during the day of their

domination. Brahmins were not the rulers of the state. They constituted only a

minority-people residing in 64 gramas. The rulers and ruling class of this native

land was the indigenous people. When the Brahmanisation process spread to the

Dravidian land the non-Kshatriya ruling classes were transformed into Kshatriya

class by the Brahmins.^^ The records dated even after tenth century AD show

that Ay rulers of Vizhinjam, the Venad Rajas, Odanadu Rajas of

53. K.M. Panicker, History of Kerala, Annamalai Nagar, 1960, p. 10.

54. L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer, The Tribes and Castes of Cochin, Cosmo Publications
(Reprint), New Delhi, 1981, p. 151.
55. Pattom G. Ramachandran Nair, Nayar Samiidayathinte Ithihasam, (Mai.),
Thiruvananthapuram, 1987, p.25.
 32
Kandiyurmuttam, the rulers of Karikkad, the Kizhmala Raja, etc., were Idayas.

The Eradis of the Eralnadu also come under this category. Most of these rulers

got Kshatriya status after receiving the aanayatheettu from the Brahmins.

Alvancheri Thamprakkal, the chief of the Nambutiris of Kerala, was the

authority empowered to issue certificate of elevation. For that the rulers had to

perform some ceremonial rituals such as hiranyagarbham, thulapurushadanam,

and murajapam.^^

Other than the ruling class, the traditional functions of Kshatriyas were

performed by some chieftains and military organizations, especially the Nairs.

Nairs with local variations were the fighting class, the ruling class and the
en

managerial class. As military organizations such as moovayirathuvar,

ayyayirathuvar, arunuttuvar, munnuttuvar and as protectors and supervisors of

the landed property of the temples as well as Brahmins, kanakkar, the Nair

carried the duty of Kshatriyas in Kerala.

L.K.Ananthakrishna Iyer, in his Cochin Tribes and Castes opined that "the

Kshatriya Community is an intermediate caste between the Nambutiris and the

Sudras (Nairs). The Nambutiri class (Aryans) had been Dravidianised and

Dravidian Nair population had been aryanised though in a lesser degree. The

intermediate caste therefore must be the Aryans more Dravidianised or

Dravidians more Aryanised, i.e., the Aryans degraded or Dravidians elevated,

most probably the latter".^^

56. Ibid., p. 26.

57. K.M. Panickar, op.c/?., p. 10.
58. L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer, op.cit., pp.167-168
 33
Nairs

As there was no Kshatriya community as such, the Brahmins and Nairs.

Nairs were included under the category of caste Hindus. They were not a caste,

but a community. Not less than thirty sub-divisions existed among them. At the

, top were the SamanthansP The distinction between these subdivisions was

often whimsical but the more capricious. Great feudal nobles in Kerala came

from the Nair Community. Traditionally they were the warriors who formed the

military. Being the martial class, they were more influential to the kings and

priestly class. They acted as protectors of Brahmins, supervisors of landed

. property, the kanakkar, and at some period the supervisors of Karalar Sabha.

They were the overseers or supervisors of the nadu, and they seem to have been

employed in this capacity as collectors of the share of produce of the land

originally reserved for government purposes. The remuneration for their services

and other functions as protectors, an additional share of the produce of the soil

seems. . to have been reserved especially for them.

There are divergent views regarding the origin of Nairs. K.P. Padmanabha

Menon, one among the great historians of Kerala, argued that the Nairs were the

descendants of Nagas a prominent and dominant tribe in India in this ancient

time.. He pointed to the Naga worship and kavu related to ancient Nair tharavad

as evidence to prove this view.^' Some others viewed that the term 'Nair' is said

to be derived from the Sanskrit nayaka, a leader, and to be cognate with Nayakas

59. Fawcett, Nairs of Malabar, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, (reprint), 1990, p. 26.
60. M.S.A. Rao, Social Change in Malabar, The Popular Book Depot, Bombay, 1957, p. 298.
61. T.J. Hossitler, Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi, 1982, pp. 26-27.
 34
of Vijayanagar. Another argument pointing to the origin of Nairs is that they

might be the descendants of the Uzhavar, Paravathar, and Vellala of Sangam

age, as there was no reference to Nair in any of the Sangam literature.

With the ascendancy of the Brahmins, Nairs become more influential class

with their extra ordinary martial skills. A temple centered society emerged as a

result of the Brahminical domination and temples became centres of social,

economic and cultural activities. Then the economy of the state began to be

determined by the temples. Through land grants, temples became the largest

owners of landed property. Thalis and thaliyathiris emerged as a result of the

temple centered land ownership. At earlier times the Brahmins were the

thaliyathiris of all thalis. When time passed the the Brahmins faced difficulties in

the management of the temple property as the land grants to the temples began to

increase. Thus they entrusted Nairs as kanakkar (supervisors) to look after these

temples as well as the Brahmaswam lands. Thus the Nairs, even though were not

the real masters of the land, became the supervisors of the Brahmin lands. With

the collapse of the Perumals of Mahodayapuram the Nairs became more

powerfiil. They became Janmis, naduvazhikal and then desavazhis by virtue of

their martial skill. They were the 'the eye' "the hand" and "the order" of the state

administration.

The Sudras, the Nairs, became the middle class of Travancore and Cochin

states. The major portion of the lands was came into their hands and this

condition lasted until the prohibition of slavery by the government. The Nairs

were also the principal owners of slaves. They held the magistracy and holders
 35
of most of the Government offices the military and police, the wealthy farmers,

the merchants, and skilled artisans of the country.^^

The Nair customs with respect to marriage were most singular and

licentious in character. In early youth the girl goes through the ceremony of

marriage by having the taali, or marriage cord, tied round her neck, but this is

not followed by cohabitation. It is a mere formality, and simply sets her at liberty

to exercise and follow out her own inclinations in more mature years. When

arrived at a marriageable age the suitors present themselves and the favoured

individual offer to the young woman a cloth and some other presents and starts

residing with her. This is called 'mundu koduthu parpikkaP, giving a cloth and

residing together, which is the only practical substitute for marriage amongst

these people. It differs widely from the marriages of Brahmins and Shanars. The

woman is at liberty to dismiss the man or the man has the freedom to dismiss the

woman, on very easy terms.

The Marumakkathayam system of inheritance among Nairs was equally

strange. The children of a Sudra woman inherit the property and heritable

honours, not of their father, but of their mother's brother. They are their uncles

nearest heirs, and he is their legal guardian.^"^ A very monstrous custom among

them was polyandry, or the custom which allowed one woman having several

husbands was some times practiced. The Nair women enjoyed a respectable

position in society since they had connection with the Brahmins. But they had to

62. P. Bhaskaranunni, Pathonpaiham/Juttandile Keralam (Mai.), Kerala Sahithiya Academy,

Trivandrum, 1958, p. 24.
63. Ibid., p. 36.
64. K.P. Padmanabha Menon, History of Kerala, Vol. Ill, New Delhi, 1984, p. 198
 36
uncover the upper part of their bodies in the presence of persons of rank and

position and the royal family .^^

The Nairs kept the pollutant caste from approaching them. They kept the

Ezhava twelve paces off and the Pulaya at sixty four paces off. At the same time,

the Nairs could not touch the Brahmin. The Brahmins considered the touch of a

Nair as polluting. In some areas the Nairs can't even approach the Brahmins

within six feet distance. Because of their highly reputed position as militia and

their influential relation with the Brahmins and the ruling class they enjoyed

numerous privileges and titles. They followed certain rituals and practices of

their superiors with slight variations. High bom Nairs had the privilege to keep

kudumi as like the Nambutiri men on his head. They could use umbrellas,

chapels and golden ornaments. They could wear dress above their waist, except

in front of the Brahmins. Historians argued that the sambandham relation with

the Brahmins was the greatest privilege of the Nairs. The Nambutiris Brahmins

elevated the Nair community to the status of Sudras through this system of

liaison marriage. As a consequence of this system, the Nairs became servants of

the Brahmins and the kings enjoyed a powerful and influential position in the

society.^^ Their titles varied according to places. Known as Panicker, Unnithan,

Valiathan, Kaimal, Kurup, Kartha, Mannadiar and Menon, they exercised local

political power based both on feudal holding of land and compulsory military

service. The common people among Nairs were cultivators. Some Nairs were

65. Samuel Mateer, op.cit.,, pp. 61-62.

66. G. Gopinathan, "The process of Rehumanisation Initiated by Sree Narayana Guru and its
Impact on Kinship and other Social Relationship in Kerala", Studies in Indian History
and Culture, P. Vasumathy Devi, (ed), p. 301.
 37
managers, rent collectors, clerks, and petty officers of Brahmin landlords,

temples and royal courts. Poor Nair families provided domestic servants.^^

Marumakkathayam descent and inheritance, joint family system, absolute

control over the family by the karanavar who was the eldest male member,

children having no right to the properties of their father, husband living in wife's

house, children's loyalty and love more to their maternal uncle than to their own

father, the husband having no responsibility to look after his wife and children,

very loose marriage ties, polygamy and polyandry, in several places,

sambandham alliance with Brahmins, etc. characterized the Nair family

organisation.

The Ezhavas

The Ez/zava^ were not caste Hindus. They were at the top of the non-caste

Hindus. They were spread evenly all over Kerala. Basically a cultivating class,

traditionally the Ezhavas were associated with growing and tapping coconut

trees. Ezhavas, also called Izhuvans, were a widespread tribal people inhabiting

Malabar, Cochin, and Travancore. Known as they were under different names

with more or less variations in their customs and manners, they formed one and

the same caste.^^ In Travancore they were called 'Ezhavas', in Cochin area they

were known by the name 'Chekava' or 'Chovans\ In Malabar they are called

'Tiyyas', while in present Kasargode and in (South Canara) Tulunadu they

67. G. Rajendran, o/».c//., p.l7.

68. P.M. Govindan Vaidyar, 'Ezhavar', Vivekodayam, No.II, p.346.
69. L.K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, op.cit., p. 277.
 38
known as 'Billavas'J^ They were believed to be closely allied to the Tamil

speaking Shanars of the Tinneveli District. Numerically, they occupied a high

position in the population of the state. There were farmers, cultivators.

Ayurvedic and Siddha Physicians, Soldiers, warriors, Kalari Trainers and

Traders. Some of them were also involved in liquor business, textile

manufacturing, and toddy tapping. They were the planters of the ancient Hindu

constitution, and this character is still retained to some extent. They held a

practical monopoly of tree climbing and toddy drawing from palm trees. The

'Chekavar' a warrior section within the community, were part of the militias of

local chieftains and kings. There were also renowned Kalari payattu experts
77

among them. All these three, but the same, categories of people who inhabited

all over the length and breadth of the state of Kerala are now popularly and

unanimously called by the name 'Ezhava'.

Ezhavas formed the largest enterprising community of Kerala. In the early

days the Ezhavas enjoyed a high status along with Nairs. They, the Nairs and

Ezhavas, formed the civilized group of Sangam age. They lived together in

fraternity following same customs and social life. With the advent of Brahmins

one group, the Nairs supported the Brahmin ascendancy and the second group,

the Ezhavas, revolted against them and marched closer to Buddhism. When

Hinduism began to regain its past glory under the Perumals of Mahodayapuram

70. Bardwell L. Smith, Religion and Social Conflict in South Asia, Netherlands, 1976,
p. 31; See also Edgar Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol.11, Delhi,
1985, p. 392.
71. Robin Jeffrey, The Decline ofNair Dominance: Soceity and Politics in Travancore
1847-1908, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 1976, p. 21.
72. A. Aiyappan, Social Revolution in a Kerala Village, A Study in Culture Change,
Bombay, (reprint), 1991, p.85.
 39
and propagation by Nambutiri Brahmins, Buddhism lost its existence and the

followers were severely persecuted by the Brahmins and other high caste people.

When caste system became a social institution, the Ezhavas, who showed

reluctance to support the Brahmins, were suppressed and degraded into the strata

of low caste and untouchable.'^

With the establishment of the supremacy of the Brahmins there might have

been consequent changes in the social milieu. Some might have moved closer to

victors, and some others, drifted away. Those who linked up with victorious

Brahmins might have got certain privileges, positions, advantages etc; as

concession or compromise. Others might have been subdued, excluded and

rigorously kept under.''* The Ezhavas, who were either the revolters against

Brahmanism or the followers of Buddhism, were kept away from the mainstream

and degraded as untouchable.

The Ezhavas and Thiyyas had high status in the ancient past. There are

many evidences to show that the Thiyyas, in ancient days, belonged to the ruling

class. In Northern Malabar, in ancient days there was a Mannanar (tiyya)

dynasty with five palaces in Yeruvesi to the North west of Thalipparamba.

Because of five palaces they were called Anch-Aramanakkar (five palace rulers).

In Kerala only the palace of the Mannanar was called aramana. All the houses of

73. Robin Jeffrey, The Decline ofNair Dominance: Soceity and Politics in Travancore
1847-1908, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 1976, p. 21.
74. P. Ramachandran Nair, The History of Trade Union Movement in Kerala, MANAK
Publications Pvt. Ltd., Kile, 2006, p. 11.
75. The Malayalam word used for king is mannan. The 'ar' is added to the name of a
person to the respected. Hence the king was called mannanar. His house is called
aramana meaning Arachante mana, ie, king's house, ie palace.
 40
other rulers were called kottaram or kovilakamJ^ Mannan who had no power

died in 1077 ME (1903 AD).

Mannanars belonged to the Thiyya community. It is not known when the

Mannanar dynasty arose and when exactly it lost its rule. Since Sangam age does

not say anything about Mannanar dynasty, the ruling power of the dynasty might

have been lost before the First Century BC itself There is no reference in

Chera's history also.

It is said that the status of Ezhavas began to degrade after the 8* century

A.D. when the Brahmins began to dominate every field of life. But records

show that even though their condition degraded after S"' century AD, their

complete degradation was only after 10* or 11* centuries.

During 11 and 12 centuries, when the institutions of caste system and

feudalism became so rigid and intolerable, Ezhavas lost all its glory and status

completely and lost all their hold on their landed property. Some historians

argued that Ezhavas had no right to own landed property since very ancient

period. But temple record engravings from 9* to 13* centuries AD, show that

people of all walks of life donated their landed property to temples. This

shows that till that period most of the non-Brahmin groups had the right of

ownership of land. Most of all rulers collected one sixth or one fifth of gross

produce as land tax. The small land owners misled by the Brahmins donated

their land to the temples as Devadanam to get exemption from the payment of

76. Kampil Anandan, Kerala Charitra Niroopanam (Mai.), Dharmadam, 1853, (reprint
1973), p.44.
77. Elamkulam.P.N. Kunjan Pillai, Janmi Sambradayam Keralathil, N.Sam (ed.) op.cit.,
p.592.
 41
land tax. Those who fell in to this Brahmin created order became landless and

later deprived of the right to own even a piece of land. In course of time the

temples became the largest owners of landed property which finally fell into the

hands of Brahmins. Administration of these lands by karalars and uralars

brought feudal set up and janmi system into Kerala. When these systems

began to tighten its thread, Ezhavas and other low castes fell in to servitude.^^

Up to 18* century the Ezhavas continued as the most popular landless

community. Their lot had been slavery, untouchability and unapproachability.^^

Though they were not agrestic slaves, they were ascribed to the state of

vassalage in which they had been so long held. They had not only cultivated
on

the land but also rendered uzhiyam services for their masters. The system of

vassalage only harassed the Ezhavas. No one dared to resist or refuse to work.

If, however, any one dared to resist or refuse, he would be crushed and humbled

so as to serve as an example to others.

The general circumstance of the Ezhava population had continued for long

as humiliating and degrading. But social their condition had no means degraded

into a deplorable one as that of the slave castes. Even then they had to keep the

rules of untouchability and pollution distance. They were not allowed to carry
78. The Brahmins propagated that if anyone donates his land to the temple as
Devadanam he will be exempted from the payment of land tax to the king and he
only had to give only a nominal amount to the temple.
79. N.Sam (ed.), op.cit., p. 639.
80. K.K.Kusuman, The Abstention Movement, Kerala Historical Society, Trivandrum, 1972,
p.6.
81. Ward and Corner, Memoir of the survey of the Travancore and Cochin States,
1994, p. 144.
82. It was of two kinds-forced Manual labour and supply of vegetables and provisions.
Manual labour was extended to the requirements of the palace and other institutions.
83. M. Noorjam Beevi, 'The Ezhavas and the ownership of Land ; A Case Study of
Travancoro', Journal of Kerala Studies, 1983, pp.72-73
 42
umbrella, to wear shoes, or golden ornaments, to carry pots of water on the hip,

to build houses above one storey in height, to milk cows, or even to use the

ordinary language of the country.^'* In short, the caste system, feudalism and

land system thus made the social and economic life of the Ezhavas a miserable

one.

Nadars

The Nadars are found in large numbers in Trivandrum and they are found

scattered in the rest of the districts of Kerala. It is believed that the Nadars

migrated from Tirunelveli, Udankudi, Shenkotta taluks. Another group of

Nadars migrated from Sivakasi, Virudhunagar and Madurai districts to Kerala.

The Nadars occupkd : a social status equal to Ezhava..It was the only caste

prominelty speaking Tamil language. Majority of the Nadars followed

patrilineal system of inheriance. But a microscopic section of them in some

villages followed matrilineal system.

In the later century Nadars occupied a social between the Nairs and the

outcastes. They were the highest divisions of the lowest classes. Though

originally Hindus a large number of them converted to Christianity mainly to get

social equality with the high caste. They became very popular after Tirunelveli

riot of 1889.

84. Samuel Mateer, op.cit., p.41.

85. Robin Jeffrey, Decline of the Nair Dominence Society and Politics in Travancore
1947-1908, New Delhil, 1976, p. 22.
86. R.N. Yesudhas, A Peoples' revolt in Travancore, A Backward Class Movement for
Social Freedom, Trivandrum, 1975, p. 20.
 43
Pulayas

The Pulayas are one of the important communities among the scheduled

castes. They are also known as Cheramar. The very name 'Pulaya' expressed

the idea of impurity and was derived from the word 'Pula\ that is funeral
87

pollution. According to modern Kerala historians the word 'Pulayan' did not

mean a caste but it meant cuUivator. Elamkulam P.N. Kunjan Pillai explains that

the word pulam means field, place or country. They are supposed to be the

descendants of the aborigines who preferred slavery in the plains to freedom and

starvation in jungles.

It is interesting to note that during the early periods of history this polluting

community enjoyed a very high status in the Kerala society. The Pulayas are

said to have been owners and rulers of the land in olden times. Sangam

literature mentioned about the Pulayas as land owners as well as holders of high

status in the society. Quoting L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer, Edgar Thurston reports

that once upon a time the Pulayas had dominion over several parts of the country

According to this report, a person called Ayikkara Yajaman or Ayikkara Tamara

(king), whose ancestors were Pulaya kings, was still held in considerable respect

by the Pulayas of North Travancore, and was acknowledged as their chieftain

and Lord. The existence of Ayikkaranad (Ayikkara country) in the

QO

Kunnathunadu Taluk near Cherthala is still a reminder of this historical fact.

He was the head of the Pulaya community and had a lace cap, believed to have

been presented by the Cheraman Perumal. In Trivandrum, on the banks of the

87. K.S. Singh (ed.), People of India: Kerala, Vol.XXVII, Part I, New Delhi, 2002,
p.1253.
88. Edgar Thurston, op.cit.. Vol. II, Cosmoas Publications, Delhi, 1985, pp.47-48.
 44
Lake Veil, there is a hill called Pulayanar Kotta, where a Pulaya king is believed

to have once ruled. In the course of history the Pulayas were defeated by other

castes who gained power. The land of the Pulayas was encroached upon and

they began to be treated as slave labourers.^^

The Pulayas were divided in to Thanta Pulayans (Vettu Pulayans), Kana

Pulayas, Padinjaran Pulayas (Western Pulayas), Kizhakkan Pulayas (Eastern

Pulayas), Thekkan Pulayas (Southern Pulayas) and Valluva Pulayas. The

Padinjaran Pulayas were considered to be superior to the Kizhakkan Pulayas.

According to the legend, the Kizhakkan Pulayas were the slaves of Duryodhana

while the Padinjaran Pulayas were the slaves of Pandavas. The defeat of

Duryodhana caused degradation of the Kizhakkan Pulayan. The Padinjaran

Pulayans were divided into a number of illoms (Clans). Endogamy at

community level and exogamy at illom level is practiced by the Pulayas.^" In

the Palakkad area, they had an assembly known as the Kannati Kutti Vattal,

which had jurisdiction over the caste matters and minor offences of the

community members.^'

But the influx of people from other parts completely changed the life style

of the Pulayas. In course of time the Pulayas were reduced to a very low position

in society and were subjected to all kinds of social disabilities. The only dress

the degraded Pulayan was allowed to wear was a piece of coarse cloth fastened

round the loins, and a small piece tied around the head as head-dress. To women

89. Ibid., p.50.

90. K.S. Singh (ed.), op.cit., p. 1255.
91. T. Madhava Menon, (ed.), A Handbook of Kerala, Vol. II, Thiruvananthapuram,
2002, p.679.
 . , , 45

as well as men it was forbidden to wear any clothing whatsoever above the

waist. The ornaments must be no more valuable than brass or beads; umbrellas

must not be used to shelter the body from the scorching heat of the sun, nor

shoes to protect the feet from the thorns and sharp stones.^^

The Pulayas had no education. The language which he was compelled to

use was disgraceful, humiliating and degrading. He never dared to say T but

'adiyan', which meant "your slave"; he dared not to call his rice 'choru', but

karikkadi which meant dirty gruel. His house was called madam, a hut, and his

children he spoke of as 'monkeys' or 'calves'; and while speaking he was

supposed to place this hand over the mouth, lest the breath should go forth and

pollute the person whom he is addressing.

The Pulayas were prohibited from entering the markets and bazaars. In

1931, Poikayil Yohannan, an avama member of the Sri Mulam Popular

Assembly of Travancore complained that "men and women belonging to the

depressed classes had no convenient place in Trivandrum, the capital city, to sell

their wares in the shape of bundles of grass, straw, baskets, mats etc. They

spread them for sale on the borders of roads, necessarily subjecting

tfvetnsjeives to be beckoned away by the police at any time. They had to run

about the town and often failed to realise the due price". ^^

All castes, Brahmins, Sudras, Ezhavas, and Shannars possessed Pulaya

slaves. While some masters treated their slaves with consideration, others

greatly oppressed them. For slight faults or crimes they were cruelly confined in

92. Samuel Mateer, The Land of Charity, pp. 45-46.

93. File No. 2083, Administration Department, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum (SAT),
1932.
 46

stocks or cages, and beaten. For not attending work very early in the morning,

they were beaten up and flogged severely. Aw^efol cruelties were sometimes

perpetrated. Cases are known in which the slaves had been blinded by lime cast

into their eyes. The slaves were not only bought and sold outright, but also

mortgaged like lands. Female slaves were valued at double price; on account of

the 'produce' the children - half of which went to the seller and half to the

purchaser.^"* A Cheruma or Pulaya could not approach a Brahmin Village or

temple or tank. Even while using the public road, if he happened to see his lord

and master, he had to leave the ordinary way, to avoid his displeasure by

accidentally polluting him. ^^

Parayas

Parayas were low caste basket makers and agricultural labourers. They

were generally known as slaves or serfs. They were the outcastes of the society.

They are also known as Sambavar. They have three sub-divisions, namely

param, pullani and chakkali, and do not intermarry with the Pulayas. Probably

they were the 'Classic' Scheduled Caste of South India.^^ They were treated as

even below the Pulayar; though they would not accept cooked food from them.

Only the Nayadi and the Ulladan were perceived to be below or at par with

them. Their presence carried pollution within about a furlong. They used to

live far away from other communities, in huts thatched with palmyra leaves, in

the most in hospitable portion of the terrain.

94. Samuel Mateer, Native life in Travancore, London, pp.57-58.

95. Edgar Thurston, op.cit.. Vol. 11, p. 51-52.
96. T. Madhava Menon (ed.), A Hand Book of Kerala, Vol. II, International School of
Dravidian Linguistics, Thiruvananthapuram, 2002, p. 816.
97. L.K. Anandakrishna Iyer, op.cit., p.82.
 47
The facts seem to show that the Parayans priests (Valluvans), and the

Parayans as a race were very ancient, and ten centuries ago they were a

respectable community, and many were weavers. The privileges they enjoyed

were relics of an exceedingly long association with the land. The institution of

the paracheri points to original independence, and even to possession of much of

the land. With the colonization of South India by the Brahmins the Parayans lost

the land and then their degradation as a race began.^^

The Parayas were considered as a very inferior race and their proximity or

contact entailed the most alarming contamination. 'Their very look is

contamination' ? They had to stand away at a great distance of 72 feet. They

were not allowed to walk along the public roads or approach the vicinity of the

houses of the higher caste etc. Orthodox Caste Hindus had to take bath five

times and let blood flow in order to be purified from contamination caused by

the touch of the Parayas.

When a person belonging to any other caste permits a Paraya to speak to

him, this unfortunate being was obliged to hold his hand before his mouth, lest

the Indian might be contaminated with his breath; and, if he was met on the

highway, he had to turn on one side to let the other pass. On the sight of the

high castes, Parayas ran away in to jungles deserting their huts.''^^

It was the job of the Paraya to carry away the flesh of cattle left dead by the

road-side which he would be a par tof his food. Thus dirty act excited the

abhorrence of ordinary Hindus, who venerate the cow. The Parayas were

98. Thurston, op.cit.. Vol. VII, pp.78-79.

99. L.A. Krishna Iyer, op.cit.. Vol. II, p.82.
100. Thurston, op.c/Y., p.88-89.
 48
employed chiefly in field labour. They were zealous devil-worshippers and

dancers. They made great pretensions to possess sorcery and magical powers.

They were employed by Sudras and Shanars for casting out devils and

counteracting enchantments. In North Travancore, their condition seemed to be

at the lowest, and they had fewer opportunities of escape from the caste

degradation and bitter servitude.'°' Later many of them were got converted to

Christianity, mainly to escape from the cruelties of their Hindu masters.

Nambutiris were polluted by the touch of all the castes below them and

by the approach of all castes lower than Nairs. A man or woman of lower castes

was supposed to uncover above the waists as a token of respect while

approaching a Nambutiri and was supposed to use special terms of respect when

referring to anything concerning to him. A Nair should not go nearer than six

paces to the Nambutiri, lest his holiness would be polluted by his proximity; a

man of barber caste should not go nearer than twelve paces, a Tiyya thirty six

and Pulaya, the lowest caste ninety paces. Pollution was observed even

among the different sub-castes within the Brahmin Community. A Tamil

Brahmin by touch caused pollution to a Nambutiri. Thus Nambutiri Brahmins

considered tViemsclves superior to other Brahmins.The social scene of Kerala,

in fact presented many such paradoxes. In such a socio-political milieu

E.M.S.Namboodiripad was bom in the first decade of the last century.

101. K. Saradmon, Emergence of Slave Castes, Pulayas of Kerala, Peoples Publishing House,
New Delhi, 1980, p. 28.
102. G.S. Ghurye, 0/7.CZ/., p. 10.
 49
Social Disabilities

The most rigorous and utmost defiled caste system polluted the Kerala

society till the first half of 20"" century. The migrated Nambutiris made the

society suitable for their enjoyment and pleasure. They transformed the

casteless society into caste ridden society with their sharp and crooked and

selfish nature. They subordinated all other natives of Kerala under them and

manipulated several codes of laws to restrict other people from interfering in

their matters, and to maintain their status quo as superiors as in North India.

Unlike in North India, the Brahmins and their subordinates fabricated more strict

rules and thus the Hindu society of Kerala became more polluted and

degenerated to the status of a lunatic asylum. Innumerable castes and sub castes

together hastened the process of degradafion of the Hindu Society of Kerala.The

first ministry of E.M.S. Namboodiripad played a major role in removing to a

great extent the illusions about climbing the social ladder through mutations in

the caste system.

In Kerala, the caste rules operated with the utmost rigour. The upper castes

like the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas and the Nairs observed them strictly as

otherwise they would have been treated as outcastes and sold to Christians or

Muslims under royal orders. The evils of untouchability, unapproachability and

unseeability were observed in the most irrational manner. Since pollution

might be incurred by contact through food or drink it is not surprising that it

should be further by strenghthened bodily contact. Thus contact with a woman

103. Georges Kristoffel Lieten, The First Communist Ministry in Kerala 1957-59, K.D.
Bagchi and Company, Calcutta, 1982, p. 16.
104. A Sreedhara Menon, Cultural Heritage of Kerala, Trivandrum, p. 271.
 50

during her monthly period, a woman within the tabooed period after child birth,

a man who had lit a funeral pyre, and was therefore stained by death pollution

until purified and persons in a similar state of ceremonial impurity or taboo were

all consented as cause of pollution. It became incumbent on a Hindu of caste to

bathe and wash his clothes before eating or before undertaking any act requiring

ceremonial purity. Any interactin with the low castes whose traditinal

occupation were deemed as menial demanded purification. Such castes were

those commonly spoke of as out castes or untouchables."'^

The mode of life led by the low castes made them outcastes or

untouchables. Castes lower than a Brahmin was generally speaking less easily

defiled, but the principle was the same. Thus if a Cheruman, or Pulayan, be

touched by a Parayan, 'he is defiled and must wash his head and pray.'

According to Barbosa, a Nair woman touched by a Pulayan was proclaimed as

an outcaste for life and had to leave her home for fear of polluting her

family .The conditions of the low castes were heartbreaking. They were treated

worser than wild beasts. In keeping up the ceremonial observances and

maintaining caste distinctions, South India, particularly Travancore and Cochin

committed the sin of pride by stretching the limits of caste pollution to

unapproachability and even unseeability. The caste Hindus believed that not

only the touch but even the sight of the low-born people would cause pollution

105. C.H. Kunhappa, Smarankal Mantram (Mai.), Mathurbhumi Press, Kozhikode, 1981,
p. 17.
106. Buchanan, Memoir of the Travancore and Cochin States, Vol. II, Asian Educational
Services, New Delhi, 1988, p. 151.
 51
to them. In the words of E.M.S.Namboodiripad '^^the characteristic pre-

imperialist socio-economic structure was not the 'Asiatic Mode of Production'

but a modified form of feudalism very probably unique in India.

The caste-Hindu preserved a scale of distance within which he would be

polluted if the lower caste approached him. Fear of pollution by proximity

prompted the caste Hindus to restrict the movement of the low castes beyond a

certain distance. Tiyapad and Cherumapad, indicating a distance equivalent to

that within which a Tiyan or a Cheruman, must not approach a man of high caste
• 108
were m vogue.

Distance Pollution

Logan in his Malabar Manual mentioned the prescribed distance at which

the low caste were kept away from the Brahmin; The Nayadi (dog-eaters) 72

feet, the Pulayan (agricultural slaves) 64 feet, The Tiyya (toddy tapers) 36 feet,

the Mukkuvan (fishermen) 24 feet.'*^^ Jonathan Duncan, in his Remarks on the

Coast of Malabar, says that a Nair may approach a Nambutiri Brahmin, but must

not touch him; a Tiyyan must remain 36 paces off; a Malayan (i.e. Panan) must

remain three or four paces farther; a Pulayan must keep 96 paces from a

Brahmin. A Tiyyan must not come within 12 paces of a Nair; a Malayan must

keep three or four paces farther a Pulayan kept 96 feet from a Nair as well as a

Brahmin. A Panan may approach but not touch a Tiyyan but a Pulayan must not

107. E.M.S.Namboodiripad, Kerala Society and Politics: A Historical Study, National Book
Centre Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, p.52,
108. J.H. Hutton, Caste in India: Its Nature, Function and Origins, 4* ed., Oxford University
Press, Bombay 1973, p.79.
109. William Logan, Malabar Manual, op. cit.. Vol. I, II, Government Press, Madras, 1951,
pp.141-145.
 52
even approach a Panan. If a low caste man wanted to address a man of higher

caste, he had to stand off and 'cry aloud'. Mateer, in 1861, give 36 paces of

distance within which a shanan must not approach a Brahmin, and 96 as the

distance for a Pulayan; from a Nair, a Shanan must keep a distance of 12 paces

and a Pulaya 66 paces."° Francis Day, writing in 1863, says that an Ilavan

(Ezhavan) must keep 36 paces from a Brahmin and 12 from a Nair, while a

Kaniyan (astrologer) pollutes Nambutiri Brahmin at 24 feet, and a Nair by

touch."' In the words of Wilson a Nair must not come within 3 feet of a

Nambutiri Brahmin, an Ilavan or Shanan within 24 paces and a Pulayan and

other untouchable communities within 36 paces, while C.A. Innes, in the

Malabar Gazetteer of 1908, says that artisans must keep about 24 feet from a

Brahmin, while a Nayadi must keep 74 feet away. Naturally, there might have

occured some changes during the hundred years covered by these reports.

Social Evils

Pollution however acquired by the approach of a low caste man or by his

touch, could be washed out by complete immersion in water. Use of hot watr

was against the canon. The water must be from a natural tank or a stream; even

the water of the Ganges if confined in a tub would perhaps fail to wash away

pollution. The strictly orthodox were some times driven to emptying bid bottles

of boiling water in to the stream above the place of bathing in order that the

health of the bather might not suffer when a journey in a cool climate. The

orthodox way was to hold the nose with fingers and dip completely under the

110. Ibid,pM.
111. Francis Day, LandofPerumals, Asian Educational Services, Madras, 1963, pp.322-323.
 53
surface. Such a bath was essential before performing the routine chores. The

bath was necessary before food can be taken, or a sacred place entered, or

several other acts performed.' '^

UnseeaKIity

Unseeability was the heinous custom practised in Kerala. On accordance

with this, the very sight of certain castes would pollute this high caste Hindus.

So they were secluded and isolated in to certain areas by branding them as

unseeables. A. Ayyappan (in his Anthropology of Nayadis) recorded that the

Nayadis were the most pollutant caste in Kerala. Ayyappan again noticed that

the Nayadis when travelling had to avoid not only people of other castes, but the

dwellings, the tanks, the temples, and even certain streams frequented by them.

If a Nayadi touches the water in which men of higher castes were bathing, the

water would have lost its purifactory qualities. At Vilayur there is a tindal para

or pollution rock, which bears a mark showing the limit within which the Nayadi

beyond which a Nayadi was not allowed to enter. It is three furlongs from there

to the nearest Hindu house.

The rules did not allow the low castes to use public roads. "The Pulayas

were not permitted to breathe the same air with the other castes nor to travel in

the public road, if by accident they happened to be there and perceived a

Brahmin or Nair at a distance, they must instantly make a loud howling, to warn

him from approaching until they had vanished or climbed up to the nearest

112. N. Bhaskaran Unni, Pathonbthamnootantile Keralam, Kerala Sahitya Academy, 1958,

p. 220.
 54
11-5

tree. According to Francis Pyrad, the Nairs were in the habit of warding off

the untouchables by crying 'po.po' that is they should get out of the way,

otherwise, they might touch them by change. As they resented such a possiblity

they would strike the later. Victims of this social injustice were the school

children belonging to the low castes who had to walk for hours to cover a short

distance from home to school and vice-versa. High caste Hindus frequently

harassed the low castes. The government did not interfere with the matter of the

untouchables. The caste Hindus believed that it was their right to preserve

superiority. Even a slight variation of the caste rules was disallowed by the

caste-Hindus and it was invariably followed by punitive punishments.""^

Therefore the unfortunate low caste men were made to trample along the

marshes in deep mud that often went up their hips to avoid polluting their caste

superiors. The failure on the part of the members of the lower castes to make

way for those of the higher order would invite even death penalty. A Nair was

by custom, not expected to take pity on an avama who broke the pollution rule.

If a Nair pardoned such a law breaker, and if this action came to the notice of the

king, the Nair was put to death. It may be noticed that these two kinds of

pollution "by people whose very approach within certain distances caused

atmospheric pollution, and by people whose very sight caused pollution to those

of the higher caste, distinguished the malayali system of caste pollution from the

Indian system as a whole. "^

113. N. Bhaskaran Unni, op. cit., p. 100.

114. T.K. Ravindran, Vaikom Satyagraha and Gandhi, Kerala Historical Society, Trivandrum,
1975, p.l.
115. William Logan, op. c/r., pp.141-145.
 55
Other Restrictions

There were also manifold restrictions in regard to their language, dress,

ornaments, mode of conveyance, use of domestic vessels, manner of

construction of houses etc. The language and the expressions of the caste

Hindus could not be used by the avarnas. An avarna must address a caste-Hindu

male as Thampuran (my Lord) and the female as Thampuratti (My lady). He

should not refer to himself as T but only as adiyan (your slave).''^ They could

not use the common language and were compelled to use the most abject and

degraded slang. While speaking he was suppressed to place the hand over the

mouth, lest the breath should go forth and polluted person whom he was

addressing. The downtrodden people were denied the Sanskrit names as Rama,

Krishna, and Ganesa except in their crude form."^

With regard to their personal comfort and deportment, the only dress of the

degraded class of people was a piece of coarse cloth fastened round the hips.

The men as well as women of the lower castes were forbidden to wear any

clothing whatever above the waist. They should not wear gold or silver

ornaments like the high caste people. The ornaments must be no more valuable

than brass or beads. They couldn't use umbrellas to shelter the body from the

scorching heat of the sun. They must not have the right to wear shoes to protect

the feet from the horns and sharp stones. They denied the right to build houses

like the upper caste Hindus. The avarnas could not ride on horse back or to

travel on palanquin. The poor avamas could not attend schools, visit open

116. T.K. Velu Pillai, op. cit, p.844.

117. Samuel Mateer, Land of Charity, pp. 44-45.
 56
markets, touch and draw water from public tanks and wells etc. Individuals

among them who wanted to enjoy privileges in these matters had to make

payments to the sarkar or to the naduvazhi and obtain licenses. Menippon,

mulaivila (the payments to get the privilege to wear gold ornaments and to cover

the breast of the low caste women respectively), were the examples of such

payments. This arrangement led to a series of inequitable customs which

imposed an intolerable burden on the members of the backward communities.

118. A. Sreedhara Menon, Cultural Heritage of Kerala, p. 272.