Darbar Hall, Tanjore Maratha Palace

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 CHAPTER – V

THE CONTRIBUTION OF ROYAL KINGDOMS

TOWARDS SADIR, DASIATTAM AND
BHARATNĀTYAM FROM 16th TO 21st CENTURY

Richard Schehner in Ramlila of Ramnagar, An Introduction quoted262 –

“In the Hindu context the divine is not a simple thing to define, nor is it

radically separable from ordinary human existence. As with so much else in Indian

culture, the divine exists as a palimpsest: it is there in ordinary life, it manifests itself

in incarnations and less forceful presence such as rishi-s, sages, sadhus, devout

individuals; and it is present in an essential, highly refined, substance as the Ramlila

murti-s who are, what they are presumed to be the same time”.

"During 16th to 21st century, numerous kingdoms have emerged in South India

and almost everyone showed their dedication in these dance forms and ample of

contributory works are witnessed. Bharatnātyam, what we call today, has got its roots

penetrate deep in ancient history of India. The chronological evidences prove its

antiquity in Tamil Sangam period which expended nearly from 400 B.C. to 200 A.D.

As discussed earlier, the dance form evolved as a result of strong devotion and respect

towards God. Bharatnātyam was embraced by both temple and royal patronage which

induced the development over many centuries."

"Initially in Tamil Nadu, this dance was termed as Dasiattam and the term

“Kūttu (Koothu) means the dance of the Dasis. Dasiattam, the dance of Devadasi

came into vogue during those eras and continued till 19th century before the

demolition of Devadasi cult. In south India, the Devadasi system has sustained for

many centuries. In the name of religion, the wealthy men used to create paramour for

262 Kersenboom, S.C. (2011). Nityasumangali, Devadasi Tradition in South India. p.63.

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them. These devadasis mainly well-trained in classical dance and its techniques used

lead a comfortable life style contributed by a patron belongs to some royal dynasty or

a wealthy person of that particular area. But the scenario changed after it was declared

illegal across India in 1988; as a result temple and court dancing became banned by

the authority to avoid the plight against it."263

"Dasiattam underwent continues process of reformation and improvisation to

perfect this dance form what we see today. Sadir mainly came into existence during

18th century. The Tanjore Maratha mainly encouraged this particular style. Dasiattam

was nurtured to recreate new form Sadir. During 16th century, Sadir did not have any

existence but Dasiattam was prevalent among Devadasis. So, the royal patrons of that

era have encouraged Dasiattam initially and later have nurtured it in this own way."

The devadasi tradition of south India can be broadly identified into three main

periods those existed within the medieval Hinduism:264

1) During the rules of the Pallavas and Pandyas (550-850 A.D.)

2) During the period of the Cholas (850-1279 A.D.)

3) Rules of Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1565 A.D.)

"Pallavas and Pandyas initiated a period of Hindu religion revival in Tamil

Nadu and the near about regions which was predominated by Jainism and Buddhism

before this era. It took massive effort to break off the faith of Buddhism and Jainism

and its enthusiast can be considered as a joint venture of Dravidian and Indo-Aryans.

The two main factors might have influenced the Hinduism: one may be the awareness

of one’s own culture and heritage and the other one the local ruler or king must have

considered it sacred since olden times."

263 Madras Devadasis (Prevention of Dedication) Act. wikipedia.

264 Op.cit. 262, p.16.

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 "Initially Dasiattam evolved as a bardic dance form where the dancers were

absorbed into the Sanskritic class of Courtesans. They mostly were proficient in

various art of singing and dancing with minimal connection with religion. The

concept of temple dancing came later during the period of Pallavas and Pandya’s rule

that is during 350 A.D. to 600 A.D. Manikkavacakar, the famous Śiva saint of 9th

century A.D., was first one to describe a girl serving in the temple as well as

performing her daily rituals. In Tiruporcunnam, there was a mention of mankai which

indicates girls of 12-13 years with propitious eyes, bracelets over their arms,

festooned with pearls and shoulder smeared with ashes.265 They are adorning the

temple and decorating it for festival. Through these write-ups one can infer the

commencement of devadasi cult in temple."

"During the reign of Mahendra Varma Pallava and Raja Raja Chola, the

prospect of traditional music and dance had flourished in Tanjore for many centuries

under their patronage. They were eminent scholar-rulers and the proof of their

contribution can be found in the literature and inscriptions of that Era."

"The Chola Empire encouraged the devadasi system. The aggressive, fervent

movement of Hindu devotion developed and was amalgamated under the rule of

Cholas. The Chola rule started from the coronation of King Arulmlivarman as

Rajaraja in 985 A.D. and extended till 1279 A.D. According to various inscriptions,

there are 400 dancers, along with their gurus and orchestras, were maintained by the

Brihadesvara temple. Nattuvanars were the man who accompanied the devadasi

during her performance. Both male and female dancers were appointed in the service

of god. It is said that these Nattuvanars used to teach Kuntavai, the Chola Princess.266

With the extension of Chola Empire, they built more and more temples and as a result

265 Ibid. p.23.

266 Rao, U.S.K., & Devi, U.K.C. (1993). A Panorama of Indian Dances. p.8.

194
of that the devadasi cult also grew simultaneously. From here it can be concluded that

Devadasi custom was encouraged by Chola kings. The involvement of this many

female dancers were not vibrant during the reigning Pallavas and the Pandyas."

"Brihadeshwara Temple is one of the Hindu Śiva temples in Thanjavur. It is

also popular as Periya Kovil, Raja Rajeswara temple and Rajarajeswaram. It is one of

the largest temples in India which shows Dravidian architecture during the Chola

period. It was constructed by emperor Raja Raja Chola I and completed in 1010 A.D.

This thousand year old temple illustrates 81 of 108 dance Karanā s as described in

Nātya Śāstra. The 81 postures indicate the importance of classical dance during those

eras. The Pandya, Nayaka, Vijayanagara and Maratha-s also contributed in renovating

and adding up few structures and shrines."

"Anukkiyar Paravai Nankaiyar is considered as a court dancer during the

Chola Empire who gained high respect and popularity. She used make big donation

even to reconstruct the temple with stone. An inscription stated that she along with

Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.) have visited at the shrine of god Vitivitankar. The king’s

affection towards her was so strong that he named a village as Paravaipuram and built

a temple as Paravati-Isvaram."267

"Art was preserved by direct transmission from teacher to students. Though

there are various epigraphic data which concludes the practice of performing arts in

temple during Chola period. But several dramatic arts were preserved without any

disruption; it is not possible to depict any particular characteristic feature of theatre,

music and dance of those periods."

"Next comes the Vijayanagara period. During 14th century, the south Indian

Hindu rulers were terrorised by the Muslim rulers. During the advent of Muhammad

267 Op.cit. 262, p.27.

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Bin Tughlakh of Delhi, the massive destruction of Hindu culture took place. The

threat spread away in south India too and as a result three Hindu states allied them

into one big Empire to create strong opposition against him. The new Hindu king,

Harihara I, was crowned in 1336 A.D. in new state capital Vijayanagar. He was got

ahead by his brother Bukka who nearly ruled for thirty years and handed over the

power to his son Harihara Deva II.268 During the reign of raja Krishnadeva Raya in

1509 A.D.,Vijayanagar Empire was at its peak and reached its supremacy in various

field including performing arts. Next king Ramaraya who reigned from 1542 to 1565

A.D. but gradually the power was broken down when he got defeated by the Deccan

Sultanates in the battle of Talikota in 1565 A.D. The art of dance and music was

supported and refined by various rulers of Vijayanagar Empire."269

"Sole objective of Vijayanagar Empire was to defend Hindu culture against

Muslim attack. They have taken certain majors to ensure the safety of their kingdom.

Firstly, the protection and security of the state have been taken as a priority. Secondly

to bare the economic burden, the centralized political authorities has organised local

government as deputy rulers called Nayakas. These Nayakas mainly belongs to Telugu

and Kannada upper class. As a result Telugu became popular as court language."

"At the end of 16th century, the kingdom of Vijayanagar, gradually started to

decline and hence brought the most power eminence of Tanjore where the performing

art and music grew enormously which till date remained acknowledged as well as

unmatched. The royal patrons of Nayakas were responsible for the eminent cultural

growth of Tanjore in the next few centuries and successively the Maratha rulers. It is

said that the cultivation of Telugu language were encouraged by Nayakas which

268 Nimkar, M. (2009). Vijayanagar Empire.

269 Op.cit., p.27.

196
sheltered many Telugu scholars and their families in Tanjore widely. Consequence,

Tanjore formed the seed bed of fine Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu literature."

"After fall of Vijayanagar dynasty in 1565 A.D., Empire got divided and state

of Mysore and home of Wodeyar came into existence. It is believed that era between

1799 and 1947 A.D., Mysore became one of eminent centres for art & culture in India.

Rulers of Mysore were talented proponents of fine arts and they not only patronage

but also influenced music and dance in greater extend. They were great supporters of

dance and music and made immense contribution to make Mysore a cultural centre."

"During the same era, Thanjavore Marathas were evolved who reigned from

17th to 19th century A.D.. Bhosle dynasty was the Maratha ruling kingdom that

strengthens their provinces till Tamilnadu. Being a great patron of music and art, there

contribution laid milestone in the history of Bharatnātyam and leaves foot print for

those who love dance, music and literature."

"The Kingdom of Travancore was established by King Marthanda Varma in

Kerala that expanded from 1729 to 1949 A.D.270 During his reign from 1729 to

1758 A.D., he expanded the kingdom of Venad into Travancore. Marthanda Varma,

Swathi Thirunal and Chithira Thirunal were the main rulers of this dynasty. They

encouraged various dance forms of Kerala like Koodiāttam, Kathakali, Mohiniattam,

Theyyam and few more ritual and martial art forms. Talking about Travancore

dynasty, one should admire King Swathi Thirunal for his rich contribution in the field

of dance and music. He was a great patron of fine arts and has composed several

musical compositions which formed major music for Bharatnātyam."

"The Vijayanagar rulers, Cholas, Pallavas, Tanjore Nayakas, Tanjore

Marathas, Wodeyars and Kerala’s Varmas of Travancore dynasty are the foundation

270 Menon, A.S. (2011). Kerala history and its makers.

197
of South Indian history and cultural heritage. The contribution of the kings are

ineradicable in every aspect, be it management, economy or culture."

"However, during British colonial period, royal kingdom started losing their

power and as a result the dance form seen an adverse declination during 19th century.

The revival process took a span of time to resuscitate the extinct art forms which got

diluted in that antagonistic condition. Many royalties indirectly supported this dance

by contributing the land to build institute for further study. Moreover in today’s date

their patronage and contribution left us with wonderful art form we see today."

5.1 VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE AND DASIATTAM

Figure 34: Hampi, Vijayanagar Empire

"Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1646 A.D.) was one of the biggest Empires in

South India that ruled present Karnataka, Andhra, Kerala, Telangana and Tamil Nadu.

Vijayanagar Empire was ruled by four dynasties, Sangama dynasty (1336-1485 AD),

Saluva dynasty (1485-1505 A.D.), Tuluva dynasty (1491-1570 A.D.) and Aravidu

198
dynasty (1542-1646 A.D.).271 Most of the rulers of this dynasty were fond of music

and dance. They encouraged Devadasi tradition and also these Devadasis hold a

respectable position in their court. Dasiattam was prevalent to Devadasis only.

Dasiattam was practiced in temples and in the courts. A special practice hall had been

designed and dedicated for training and practicing Dasiattam."

"Many ceremonies were conducted to showcase their performance in public.

Only Devadasis have been given rights to perform certain rituals during the reign of

Vijayanagar kings. This particular topic is focussed on various contribution made by

different Kings of these dynasties in uplifting Dasiattam from 15th century onwards.

Out of all Sri Krishnadevaraya came as an eminent and prominent ruler for supporting

Dasiattam. He used to conduct Vasantotsava to encourage various dance forms in his

kingdom. Many architectural evidences prove the rich cultural of Vijayanagar Empire

which their love and dedication for dance and music through various sculptures."

"History of Vijayanagar stared in 1336 A.D. and has ruled by four dynasties

over 200 years. Spectacular monuments of Hampi are one of exclusive architectural

works now in present day forms cultural heritage of India. Tower of Arunchaleshwar

temple at Tiruvannamalai, Virupaksha temple at Hampi and Vriddhagiriswaran

temple at Vriddachalam are famous architectural works contributed by Vijayanagar

dynasty. First dynasty ruled Vijayanagar Empire was Sangam dynasty. Vijayanagar

considered to be a great patron of music and dance and supported devadasi tradition in

many aspects. Their contribution can be seen in form of temple architecture, various

treatises and promoting dance and music in temple premises and courts."

"Sangama Dynasty was founded by two brothers Harihara I (1336-1356 AD)

and Bukka Raya II (1356-1377 A.D.) who named after their father’s name. These two

271 Vijayanagar Empire. wikipedia.

199
kings expanded their kingdom till the territory of Hoysalas and built several forts.

Harihara II (1377-1404 A.D.), Devaraya I (1406-1422 A.D.), Devaraya II (1422-1465

A.D.), and Virupaksha Raya (1465-1485 A.D.) and Praudha Raya 1485 A.D. were the

other rulers of this dynasty. After Sangama, Saluva dynasty came into power who

ruled from (1485-1505 A.D.). The two main kings of this dynasty were Saluva

Narasimha Deva Raya (1485-1491 A.D.) and Immadi Narasimha (1491-1505 A.D.).

Saluva dynasty was succeeded by Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570 A.D.). Vira Narasimha

after murdering Immadi Narasimha came to power and established Tuluka dynasty in

1505 A.D.. The rulers were Tuluva Narasa Nayaka (1491-1503 A.D.), Vira

Narasimha Raya (1503-1509 A.D.), Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529 A.D.), Achyuta

Deva Raya (1529-1542 A.D.) and Sada Śiva Raya (1542-1570 A.D.).272 Since the

period of study is mainly focussed from 16th century onwards, the detailed study will

start from Tuluva Dynasty."

Figure 35: Vijayanagar Province

272 Vijayanagar Empire. Retrieved from http://www.indianmirror.com/dynasty/

vijayanagaradynasty.html

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5.1.1 The Impact of Vijayanagar Rulers on Dasiattam

"Vijayanagar Dynasty inculcated the different local cultures of South India

including Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Brahmins used to be

the administrative heads in the courts of Vijayanagar rulers. The strong administrative

power, wealth inherited from Cholas and cultural incorporation lead Vijayanagar

Empire to create and acquire distinct identity in South India which enable various art

forms to grow and develop. Among various fine arts, dance of Devadasis were also

got patronage."

"It is said that one of the categories of craftsperson called Kammalar who has

the power of a ceremony – pavatai (the spreading of petticoat on the ground as a part

of symbolic ornamentation) and parivattam (ritual head gear). Later, the devadasis of

Tiruvarur also got this right of this ceremony. Tirupur court comprised of Kaikkolan

community of Coimbatore who were well known for dedicating one daughter of their

family as a devadasi to the temple.273 The recognition of well-defined Karnatic style

was the contribution of Vijayanagar Empire."

"According to Saskia C. Kersenboom, in his book Nrityasumangali, the

victorious feature of Emperor enhanced many rituals which were directly and

indirectly affected Devadasi system. Few ritualistic ceremonies like drstiparihāra274

and kumbhadipa275 was exclusively performed by Devadasi as a part of daily ritual.

Gradually this process became so popular in South Indian culture.276 The Vijayanagar

Empire emphasised on various grandeur ceremonies which acknowledged victory,

divinity, the king and his horse. They were more prone to celebrate the festival to

273 Op.cit. 262.

274 The ritual which is performed in temples to remove the evil-eye or other bad influences.
275 Weaving of pot-lamp.
276 This ritualistic ceremony is the luxurious version of Kumbharati i.e., weaving if pot-lamp
which forms the most distinguishing features of Devadasi.

201
mark their victory. Henceforth, the old goddess of victory-Korravai277 was

worshipped. The festival of nine days were celebrated which was concluded by the

worship of the goddess Durga, was a mark of victory called Vijayadaśamī. This ritual

includes the worship of king, the drill display by the military and the slaughter of

various animals. So, the Devadasis were the persons to perform the rituals and dance

and music performance throughout this ceremony."

"During this era, the standard of artistic and cultural life was very high which

can be clearly visible from various rituals performed by this dynasty. They

encouraged the art of dance and music. Even different types of dancers were

categorised into dancing women, court dancers and temple dancers. These dancers

were treated in great respect by the kings and the people of kingdoms. The kings used

to support their talents and take special attention in the training of the dancers which

showed their urge to continue the legacy of the dance evolved long back in 200 B.C.

The implementation of their contribution can be seen in the special hall built inside

the palace solely for dance practice purpose. The hall contained panels that showed

the proper position along with bars which was meant for the physical training of the

dancers. Devaraya II promoted many dancers, musicians and literary persons in his

court. Out them, Goppa Tippa wrote a book on dance manuals. His work includes a

commentary work on a Kashmiri treatise by Vamana in late 8th century on literary

theory and he also created the entire work in Sanskrit on music and dance."278

"In this regard, Domingo Paes279 describes the Devadasis of a Ganesha temple

as – “They feed idol every day, for they say that he eats; and when he eats women

277 This specific god resembles closely the god in Cankam age or Sangam age as described
by Bardic poet.
278 Pollock, S. (2003). Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia.
279 Domingo Paes was a Portuguese traveller who visited the Vijayanagar Empire around
1520.

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dance before him who belongs to that Pagoda, and they give him food and all that is

necessary, and all girls born of those women belongs to the temple. These women are

of loose character, and live in the best streets that there are in the city; it is the same in

their cities, their streets have the best row of houses. They are very much esteemed,

and are classed amongst those honoured ones who are the mistresses of the captains;

any respectable man may go to their houses without any blame attaching there-to”."

Domingo Paes also described about the palace dancers as – “The women begin

to dance, while some of them place themselves in the circular galleries that I have said

were (erected) at their gate of entrance. Who can fitly describe to you the great riches

these women carry on their persons?-collars of gold with so many diamonds and

rubies and pearls, bracelets also on their arms and on their upper arms, girdles below,

and of necessity anklets on the feet…there are women among them who have lands

that have been given to them, and litters, and so many maid-servants that one cannot

number all their things.”

Figure 36: Dasiattam

203
 "It is said that Tulavas were devoted to Vaishnavites. King Krishnadeva Raya

rose as one of the eminent ruler of this dynasty and extended his kingdom by covering

almost entire south India and beyond. Many foreign travellers visited during his era.

Out of that one visitor named Domingo Paes in 1510 A.D. wrote that Vijayanagar is

the best provided city in the world. He was not only a prominent warrior but also had

great taste in music, dance and literature. Being a scholar and a poet himself created

new age in Telegu literature. His period was considered to be the golden age of the

Telugu literature.280 He gave patronage to eight brilliant authors in Telugu known as

Astadiggajas in his court."

"Among eight authors, Allasani Peddana, the author of Manu Charitramu was

the most eminent one who was known as Andhra Kavita Pitamaha. He also extended

his supported Telugu, Kannada and Tamil poets too. His of notable books was

Amuktamalyada in Telugu which describes the religious aspects. Not only was a great

warrior, Sri Krishnadevaraya a great constructor too. The Hazara Rama temple and

the Vittalaswami temple are few architectural example ascribed to him."

"During Krishnadevaraya’s reigning many authors and poets emerged.

Laxminarayana (1504-1530 A.D.), a scholar in his court wrote a book named Sangeet

Suryodaya in 1525 A.D. He was also given a title of royal musician and

Todaramalla.281 It is said that during the reigning of Krishnadevaraya women were

well versed in music and dance."

280 Venkatasubramanian, T.K. (2010). Music as History in Tamilnadu.

281 Op.cit. 262, p.37.

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 Figure 37: Krishnadevaraya

5.1.2 Vasantotsava and Dance

"The kings of Vijayanagar Empire broadly encouraged and patronized music

and dance and they used to showcase these performances during spring festival

known as Vasantotsava. During this festival, the dancers used to carry out

performances in temple ceremonies as well as in public concerts. Vasantaotsav

generally conducted in the month of March and April which is regarded as Chaitra

masa according to Hindu calendar. The mention of this festival can be found in the

literary work of an author Ahobala in his book Virupaksha Vasantotsava Champu

which enumerates the celebration of this festival in Vijayanagar every year and lasts

for nine days in spring ‘Madhumasa’ (spring/Chaitramasa). During this festival Kama

(Hindu god of love) was worshipped by the royal ladies and the evidence of this can

be traced from the sculptures of Vijaya Vittala temple and Mahanavami Dibba where

Kamadev with his wife Rati can be seen on the panels of these temples. This forms

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one of the important festivals during 16th century. The sculptural proofs of group

dance performances were also crafted on the walls, pillars, ceilings, doors and

basements of Vijayanagar temple. This show the aesthetical excellence of artistic

work in temple architecture existed during that time."282

"The group dances performed in Vasantotsav were colourful and enchanting.

It got immense popularity in Vijayanagar times. Both ‘Margi’ and ‘Deshi’ styles were

incorporated with intricate gestural languages accompanied by music. The Deshi style

(regional style) existed long back in 9th century where folks used to perform to

enchant their mood but during this era it got a platform to showcase its techniques and

regional cultures sometime amalgamated with Margi or classical style. Vijayanagar

acted as a catalyst for development of popular regional dances. Here, one can witness

the change in dance pattern. The royal patronages used to take initiative for this

festival and also encouraged maximum involvement of commoners and courtesans.

Not only proficient dancers but non dancers also associate with these performances.

The group dance comprised of a group of minimum of 16 participants and maximum

of 64 and both male and female used to participate with great zeal and enthusiasm.283

They used to adorn beautiful and glittering costumes and jewelleries with the usage of

colourful props which makes it spectacular performance."

"The Dasiattam which was prevalent to temples and court came as a new form

and got a prominent stage during this festival. The documentation of this productive

choreography, techniques and its architectural display of Vijayanagar era were

mentioned in many scriptures and treatises. The cultural excellence of Vijayanagar

times was focused in two important texts-Nritya-lakshana and Nritya lakshya written

282 Seshadri, P., & Nandagopal, C. (2015). Vasanthotsava – Dances of the Spring Festival in
Vijayanagar Times. September, p.47.
283 Ibid.

206
in medieval times. Nritta Ratnavalli, a treatise on music and dance written by

Jayasenapathi in 13th century. The techniques and orders of the dance presentations

described here in this book were followed during the festival. The chapter seven of

Nritta Ratnavali describes Rasakam, Nātyarasakam, Carcari prabhandhas and

Dandarasakam which related to the celebratory dance performances of spring

festival. Through these texts one can visualize the picturesque dance style existed and

its representation on temple architecture."284

"The Choreography of dance pattern follows Nātya Śāstra, like the leg

movements, word to word meaning representation using codifies gestural language

etc. It also includes graceful and circling movements, circling movements with jumps

and bounds. One can also observe a surfeit of caris, mandalas, khandas, lasyangas,285

brahmaris,286 utplavanas287 and beautiful formations to be performed in the

Pindibhandha288 form. The dance of heroine portrayed the praising of king through

gestural language or padarthabhinaya. Although Padarthabhinaya is one of typical

aspects of Koodiāttam dance drama but its uses were found in classical form like

Dasiattam during that time. Padarthabhinaya means rendering of each and every

words of the song through gesticular language. Dances were used to be performed by

experienced dancers in the praise of king’s virtues. The percussion instrument used

was Muraj which resembles present times Dhol."

284 Ibid., p.48.

285 Graceful prescribed movements
286 A choreographic pattern described in Natyasastra
287 Prescribed circling movements
288 Prescribed jumps and leaps

207
5.1.3 The Architectural Evidence

"After understanding heritage of dance, music and temple architecture of

Vijayanagar times Nandagopal wrote a book on Dance and Music in Temple

Architecture. He did his thorough study covering the temples of Hampi, Tadapatri,

Penukonda and Srisailam. He describes – “The Temple architecture is a barometer for

measuring the standards of cultural life during the ancient and medieval times”."

"Dance and sculptures are interdependent. During Vijayanagar Empire,

sculpture played a vital role to promote classical dance of that times. The sculptures

represent the character and cultural fullness of the Vijayanagar Empire. It also

showcases the daily deeds and present life style of that era. The temples patronized by

the Vijayanagar rulers given ample examples of visual arts which endorsed

performing arts."

"The best architectural evidence can be found in Virupaksha Temple. Being

situated in the capital of Vijayanagar, The Virupaksha temple of Hampi is one of the

oldest temples which is still operating and believed to be the sacred living temple of

Hampi.289 Although the temple started with a small shrine but later expanded and

remodified by Krishnadevaraya in 1510 A.D. On his occasion of coronation, a dance

sequence portraying the dancers in tribhangi290 posture and Kunchita pada291 forming

a circle found on the ceiling of the temple in suksnasi."292

"Ceiling of Krishnaswamy temple was constructed by Sri Krishnadevaraya

after conquering returning from Orissa. An elaborate circular panel is found in the

suksnasi of the ranga mantapa where amalgamation of both male and female dancers

289 Ibid., p.49.

290 A kind of graceful posture.
291 A prescribed stance in which toes bent at an angle aesthetically.
292 Hall in front of sanctum in temples.

208
in pairs binding with each other and dancing in harmony. Here also the dancers’ right

leg is in kuncitha position and the other leg is in tilted."

"The Hazara Rama temple was built by Devaraya II in early 15th century in a

simple structure with a sanctum, a pillar hall and a mandapa. The uniqueness of the

temple lies in the sculptural postures of thousand Rama and hence the name is Hazara

Rama. It also portrays exclusive dancing women performing in Dasara festival and

also spring Holi festival. It also portrays the dancers in moving hands and legs in

Urdhvajanuchari and the drum by played by women, demonstrating the rhythm."

"Mahanavami Dibba which is also famous as the Victory stone or great

platform was built by King Krishnadevaraya. The elevated platform and open

auditorium was used as a stage where various performances were held during the

grand Navaratri or Dasara festival. It is said that this was burnt during the destruction

of Hampi. The southern side of the monument indicated the dancing figures and

musicians which showcases the holi celebration. The three tanks were constructed

beside the monument. Out of three, the panels of the small tank portraying the

dancers’ mixing and sprinkling of colour on each other. The Rati and Manmantha

with floral arrow indicating the commencement of love season were depicted by two

dancers. The next panel illustrates a male dancer in vaiskshaka sthana293 accompanied

by two female dancers with a pot of coloured water in hand indicating the holi

festival. On the right side of this dancing figure, one dancing woman with rich attire

and on the other side one more dancing figure in different dress up can be visualized

beside the previous figure."

293 A prescribed standing posture

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 Figure 38: The musical pillar of Vittala temple

"The Vittala Temple also expanded and constructed by Sri Krishnadevaraya

during 16th century. It is also called Vijaya Vittala temple. It has elaborated enchanting

and artistic carving which makes it spectacular in all aspects. The main attractions of

this temple are the stone chariot which resembles the Konark wheels and the musical

pillars. The 56 musical pillars are also known as SAREGAMA pillars. This Vittala

temple is well known for its architecture. The temple consists of Natya mantapa294

and the Kalyana mantapa in which Dandarasaka can be is seen. In Nartan Nirnaya,

there is a mention of props like cloth, flower streamers, daggers and fly whisks used

by the dancers can be found here. The postures like Kunchita and Urdhwajanu295

were followed in the dance pattern shown. Even in this temple also the dancing

figures Manmatha and Rati in a panel is seen where both riding parrots holding a bow

and a fly whisk respectively. The two are found riding parrots, with Manmatha

wielding the bow and Rati with a fly whisk in hand."

294 Dance Hall

295 Prescribed leg posture –lifted in an angle aesthetically.

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 "Few postures like Pindibhanda were seen in the plates of Huchapparaya

Mutt296 which showcases the existence of such dance pattern during that time. "

5.1.4 The Contribution towards Music

"Along with dance, Vijayanagar also sheltered music and many famous

exponents of music. It is considered that the reign of Vijayanagara Empire was a

turning point in the cultural history of South India, predominantly the history of

Carnatic music. The music was an important part of the Vijayanagara society which

relates Hindu religious tradition. The period perceived the creative contributions of

several musicians, saints and theoreticians. Pundarika Vittala, Lakksmanarama,

Somnatha, Gopa Tippa, Kallinath, Kumbhakarna, Locana Jha, Hrdayanarayanadeva

and Vidyaranya, etc. were famous theoretical scholars in music. Other than these

musicians, many great saint-composers were also evolved who brought revolution in

the history of Indian classical music namely, Purandara Dasa, Vyasaraya,

Vadirajatirtha, Sripadaraya, Nijaguna Śivayogi, Kanaka Dasa and Tallapakam

Annamacharya and his desendants.297 Each of these scholars made noteworthy

contributions which accumulatively ensued in modern Carnatic music."

"The development of musical forms like Kriti, Suladi, Ugabhoga, Dandaka,

Urttanamma, Mundige, Gita, Thaya and Prabandha can be observed which

popularised during this period. The first of the great composers of Carnatic music who

was master composer of Tirumala temple was Annamacharya (1408-1503 A.D.)

developed during the Empire. He has written more than 32,000 poems in Ramayana

poetic format."

296 Seshadri, P., & Nandagopal, C. (2015). Vasanthotsava - Dances of the Spring Festival in
Vijayanagar Times. September, p.50.
297 Vijayanagar musicological nonets. wikipedia.

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 Figure 39: Purandara Dasa

"Purandara Dasa (1484-1564 A.D.) flourished with the advent of

Krishnadevaraya.298 Previously Carnatic music was sung as a form of religious chants

but his compositions were illustrated from the involvements of ordinary people."

"The emergence of musical nonets or the Sangitashastra navaratna can be

seen in this period. These are a group of nine musical treatises written during

Vijayanagara reign which induced the growth of traditional Carnatic music. These

nine works are as follows."

"The Sangitasara by the sage Vidyaranya, Taladipika by Salva Gopa

Tippendra, Sangitakalanidhi by Kallinatha, commentary work of Bhandaru

Vittaleshwara on the Sangit Ratnakara, Bhandaru Lakshminarayana’s

Sangitasuryodaya (already discussed above) and Swaramelakalanidhi by Ramamatya.

Out of all of these, Sangitakalanidhi by Kallinatha forms a useful commentary

on Sharngadeva‘s Sangita Ratnakara of 13th century which deals with music and

dance and their aesthetics. Kallinatha in this work, precisely interpreted, clarified and

298Purandara Dasa. wikipedia

212
accentuated all the matters of the Ratnakara but also criticised with a comparison

with contemporary practices, theories and customs of music and dance."

"After the death of Krishnadevaraya, Achyutadevaraya, the brother of

Krishnadevaraya came into the rule. He has written Talakalabdhi or Talakalavridhi.

This was an important treatise on tala which systematizes the concept and practice

of the Suladi talas described by Haridasas. This work was compilation of few earlier

works on talas which he had disagreed and disproved such as Talakalavilasa,

Sangitavidyavinoda, Jainamata, Sangitamarga, Chaturasabhavilasa, Sangitachudamani,

Anjaneyamata, Nrttachudamani, Sangitamanidarpana, Katyayaniya, Sangitarnava,

Rangaraja Bharatabhashya, Kapardi, and Parameshwara.299 Around the same time,

under the patronage of Achyuta and the noble guidance of Guru Sitarama, Somabhatta

composed the Swararaga sudharasa or Nātyachudamani. Although this work is now

available only in fragments."

"Vijayanagara Kingdom gradually started declining after this era leaving the

power to Aravidu rulers who continued to rule for 100 years in a small segment of the

Vijayanagara Empire. Aravidu Dynasty was founded by Tirumala. The rulers were

Aliya Rama Raya (1542-1565 A.D.), Tirumala Deva Raya (1565-1572 A.D.),

Sriranga I (1572-1586 A.D.), Venkata II (1586-1614 A.D.), Sriranga II (1614-1614

A.D.), Ramadeva (1617-1632 A.D.), Venkata III (1632-1642 A.D.) and Sriranga III

(1642-1646 A.D.). Almost all the rulers supported Devadasi custom and their

ceremonies in their ways and also contributed in form of constructing temples to

protect this art form and written many literary treatises to encourage Dasiattam."

299 Ibid.

213
5.2 THE CONTRIBUTION OF TANJORE NAYAKAS TOWARDS

BHARATNĀTYAM

Figure 40: Tanjore Nayak Province

"Tanjore or Thanjavur is situated in the southern peninsula of east-coast of

Tamil Nadu. It forms one of the most important regions of the south Indian that has

played a crucial role in uplifting social and cultural life. The word Thanjavur had been

derived from ‘Thanjan’ which means refuge and all together it is called the city of

refuge.300 Thanjavur was famous since pre-historic times for its constant development

and urbanization. The geographical, social, Architectural and cultural excellence

flourished the urbanization of Thanjavur. Many literary evidences prove its antiquity

from Tamil Sangam age. According to William Hickey, the ancient Tamil kingdom of

Thanjavur – ‘The land of the Chola’-was popularly called as ‘the eden of the

south’."301

300 Thanjavur District: A political history. p.90. Retrieved from shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/

bitstream/10603/25597/9/09_chapter%203.pdf
301 Hickey, W. (1988). The Tanjore Mahratta Principality in southern India: The land of the
Chola, the Eden of the South.

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 "Thanjavur played a significant role in the history of south India from middle

of 9th century A.D., to the 18th century A.D. The Thanjavur was initially ruled by the

Cholas and considered to be the home of the Cholas. From the Sangam period

onwards, the Cholas carried its legacy in Tanjore and shown their love for art and

culture through patronization of various temples. By 1534 A.D., the Chola dynasty

started declining and the huge and powerful Chola kingdom restricted to the closed

premises of Tanjore. Gradually it came under the rule of Nayakas in 1620 A.D. where

Telugu governors were appointed by the Vijayanagar rulers."

"Thanjavur Nayak dynasty was the rulers from Tamil Nadu who established

their territory in the province of Thanjavur between 16th and 17th centuries. They have

been appointed by Vijayanagar Emperor in 14th century to govern in their shires. They

further divided their country into three Nayak ships viz., Madurai, Tanjore and

Gingee. During 16th century with the declination of Vijayanagar Empire in the battle

of Talikota (1565 A.D.), the Nayakas formed independent kingdom and shifted the

Hindu provinces towards Southwards but still maintained a close association with

Vijayanagar Empire. As a consequence of that various courts came into existence and

made their individual identity. They are Thanjavore, Madurai and Gingee who got

popularity among others existed during those periods."

"The Nayakas also maintained the legacy of protector of Hinduism and their

ceremonies. The Thanjavur Nayaks played a prominent role for patronage of literature

and the arts. Thanjavur was profound in its religious (temple) supremacy and

protector of traditional and cultural heritage which continues till today."

"After the declination of Thanjavur Nayak by Maratha armies from Bijapur in

1674 A.D., the Thanjavur was governed by Maratha rulers.302 The Marathas and their

302 Ibid., p.102.

215
successors preserved and improvised the heirlooms of their predecessors. The

historical evidences found in house of the Sarasvati Mahal Library prove existence of

devadasi culture and development of Carnatic music and Bharatnātyam as in current

form. The temples, the palaces, the colourful painting, the bronzes and literary

treatises bring the executive and artistic life style of rulers of Thanjavur."

5.2.1 Political Background of Tanjore Nayakas

"When the Vijayanagar emperors, captured a province in Tanjore in southern

part, they name it as Chola Mandalam of Thanjavur. They started rulling Thanjavur

through Nayakas. The Nayakas after acquiring the land nurtured and established the

development of literature, drama, music and its arts. The first Nayakas appointed by

Achyuta Raya (1530-1565 A.D.) of Vijayanagar dynasty in 1532 A.D..303 He was

Sevappa Nayak who is considered as the founder of Thanjavore Nayakas."

"Sevappa Nayak (1532-1560 A.D.) was the son of Thimmappa Nayak

(1521-1532 A.D.) and the brother-in-law of the king Achyuta Raya. He got the

Nayakaship of Tanjore when he married Murtiamba, the sister of the queen

Varadambika, wife of Achyuta Raya. Previously he used to be an attendant of the

king. He came as an independent ruler and started governing the Chola Mandalam and

southern parts of Thondaimandalam. He being a peaceful leader promoted the music

and dances like other south Indian rulers and maintained a choultry attached to the

Muvalur temple in Tanjore by contributing land and economic support. It enhanced

many temple dancers to spout and inherit their tradition and culture."

"After Sevappa Nayak, his son Achyutappa Nayak (1560-1600 A.D.) came

into the power. He was an intelligent and powerful ruler who fought with Muslim

rulers and the Portuguese rulers during that time. He sheltered the king of Jaffna

303 Ibid., pp.103-106.

216
(Ceylon) to his court and in return took rivalry with the Portuguese. He used to

maintain harem of around 300 to 400 women."

"Raghunatha Nayak (1600-1634 A.D.), the son of Achyutappa Nayak ruled

Tajore provinces after his father’s death. King Raghunatha Nayak was himself an

intellectual scholar and composed many literary books. He himself was a scholar,

Veena player and a great patron of art. It is believed that he was the inventor of Veena

what we see today. It was formatted into 24 fixed frets, three side strings and four

playing strings in Raghunath’s court only. This particular Veena is named as Tanjavur

Veena or Saraswati Veena. Till date Veenas are manufactured in Tanjore with same

pattern."

"He was very talented and made note-worthy contribution in the field of

politics, administration, war, music and dance and was compared with

Krishnadevaraya of Vijayanagar. Like his father, he also fought with the Portuguese

and thrown them out from the kingdom of Jaffna. He was a great warrior who

defeated the Madurai and Gingee rulers in the battle of Toppur. He promoted Telugu

as the official language and Tamil was discouraged. In the same time, Sanskrit was

given prominence. It is said that Carnatic music flourished during his era and as a

consequence Dasiattam also continued its journey into the new century."

"Vijayaraghava Nayak (1633-1673 A.D.) who came to throne after

Raghunatha Nayaka was also a great patron of art. It is said that the other rulers of

Thanjavore Nayakas continued the custom of having Devadasi tradition along with

Rajadasis. The rulers also promoted and composed the songs for Yakshagana dance

drama and others after him continued to be great art patrons and many rulers

themselves composed many Yakshaganas. But after getting repeated attacked by the

Nayakas of Madurai and the sultan of Bijapur, the Tanjore Nayaka started

217
degenerating. As a consequence of that, the Nayaka of Madurai captured the kingdom

of Thanjavur."

"Alagiri Nayak (1673-1674 A.D.) appointed as the Viceroy in Thanjavur

under ascendancy of Chockanatha Nayak of Madurai and ruled there just for a year."

"The Nayak of Madudai also could not able to retain the throne in Thanjavur

for more than a year and soon Chockanatha Nayak got defeated by the Bijapur Sultan

under the governance of Venkoji in the battle of Ayyampet and as a result

Chengamaladas (1674-1675 A.D.) ascended the throne of Tanjore in 1649 A.D."

"The kingdom started with the leadership of Sevappa Nayak in 1532 A.D.

continued for one hundred and forty three years under the governance of Vijayanagar

Empire. They fought many battles and shown their full loyalty towards Vijayanagar.

They encouraged the Devadasi and Rajadasi tradition like Vijayanagar Empire and

continued to patronage music and dance. It maintained the privilege of being a Hindu

kingdom. Due to constant conflict with Nayak of Madurai, they could not retain their

kingdom and Vijayaraghava became the last Nayak of Tanjore after which the power

went to the hands of Tanjore Marathas."

"The Tanjore Nayaka’s court language was Telugu and the influence was so

strong that the Marathas also retained it in their as the mode of conversation.304 While

during Chola period, Tanjore was dominated by Tamil only. The Tanjore courts

maintained its culture and religion till 1649 A.D., after which the territory came under

the reign of Marathas who evolved as a defender of Hinduism. They came into power

in 1676 A.D. and ruled Tanjore till 1856 A.D. to the annexation of British Empire

under the Doctrine of Lapse.305 During British rule, many courts in South India

304 Op.cit. 262, p.39.

305 Thanjavur District: A political history. p.135. Retrieved from shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/
bitstream/10603/25597/9/09_chapter%203.pdf

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evolved who provided patronage to dance like Travancore, Mysore, etc. It is said that

the legacy of court-culture of Tanjore was much more vibrant and powerful than the

military hold."

5.2.2 Contribution towards Bharatnātyam

"Like other rulers, Nayaks of Thanjavore or Tanjore also showed enormous

interest in Dasiattam and uplifted its tradition. Most of the literary evidences prove

that the rulers like Achhyutappa Nayak sheltered many devadasis. Mainly the

devadasis were trained in both dance and music and expertise in temple rituals. But

during this era, the devadasis were more into performing arts rather than carrying out

temple ritual which was the integral part of devadasis. They have gradually moved to

royal courts from the temples of Tanjore. We can see the court culture was prevalent

in Vijayanagar period and the legacy continued by the Nayaks too."

"It is believed that the emergence of Sadir Nātyam happened during Nayaka

period. Dasiattam, the prevalent dance form of Vijayanagar temple and court, has

transformed to Sadir during Nayaka period. According to Sri. T.S. Parthasarathy, the

famous musicologist the word ‘Caduru’ is a Telugu word used during Nayaka period

which also means a ‘Sabha’ where a dance performance used to be conducted during

social occasions, and the legacy continued in Maratha Kingdom too.306 Many dance

forms aroused and existed during Nayaka’s rule. They are Sudda, Desya, Perani,

Pekkana, Kundali, Danda, Bahucari, etc."307

"Tanjore formed the one of the Hindu territory in north and south India in

16th-17th centuries A.D. Mainly the north part of India was under the rules of Mugals.

Except Sivaji ruling Maratha territory, southern part was fully captured by Muslim

306 Raja Serfoji-II and his patronage to the development of art. p.72. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1786/9/09_chapter%202.pdf
307 Kusumābāyi, K. (2012). Music-dance and Musical Instruments: During the Period of
Nayakas (1673-1732).

219
and Portuguese rulers who used to rule Bijapur, Goa, etc. But Kerala was also

controlled by Hindu rulers. The southern tip down to Tamil Nadu, Nayak took charge

of protecting Hindu culture and rituals which added continuation of artistic

sophistication in their court. As a result many performing artists along with literary

scholars got homage in Tanjore. Many monuments and Hindu temples were also built.

The Mahamaham temple tank in Kumbakonam was well constructed by Nayaks. In

1589 A.D., Achuthappa Nayak built the Chandra Mouliswarer which is situated in the

open court yard near the art gallery. The Nayak rulers were fervent devotees of this

god. Even Srirangam temple was also developed during the reign of Nayak at

Thanjavur."308

"Tanjore court was famous for its exotic art, culture and dance. It has seen

many popular dancers and musicians since Cholas. The Nayak-s also came forward to

continue the bequest. Although the court culture was predominant during Cholas, the

music and dance forms have established with methodical and consistent coaching and

learning during Nayaks and Maratha rule."

"It is said that after the complete fall of Vijayanagar Empire, many scholars

and performing artists migrated from Andhra Pradesh to Tanjore as it continued to be

a Telugu ancestry. During 1561-1614 A.D., Achutappa Nayaka gave refuge to them

and gifted each one of them with a house and a land with water facility and a cow.

They mainly settled in different village of Tanjore like Melattur, Oothukadu,

Teperumanallur, Soolamangalam and Saliyamangalam. He also encouraged them to

pursue their profession and artistic quest in his royal court and became responsible for

bringing Bhagavata Mela Nataka to Melattur which formed one of the distinct

308 Rao, V.N.H. (1961). Koil Oluku, The chronical of Sriranga Temple with historical notes.

220
inventions of Melattur.309 Melatur forms a small village 20 km away from Tanjore in

Southern Tamilnadu. Although it was mainly known for the Kuchipudi dance

tradition but influence of Bharatnātyam also can be seen."

"Govinda Dikshitar played a vital role in contributing in charitable work under

the patronage of Achutappa and Raghunath Nayak. He was a minister to these kings

who renovated the Unnathapureeswarar temple to lodge the Telugu Brahmin families

around the outer confines of the temple. He also places a hollow water tank in front of

the temple which is known as ‘Ayyan Kulam’ named after Govinda Dikshitar. Raja

Veda Patashala of Kumbakonam was built by him and along with this he has also

renovated and built many sandhya vandanam mandapams from Mayavaram to

Tiruvaiyuru. He is remembered with great respect and known as Ayyan. Few

buildings and streets are named after him like Ayyanpettai, Ayyankulam and

Ayyankadai. Unnathapuram is also popularly known as Melattur."

"Thus, King Achutappa Nayak who was considered to be the geniuses of

Unnathapuram, had protected and preserved the art form which affected directly on

Vaishnavism, music and dance. As a result of which the rich Telugu culture reflected

in Tamil Nadu at Unnathapuram. This particular place Unnathapuram was known as

Achutapuram, Achutapuri and Achutabthi in admiration to the legacy of Achutappa

Nayak. He made contribution in composing various literary works by various talented

composers sheltered by him. So, during the reign of Achutappa, Unnathapuram

became known as Achutapuri."

"Bhagavata Mela Natakam was a dance tradition performed in temple rituals

mainly by inherited male dancers. This dance drama of Tamil Nadu is the

amalgamation of devotion, music, and dance and of course drama which connects

309 Musicologist Dr. Rama Kausalya speaks to S. Gopalkrishna about the cultural heritage of
Tanjavur and how its music and dance were patronized by different dynasties (2012).

221
ancient Sanskrit drama tradition described in Nātya Śāstra, resembling Koodiāttam of

Kerala. The term Mela signifies group who generally performs Bhagavata drama.

Periya Melam is the group of Nagaswaram performer whereas Chinna Melam is the

group who perform dance during the play. The very first Bhāgavata Mela Nataka was

performed during the reign of Vira Narasimha Raya of Vijayanagar dynasty. The play

was witnessed by all the royal family members and the group showcased the

sufferings of common people happening due to misrule and less administrative hold

of Sammeta Gurava Raju.310 As a consequence the king immediately looked into this

matter and tried to figure out the crisis. Along with dancing, the group started to enact

the ballet exposing the common problems of that time."

Figure 41: The Bhagavata Mela Natakam

"The Bhagavata Mela Natakam is mostly based on Telugu plays written by

Melattur Venkatrama Sastry (1743-1809 A.D.). He was a great saint, singer, and

composer and considered to be Thyagraja of that era. Out of his 12 dance dramas,

310 Natarajan, M.S. (2004). Melattur, a seat of Bhagavata Mela – An overview (Part I).

222
Prahalad Charitamu is the most popular one which is still presented during Narasimha

Jayanti."

"Only Melattur came as a saviour of this dance drama, but if seen into the

other places except Saliyamangalam, the village like Soolamangalam, Oothukadu

were unable to save their tradition and gradually dance form has extinct from there.

Unlike other places, Melattur still involved in nurturing this ancient form and people

across different area come and offer their devotion towards Lord Narasimha. Now,

talking about dance, in the play Prahlada one can see few dance sequences. The

techniques of dance used here was mainly Bharatnātyam because during those eras,

Dasiattam was prevalent style of that particular area. The dance was mostly used as

prelude before every drama.311 Natesa Iyer who was one of several Bhagavatars and

contributed towards revival of this art, has learnt regular Bharatnātyam from

Devadasis."

"According to the renowned activist Krishna E. Iyer, Bharatnātyam was

described as a massive, wide-ranging and a basic system of classical dance in India

where the techniques are applied in three dance forms-formerly solo Sadir dance, then

the Bhagavata Mela Natakam dance drama and in Kuruvanji ballet which is based on

folk art.312 Through the above mentioned view, on can infer that Bharatnātyam and

Bhāgavata Mela Nataka were the two sides of a coin where the technique is same but

applied in different format. So, from here one can connects the contribution of

Nayakas of Tanjore in uplifting Bharatnātyam dance or Dasiattam dance tradition

through Bhāgavata Mela Nataka."

311 Kusumābāyi, K. (2012). Music-dance and Musical Instruments: During the Period of
Nayakas (1673-1732). p.126.
312 Banerjee, S. (2011). Dance – The Celebration of Divine.

223
 "Melattur style of Bharatnātyam is famous for its distinct properties and

uniqueness. The development of Bharatnātyam took place here during this era and it

continued its journey during the reign of Tanjore Marathas. Now in today’s era one

can particularly identify Melattur style of Bharatnātyam and the contribution should

be credited to Achyutappa Nayaka who sowed the seed of culture in this particular

place that flourish into a fruitful tree in today’s world."

"Melattur witnessed many scholars and composers like Venkatarama Shastri,

Narayana Tirtha, Kasinathayya who was popularly known as Bharatam Kasinattyya.

It is said that the choreography of first Alarippu, Shabdam, Tillanaa and Swarajathi

were composed in Melattur only. Bharatam Kasinathayya was an Nātyacharya (dance

teacher), maestro and contributed in composing nine Alarippus and various Shabdams

namely Manduka and Dahavarata. The Shabdam was used as prologue before

performing dance dramas and this particular pattern was followed by the Tanjore

court dancers as well as temple dancers of Melattur."

"Dance dramas were based on theme which describes exquisiteness of Vishnu

and Nandikeshwara temple. Swarajathi was first composed by Veerabhadrayya of

Melattur, the disciple of Bharatam Kasinathayya. This Swarajathi-s of music was

exclusively composed for dance. He also introduced Tillana in the Bharatnātyam style

of dancing and also composed several Kirtanas.313 Many Bhagavat Mela dance

dramas like Saliyamangalam, etc. were composed by Panchanathayya, one more

disciple of Bharatam Kasinathayya."

"Raghunatha was a great scholar and composer too. He has written many

books on music and literature and composed various dance-dramas like

Prabandkas, Parijatapaharana, Valmika Charitra Kavya, Achyutendrabhyudayam,

313 Natarajan, M.S. (2004). Melattur, a seat of Bhagavata Mela – An overview (Part I).

224
Gajendramoksham, Nala Caritiam and Rukmini Krishna Vivaha Yakshagana. He has

patronaged many poets like Madhuravani and Ramabhadramba, and scholars like

Sudhindra and Ragvendra. Thus, he used to maintain a set of poets, scholars and

gurus who all adorned his court like gems stone. The description of his court and his

contribution towards music, dance and literature can be found in Sahitya Ratnakara

written by Yajnanarayana314 (the son of Govinda Dikshita)."

"During the reign of Vijayaraghava Nayaka, dance was promoted and many

new forms were evolved during this era. The Kuruvanji style of dancing commenced

and practice in his reign which was popular as Tancaivellaipillaiyār. Many dance

dramas namely Yakshaganas, etc. were encouraged. He also appointed a famous pada

composer Ksetrayya in his court and the evidence can be traced from a manuscript

Ksetriya Padamudu where Ksetrayya composed various padas for classical and deshi

(non-classical) dance compositions. Many erotic poems were also composed. These

compositions were performed by the royal dancers in the court. As we know that

many professional dancers can be found in Nayaka darbar in Tanjore.315 These

dancers express female desire and eroticized aesthetical movements through these

poems. These padas were as follows:316 1) Rupavati-Chaupada, 2) Champakavalli-

sabda cintamani, 3) Murti-jakkini, 4) Komalavalli-korvai, 5) Lokanayaki-nava pada,

6) Ratnagiri-darupada, 7) Bharirati-perani."

"The king Vijayaraghava used to felicitate the royal dancers with various

golds. Out of all, he rewarded one of the royal dancers named Pasupuleti Rangajamma

a Kanakabhiseka that is ablution with gold for her outstanding composition of

Champu work in eight different languages for Yakshagana and padas. Through all

314 Ibid.
315 Soneji, D. (2012). Bharatnatyam – A reader, p.xiv.
316 Op.cit. 262, p.43.

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these activities, one can infer dedication and degree of perfection in king

Vijayaraghava’s court."

5.2.3 Architectures and Library

"Nayakas contributed many temples and the famous Saraswati Mahal library.

About the architecture, the spectacular spray of painted arches and ceilings in the

durbar hall of Thanjavur palace are giving the taste of royal rulers. They

endure evidence of arts during Nayaks. After Nayakas, the palace had been taken over

by Marathas. In 1863 A.D., during the colonial rule, the palace authority was taken

over by British and the valuables were shifted to Tiruchirapalli. After the

independence, the Archaeological Survey of India has taken over the property as a

heritage site. The Nayak rulers made valuable contributions towards the expansions of

arts and culture in this part of Tamil Nadu and maintained and built several Hindu

temples. It is said that they have constructed Sangit-Mahal only in purpose of

presenting dance and music performances."317

"Nayaks of Tanjore introduced Andhra architectural style in their respective

monuments. So, Tamilnadu has experienced different elements of architecture from

other parts of India as demanded by the people staying there. The main characteristic

features of Nayaka’s architecture are the intricate Mandapas (outdoor hall of the

temple) which consist of thousand pillars, tall towers known as Gopuram which are

also crafted with coated statues and long passage or corridors. These statuses contain

either gods and demi gods figure or the dancing postures of nymphs."

"Nayakas were not only popular for its distinctive architecture but also known

for its fresco and wall paintings. Nayak painting which is popular as Tanjore painting

evolved during 16th century. The influence of Deccani and Vijayanagar style can be

317 Raja Śarabhōji-II and his patronage to the development of art. p.80. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1786/9/09_chapter%202.pdf

226
observed in these paintings.318 As mentioned earlier, during the reign of Achyutappa

Nayaka, the Maharnaham tank in Kumbakkonam was renewed. He contributed in

constructing step-well leading to Cavery River along with big halls known as

Pushyamandapas in several places like Tiruvidaimardur, Tiruvadi, etc."

"He also built many temples viz., Srirama temple, Tiruvannamali temple,

Tiruvidaimarudur, Chidambaram temple, etc. He constructed north and west side

tower of Srirama temple along with eight temple wall known as Prakara. He also

built several mandapas in the temple premises as a distinguish feature of Nayaka

architecture.319 Jewelleries and crown adorning main temple shrine and the temple

flag i.e., the golden Vimana was gifted by him. He also renovated few gopurams

(towers) of Rameshwaram and golden kalasa in Tiruvannamalai temple. Although the

famous Brihadeshwara temple was constructed during Chola period, Nayakas further

added the shrines of Kartikeya (Murugan), Parvati (Amman) and Nandi in temple."

"The famous Saraswathi Mahal library was introduced by the Nayak rulers

(1535-1675 A.D.) during the reign of Raghunath Nayaka. This library was used by the

royal members who used to enhance their knowledge and used to known as Saraswati

Bhandaram.320 After Nayakas, the Maratha rulers who were great patrons of culture

and art have developed this Library to a great extent. This forms one of the widely

spread libraries during that era which provides books and manuscripts of various

subjects like Indian art and culture, medicine, music, dance, science and literature in

various languages. This shows repository of cultural superiority of this kingdom. The

credit goes to both the dynasties Nayaka and Marathas of Tanjore who nurtured and

maintained this library as a treasure house of knowledge."

318 The Nayak Dynasty. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-

arthistory/chapter/the-nayak-dynasty/
319 Rao, V.N.H. (1961). Koil Oluku, The chronical of Sriranga Temple with historical notes.
320 Thilagavathi, L., & Chandrababu, B.S. (2009). Melattur, a seat of Bhagavata Mela – An
overview (Part I) Woman, Her History and Her Struggle for Emancipation.

227
5.2.4 Contribution towards Music

"Nayaka rulers are very fond of music and dance. We all know, music and

dance are interconnected to each other. Here, in Nayaka’s era also the interdependency

can be observed. As dance flourished, the music also spread its dimension to

accompany the dance. Thus, many musical compositions like Perani, Jakkini, Korvai,

Shabdam Chintamani etc. were included in repertoire of music to support dance.321

Usually, the music presentations were done in four fold forms starting with Alapa,

Thayi, Geeta and Prabandha. This four-fold presentation is known as Chaturdandi.

One can find the proof of these notations in Saraswati Mahal library, Tanjore."

"During Nayak era, this Chaturdandi form of presentation was patterned into

vocal and Veena presentations. But after this period, the musical forms were more

related to dance which supports dance repertoire. The most of the musical

compositional forms were used in dance in a form of operas or dance dramas like

Bhagavata Mela Natakam. The music comprises of Swarajatis, Tana Varnas and

Keertana exclusively designed for dance performance."

"During Nayaka rule, literary compositions by royal composers cum musicians

and by great composers and musicians in royal courts contributed to enrich music and

dance of times. Intertwining of dance and music gave birth to popular Yakshaganas.

The Yakshaganas comprises of many raga which may not be used as regular raga in

today’s date. But it provides rich material to find the patterns of the ragas of today."

"Raghunatha Nayaka and his successor Vijayaraghava Nayak were music-

dance lovers. They favoured Prababndha style of singing presentation. Nayaka kings

themselves have composed several Yakshaganas and supported this art form to

embellish to its extend."

321 Natarajan, M.S. (2004). Melattur, a seat of Bhagavata Mela – An overview (Part I).

228
 "Few composers of this era were Peda Dasari, whose mention can be found in

Sangita Sampradaya Pradarshini for composing Keertanaa in Devagandhari raga,

and very significant Kshetrayya from Muvva who composed Shringara Padas

(Pallavi/Anupallavi/Charana form). It is said that Kshetrayya once visited Tanjore

during the Nayaka reign and composed padas in praise of Vijayaraghava Nayak.

Many more composers and writers came during this era like Giriraja kavi, Kavi

Matrubhootayya, Sonti Venkatasubayya, etc. The three important personalities

came in later half of Nayaka rule were Tanappacharya, Govinda Dikshita and

Venkatamakhin who made introductory contributions in music and dance."

"Many musical treatises were written during this era. Those are Svaramela

Kalanidhi of Ramamatya in 1550 A.D., Pundarika Vittala’s Sadragachandrodaya in

1583 A.D., Ragavibhoda of Somnatha in 1609 A.D. and Sangita Sudha by Govinda

Dikshitar in 1614 A.D.322 Out of all Govinda Dikshitar played an important role in

formatting the music in Nayaka’s era. His contribution is already discussed earlier.

Many towns were named after him."

"Vidyaranya, a scholar from Vijayanagar era has impacted Govinda Dikshitar

a lot and as a consequence of that he wrote a treatise named Sangit Sara ascribed

to Vidyaranya. Govinda Dikshita’s son Venkatamakhin authored the Chaturdandi

Prakashika, was one of the significant treatises written by Govinda Dikshita’s son

Venkatamakhin. Then after, the bequest continued in 18th century also, Muddu

Ventamakhin, the disciple of Venkatamakhin had written Ragalakshana. One of the

treatises named Sangraha Choodamani, although the author was not known, was

attributed to Govinda Dikshitar.323 Here, mention of various ragas can be found."

322 Music of India (Part 18). https://sreenivasaraos.com/tag/ramamatya/

323 Op.cit., 262, p.41.

229
 "Various saint musicians and composers evolved during this era which formed

Tanjore as the seat of Carnatic music. They all made several compositions which

enriched the Carnatic style of music. The musical compositions were highly spiritual

and religious in nature. During this time, the famous Trinity were born in Tanjore into

the world of music that transformed, nurtured and gave a new shape to the musical

forms. They were – Thyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Shyama Sastri. This pre

and post Trinity period composers and musicians played a significant role in

contributing rich culture in musical system. The pedagogy of this pattern travelled

generation to generations which make this system available till today."

5.3 THE CONTRIBUTION OF TANJORE MARATHAS TOWARDS SADIR

"With the advent of Vijaya Raghava, the reign of Nayaka’s of Tanjore started

degenerating. He was conquered by Chokkanatha Nayak of Madurai in 1673 A.D.

who gave the power to his younger brother Alagiri Nayak on the throne of Thanjavur.

One of the sons of Vijaya Raghava requested the Bijapur Sultan for helping them to

get back Thanjavur throne after the illegal capture by Madurai Nayaka. Henceforth,

the Sultan of Bijapur under the commandment of Maratha general Venkoji attacked

Tanjore to settle the dispute between the Nayakas of Tanjore and the Nayakas of

Madurai. Venkoji defeated Alagiri, the Nayaka of Madurai and captured Thanjavur.

As instructed by the Bijapur Sultan, he did not handover the power to Nayaka kings

but himself became the king of Thanjavur."

"Chatrapati Śivāji is considered to be the historical founder of the Maratha

Empire in 1674 A.D. His younger brother Venkoji Raja considered being the founder

of Maratha rule in Tanjore. After conquest in the battle against Alagiri Nayakas, the

Maratha Bhonsle took the charge of Thanjavur throne in 1674 A.D. It is said that

Ekoji (1676-1683 A.D.) and his successors ruled Tanjore for a hundred and fifty years

230
where they enhanced the artistic custom and showed the renaissance of cultural

growth during their reigning."

"After the death of Venkoji in 1687 A.D., the throne was succeeded by the

following Maratha King Śarabhōji I (1675-1728 A.D.), Tukoji Raja (1728-1735

A.D.), Ekoji Raja alias Baba Sheib Raja (1735-1736 A.D.), Prathapa Singh Raja

(1740-1763 A.D.), Tulajaji Raja (1764-1787 A.D.), Amar Singh Raja (1787-1798

A.D.), Śarabhōji II Raja (1798-1832 A.D.), Śivāji II Raja (1835-1855 A.D.).324 After

Śivāji II, there was no legal male heir for the kingdom. Due to the implementation of

doctrine of lapse by British government, the power went into their hand. So, the great

Tanjore Marathas ruled about 180 years."

"The patronization sustained unimpeded under the succeeding rule of the

Marathas Kingdom. They actively embraced the prevalent culture of Tanjore and

learned new languages along with encouraging their native language Marathi. The

music and dance was in peak which was provided with the platform in the royal court

and temples. The architectural evidences showed promotion of the music and dance.

Many famous literary texts on musicology were composed which includes Sangita

Sudha, Chaturdandi Prakashika, Sangita Saramrita, and Sangraha Chudamani.325

The Karnatic style of singing got a new face through these treatises. Not only these,

many aspects like 72 Melakarta ragas, lakshya and lakshana of Karnatic music were

developed. Hence, this period was considered as the transition period in the history of

Bharatnātyam and Karnatic music where many new features were included and at the

same time it has been improvised."

324 Shindhe, A. (2016). A study of traditional value of Marathi culture in Thanjavur district
– Conceptual Approach.
325 Importance of Royal Patronage. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/35239/9/09_chapter%20iii.pdf

231
 "Many dancers, Nattuvanars, musicians, composers and scholars travelled

from various royal courts like Travancore, Mysore, etc. to get patronage. Here, they

got the platform to showcase their talents in royal court and also in public forum like

temples, mutts where it was accessible to the commoners. Their talent was

encouraged, appreciated and preserved by these eminent rulers and ensured its

endurance and progress till this date."

"Most of the Marathas were art lover and gave shelter to many art forms like

Kuruvanji, Yakshagana and composed many musical compositions in form of

Padams. The Kings like Shahji, Thulaja, Ekoji II, Śarabhōji I and Śarabhōji II were

great patrons of art and literature. They have authored several texts and constructed

various architecture monuments and buildings. Most importantly, they uplifted Sadir

Nātyam giving it a shape and format which is followed till date."

5.3.1 The Emergence of Sadir Nātyam

Figure 42: Sadir Nātyam presentation in royal court

"In South India, Devadasi tradition was prevalent from Tamil Sangam age.

These Devadasis used to carry out all the temple rituals and please the temple deity

with their enchanting and spiritual performances. Dasiattam was the dance form

232
through which they used to express their devoutness to the God. This custom

continued generation to generation. It is believed that one should offer sixteen types of

spiritual services to God in which dance, music and drama are encompassed."

"Gradually, these Devadasis started performing to please the king and the

courtesans in their royal court. The existence of this tradition of presenting Dasiattam

into royal court can be traces from Chola period during 9th century. The legacy

continued in Vijayanagar too. The Nayakas modified this dance form and passed on

the tradition to Tanjore Marathas. So, the tradition of temple culture shifted to royal

house."

"During 17th century, the Marathas used to address this court dance as Sadir

Nātyam . The word ‘Sadir’ came into existence as a consequence of Maratha kings

calling it, “Sadar” which in Urdu means “the court” and the Sadir-Natyam means the

court dance.326 This presentation of court dance rendered by the Maratha kings, leads

to a new name Sadir which got popularized during that time. But this name is not in

vogue in today’s world rather got the new name Bharatnātyam. Sri R. Nagasvamy

stated that the word Sadir has been taken from ‘Catura’ which forms a Sanskrit work

means beautiful.327 Few opinions about Sadir are that it has emerged during

Thanjavur Nayaka period. This statement of Sri. T.S. Parthasarathy proves the above

mentioned opinion. The word ‘Caduru’ is a Telugu word used during Nayaka period

which also means a ‘Sabha’ where a dance performance conducted during social

occasions.328 This legacy continued in Maratha Kingdom too."

326 Arudra. (1988). “Telugu dance traditions of Tanjore Court”. Journal of Sri
Shanmukhananda Fine Arts and Sangceta Sabha. XIV, p.19. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1786/9/09_chapter%202.pdf.
327 Raja Śarabhōji-II and his patronage to the development of art. p.72. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1786/9/09_chapter%202.pdf
328 Ibid., p.72.

233
 "The culture of patronage travelled far and wide. The most striking feature of

Tanjore Maratha was that they had official court language as Telugu; ruling over Tamil

people by Maratha speaking rulers. All most every ruler of this kingdom more or less

contributed this dance form and the dancers were given special treatment inside the

royal court. The Marathas played a vital and functional role in inspiring the dance

tradition during their rule in Tanjore. They appointed many dancers and nattuvanars

(dance teachers) in their court. They were given respect and used to be honoured with

valuable gifts and jewelleries. The Maratha rulers ensure that they should get proper

guidance and environment to bring out the creativity from them. So, many musicians

and composers were also welcomed who contributed in the field of music which

reflected the development in the Sadir dance too. They encouraged the in-depth study

and research into music and dance which leads to develop a milestone in the history of

dance. The reinforcement of their work had been established by sponsoring daily

performance in the court and for which the dancers and singers used to be

remunerated."

"These royalties also promote the literature development to stimulate dancing

and singing; as a consequence many scholars were also given place in the court who in

return composed various literary works to nourish art of dance and music. Their works

were also published and documented in one of the world’s biggest library – The

Saraswati Mahal during that time which includes books of all disciplinary subjects.

The musicians were given opportunity to record their songs and that formed a

revolution feature. Even various temples and mutts were funded to encourage the

practice of dancing and singing there. This way these rulers preserved as well as

heightened our valuable tradition."

234
 "Out of all King Śarabhōji II’s name will remain unforgettable and his

contribution in the field of dance, music and literature which became a seat of learning.

These are the list of Kings who made significant changes in Sadir Nātyam during that

phase of period and credited various important elements and improvisation to the

dance form."

"i) Venkoji/Ekoji (1674-1684 A.D.) encouraged the compositions in Sanskrit

and Telugu literature. The Telugu was the official language of Nayakas, which was

continued in his reign. He had given support to cultural practice prevalent from

Nayaka era. Dasiattam was promoted in the form of Sadir which formed the court

dance in the royal court of Tanjore."

"ii) Shahji I (1684 A.D. to 1712 A.D.) was also a promoter of dance, music

and literature. He was awarded the title of Abhinavabhoja and Navinbhoja by the

scholars of Tanjore for his works which includes around thirty plays, Padya and

Kavya. His authored many treatises which comprises of two hundred and eight Padas

and Astapathis along with one more famous book Raga Lakshanamu. He also

appointed many famous court poets like Venkata Krishna Dikshitar, Bhaskara Dikshit,

Veda kavi who all composed Natesa Vijayam, Ratnatulika, Parinayam and Jivananda

respectively. He also got popularize by the name of Tyangraja.329 He was also credited

with a Telugu opera Pallaki Seva Prabhandham which was composed in praise of

Lord Thyagesha. The advent of famous composer Muthuswami Dikshitar took place

during his reign."330

"iii) Śarabhōji/Śarabhōji I Bhonsle (1675-1728 A.D.), being the third king of

the Bhonsle dynasty of Thanjavur also promoted art and literature. He formed a

village with the name of Sarabojirajapuram and Agraharams of Mangamatan. Many

329 Shahji-I. Retrieved from https://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=Shahuji%20I

330 Gautam, S. (2013). The dance of dynasty. The Hindu.

235
Brahmins were sheltered in those villages and encouraged their literary works. Out of

all, a poet Girija Kavi composed many ragas and for this valuable work, he was

credited with a title Vidyabhoja.331 It is said that he was the grandfather of Thyagraja.

"iv) Tulaja I (1728-35 A.D.) had sheltered Attigiri (a community from

Kancheepuram) into Melattur and gave patronage to their art and culture.332 He also

wrote a book Sangita Saramrita where in the dance section, he described the practice

of Adavus."

"v) Ekoji II (1736-1737 A.D.), became one more patrons of music and dance.

He was conferred as Ekoji Sahityama for composing padas which was around eighty

six. His promotion towards dance was also can be seen through appointment of many

dancers among which Muddamanga was famous dancer who authored a work called

Radhika Santawanamu."

"vi) Pratapasimha (1739-1763 A.D.), was maintained the legacy of

patronage. He himself was a Marathi writer and encouraged many authors, poets,

musicians and dancers in his court. Out of which the poet Melattur Veerabhadrayya

and royal court dancer Muddapalani were notable."

"vii) Tulaja II (1763-1787 A.D.) introduced the trinity of Karnatic music

which comprised of three famous musicians Thyagraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and

Shyama Sastri. He also had famous royal musicians like Pachimiriyam Adiyappaiah

and Sonti Venkataramayya. His promotion towards dance can also be seen through

the encouragement of Dasiattam in the temple of Tiruvavur where he appointed

Ramaswami Dikshitar to composed songs for the dance. The teacher of famous

Tanjore quartet Subbaraya Oduvar was also employed in his royal court."333

331 Maddy. (2014). Tanjore and its Carnatic Music Legacy.

332 Natarajan, M.S. (2004). Melattur, a seat of Bhagavata Mela – An overview (Part I).
333 Maddy. (2014). Tanjore and its Carnatic Music Legacy.

236
 "viii) Amarasimha (1787-1798 A.D.) ruled the kingdom before Śarabhōji II.

It seemed Amarasimha was his uncle. He had patronage many reputed scholars and

musicians in his royal court."

"ix) Śarabhōji/Śarabhōji II (1798-1832 A.D.) was one of the eminent

patrons whose name should be written with golden letters for his contribution towards

dance and music. He was an adopted son of Tulaja II. He got his schooling from St.

George School, Madras and because this, he was well-versed in English and declined

towards western music. But at the same time, he did not do injustice to South Indian

culture specially dance and music. He has donated his kingdom to the British Empire

in return got protection from various factors. Out of that one was from his uncle

Amarasimha, who wanted to kill him since his childhood and henceforth, became the

last king of Bhosle dynasty."

"x) King Shivaji II was the last king of Tanjore Maratha Empire who ruled

till 1855 A.D. After Śarabhōji II, he came into the power and sustained the

unhindered process of contribution towards dance and music. Even he maintained the

famous Modi script proceeding which continued from Ekoji I’s reign."334

"In spite of all, he was a great art lover who promoted and flourished Sadir

Nātyam . The artistic standard during his reign as high in the sky. The eminent

musicians, scholars, authors and last but not the least dancers and Nattuvanars

enriched the royal court of Tanjore. It was during his time, the Tanjore quartet had

evolved and as result of that, Sadir dance had got a margam or format of presentation

which is followed till date."

334 From Ekoji’s period of Maratha rule, all the documentation of accounts, diary notes,
palace proceedings, communicative letter were scripted in Modi script which is done in
Marathi language contains all the documents from 1676 to 1855 A.D. The Hindu, 2013.

237
 "As discussed in the last sub chapter that Achutappa Nayaka reformed a

village Melattur where several eminent artists, musicians and dancers got patronage

by Tanjore Nayakas. Out of all, the great geniuses evolved were Bharatam

Kasinathayya and his student, Veerabadrayya. Bharatam Kasinathayya (1676-1740

A.D.) was well known for his contribution towards Sadir dance which are already

mentioned.. Many proficient dance choreographers like Ramanathapuram-Bharatam

Panchanadayya and Vaidyanathayya were the disciple of Kasinathayya. These all

contributed in composing various dance recitals out of which sabdams forms one of

them. The composition made up those eminent artists and dance teachers gave a new

spectrum for the solo court dancers of Tanjore and the temple dancers that is

Devadasis of Melattur. The Maratha rulers who adapted their works were Shahaji,

Śarabhōji I, Tulaja Iand Pratapasimha."335

"Veerabadrayya (1700-1769 A.D.) was an innovator of dance and music who

had contributed in composing music and dance recitals for Sadir. Pratapasimha got

spelled bound with his composition and had given patronaged to him. Although

Veerabadrayya never sang in praise of kings and the kingdoms, his works were

always dedicated to gods and the family Deity of the kings like Prataparama. Having

thorough knowledge of various languages viz., Tamil, Telugu and Sanskrit, had

structured many musical composition like Padams and Keertanas in those languages.

He passed down his capability to Ramaswamy Dikshitar who also served Melattur

with various dance composition like Varnam, Kirtis in Ragamallika. The mention of

Veerabadrayya and his dedication towards Marathas in terms of dance and musical

composition had been done in a treatise called Sangita Sampradaya Pradarsini by

Subbarama Dikshitar."

335 Natarajan, M.S. (2004). Melattur, a seat of Bhagavata Mela – An overview (Part I).

238
 "Gopalakrishna Sastry was the disciple of Narayana Theerta Yogi written few

books namely Druva Charitam, Gowri Kalyanam, Rukmani Kalyanam, Sita Kalyanam

and Kuchela Charitam during the reign of Maratha Kings Śarabhōji-I, Tulaja-I and

Pratapasimha. His son Venkatarama Sastry (1743-1809 A.D) has became an eminent

composer of Bhagavata Mela Natakas."336

5.3.2 The Contribution of Śarabhōji-II towards Sadir

Figure 43: Śarabhōji II

"King Śarabhōji/Śarabhōji II ascended the throne of Tanjore on 1798 A.D.

Being born in a Bhosle family in 1777 A.D. got adopted by Tuluja II became the most

prominent ruler dedicated his life to the quest of cultural development in his kingdom

and made Tanjore a base of artistic learning. Most of the Maratha rulers were amazing

patron of art and cultural but the role made by Śarabhōji II was unparalleled. He was

responsible for the evolution and development of Sadir dance. As Sadir dance

was prevalent since Maratha rule in Tanjore but it was credited with enormous

presentations and musical compositions choreographed by eminent Natyacharya-s

336 Ibid.

239
which bound it to take a new shape and form. The support which he gave in creating

this form was incredible for that he will be always remembered in the history of

Bharatnātyam dance. Not only this, he also constructed many architectural

monuments, composed various literary works, contributed to western music and

supplemented famous Saraswati Mahal library. His contributions in uplifting other

dance form like Kuruvanji shown his interest and love for dance and music."

"He was a multilinguistic, had knowledge of various languages like Marathi,

Sanskrit, English, Tamil, French, German etc. As told earlier about his schooling that

had been done in a convent school, but he was also trained by renowned Brahmins

who taught him the essence of Hindu culture. The reflection of his language

proficiency can be seen in his literary compositions. He also enriched the royal library

with various books and scriptures of different languages. His patronization towards

dance, music and literature continued the rich legacy of heritage and culture of

Thanjavur."

"He composed around 100 Sanskrit songs which are tuned and applied in

dance composition. He is well known for his various dance compositions of Alarippu,

Jathiśvara, Śabda, Pada, Kauthuva, Śloka, Varnam, and Prabhandas which are

presently used in Bharatnātyam recital. The various Sollukattu, Swara and Jathi were

designed and choreographed to match the intensity of the dance item. He looked into

each and every modules of Sadir dance. Bharatnātyam, which known to be Sadir that

time, have undergone maximum modification and reformation under his patronage. It

is for sure that no one has committed these many contributions towards Bharatnātyam

how he has compiled in his 55 years of life-time."

"Apart from Bharatnātyam, he also concentrated in developing folk dances

(Sampradya Natyam) like Jakkini, Perani, Dharupad desi navadadam and Kuravai

240
which were practiced regularly in his royal court and during some festivals.337 It is

said that Bharatanātyam was at its peak that time where several geniuses contributed

their well-versed compositions and reflects the efficiency of their work even in

today’s World which considered being the best gift South India has won."

The Emergence of Thanjavur Quartet or Tanjore Quartet

"During the reign of Śarabhōji II, the four brothers Chinnaiah, Ponniah,

Sivanandam and Vadivelu made a remarkable change in history of Bharatnātyam

dance by structured the dance recital of Bharatnātyam in 19th century. They nourished

both dance and Carnatic music and elevated them to reach the peak of glory.

According to them, the flow of the court repertoire contained of seven principal types

starting from Alarippu, Jatisvaram, Śabdam, Varnam, Padam, Javali and Tillana."338

Figure 44: Tanjore Quartet

In 17th century, a renowned scholar Gangai Muthu used to reside at Tirunelveli.

The family tree of Gangai Muthu who was one of the ancestors of Tanjore Quartet is

as follows.

337 Bhosle, PSR. (2017). 20 rare facts about King Śarabhōji II in the field of dance and
music.
338 The Dance Traditions of Thanjavur and Courtly Patronage of Devadasi Dance.
Retrieved from
http://www.oberlinlibstaff.com/acceleratedmotion/dancehistory/bharatanatyam/
section4.php

241
 Gangai Muthu
(2 sons)

Gangamuthu Ramalingam
(2 sons)

Subbarayan (Mahadeva Annavi) Chidambaram

(4 sons)

Chinnaiah Ponniah Sivanandam Vadivelu

(1802 A.D.) (1804 A.D.) (1808 A.D.) (1810 A.D.)

"They had their initial training of music from their father Subbarayan who was

also proficient Veena player and dance from their grand father Gangamuthu. King

Śarabhōji II for the first time witnesses their Tiruppani performance at Senkanar

Kovil. Being proficient in Carnatic music and dance, these brothers under the

patronage of Śarabhōji II, got their training from Muthuswami Dikshitar for music.

These brothers had credited nine series of songs known as Navaratna Mela. Vadivelu

Pillai was so efficient that he has been addressed as an ekasandhagrahi, which means

one who had the skill to replicate a song after just hearing once."339

"After getting their training in dance and music, initially these four brothers

employed in King Śarabhōji II’s court. Many Varnams and Kriti like Amba

Souramba, Amba Neelamba, Amdaneelambari (Neelambari), Satileni (Poorvikalyani)

attributed to these brothers.340 Soon they gained popularity as famous Nattuvanars

and many students started learning dance and music from them, among all Chennai

339 Thanjavur Quartet. wikipedia

340 Thanjavur Quartet. Retrieved from https://www.revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=
Thanjavur%20Quartet

242
Nelliappa Nattuvanar, son of Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai and Mahadeva Annavi were

the prominent."

"Initially, after the demolition of Maratha all the four brothers moved to Swati

Thirunal’s royal court where Vadivalu was appointed as the court musician and

instigated Carnatic music there. Later, Chinniah moved to Mysore and served the

Wodeyars and the remaining two brothers stayed in the Maratha kingdom only."

"The dance was conducted as a part of regular ritual in the royal court of

Tanjore during 19th century. The famous royal dance and music teachers of Tanjore

royal court were Tanjore Quartet, Gangaimuttu, Mahadeva Annavi, Subbaraya

Oduvar, Muwallur Sabhapatayya, Pallavi Doraisvami Ayyar, etc.,341 who have

supplemented the collection of Sadir dance and aided in heightening the standard of

excellence. Many more celebrities possessing the passion for music and dance have

donated with their valuable works to enrich and uplift the glory of royal Maratha court

of King Śarabhōji II."

"During Śarabhōji II’s period, royal women were very fortunate. They were

not only allowed to watch the programme but also got the opportunity to learn the art

of dance from Raj Nartaki or royal court dancers. A separate hall had been dedicated

for them for learning. It is said that Sukanya and Sanya, the two daughters of King

Pratapasimha had learnt and became proficient dancers. Generally the royal court

dancers used to be facilitated with special rooms where they used to practice and stay.

During Śarabhōji II’s time, the Raj nartakis used to get advance notice regarding their

performance in the court which helped them in preparing the repertoire. Very rare

incidents happened where they have to put up the show without any previous

information and in that case they were called to perform only few simple dance items."

341 Raja Śarabhōji-II and his patronage to the development of art. p.72. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1786/9/09_chapter%202.pdf

243
 "Traditionally Sadir performance was used to be held in the Sadir-madi which

lasts for whole night. Sadir-madi342 is a big spacious and well-ventilated hall that has

high roof. The word Madi means floor that implies the place where Sadir Nātyam

used to be performed. One can witness the architectural excellency with intricate

works on the ceilings. The dancers and musicians used to perform in front of Lord

Vignesvara."

"Along with Sadir-madi, there are few more halls like Sangit Mahal and

Maratha Durbar Hall. The Sangit Mahal was designed and constructed by Nayakas

which Marathas used to conduct various folk and semi classical forms like Bhagvata

Mela Nataka, etc. These dances dramas also formed regular part of performance.

Although this Durbar hall was renovated, this includes enlargement of the hall along

with implementation of acoustical features which enable each and every person

should hear the songs and experience the sound made by bells. This was one of

accomplishment of artistic and engineering expertise which gave a new dimension to

the dance and music during those eras. Maratha Hall was intended for sporty events

like wrestling and other sport proceedings which were to be watched by the Kings. It

was also known as Siva Sowdah.343 The credit goes to Shahji II for constructing this

structural arena or gallery."

Performance

"The royal court dancers used to start the court performance with a prayer to

God for removing obstacles during the flow of performance, followed by welcoming

to the King and other dignitaries and royal guests. They were so well-trained that they

could perform with full bodily and emotional movements’ diligently in front of

342 Sadir-madi is also referred as Huzor-madi and Ratnasabha which could accommodate
thousand people.
343 Raja Śarabhōji-II and his patronage to the development of art. p.80. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1786/9/09_chapter%202.pdf

244
everyone. For these one need vigorous training to obtain such proficiency and

perfection. King Śarabhōji II was very particular regarding dance performance. He set

few rules and regulations for the royal dancers and the Nattuvanars (dance

composers) like the dancer should perform the songs dedicatedly tailor made for the

dance performance and many more."

"He had a great aesthetical knowledge about dance and music that one should

be expert and confident to present the dance and music before him. These royal

dancers used to be remunerated with a high pay and not only this, the King used

to present instant gift after the performance if he was overwhelmed with the

performance as a symbolic indebtedness for their erudition. Normally a remuneration

of Rs. 15 for every dance performance on normal days and on the Vijaya Dasami,

these dancers used to get around Rs. 20."

"In King Śarabhōji’s court, women musicians were also encouraged. These

percussionists used to conduct the proceeding of the performance through

Mridangam. Few Nattuvanars also witnessed who used to carry out the śollukattu and

playing of cymbals during the performance. According to Modi manuscript,344 two

female artists Rukmini and Kamaksi conducted the show as a nattuvanars and

percussionist respectively in the royal court of King Śarabhōji II."

"Apart from Sadir performances, many Natakas were also staged during

festive occasions like Navaratri, Vinayaka Chaturdashi, etc. composed by royal

personalities and royal court playwriters. It is viewed that every day different dance

drama used to be held in the festive celebration of Vinayaka Caturti which was

conducted for twenty days. The expert and talented dancers and musicians used to

344 From Ekoji’s period of Maratha rule, all the documentation of accounts, diary notes,
palace proceedings, communicative letter were scripted in Modi script which is done in
Marathi language contains all the documents from 1676 to 1855 A.D. The Hindu, 2013.

245
perform in this performance among all there is a mention of Krsna and daughters of

Candraprabha and Sundari presenting dance recital after the accomplishment of the

natakas. Here is the list of few natakas staged during Śarabhōji II which were

documented in King Shiva II’s manuscript."345

"i) Sarvanga Sundar natakam of Giriraja Kavi (1852 A.D.) ii) Pancabhasa Vilasa

nataka of Sahaji-II iii) Subhadra Kalyanam natakam of King Śarabhōji-II iii) Rati

Kalyanam nataka of Sahaji-II v) Samantopakhyana natakam of King Pratapasimha

vi)Shasipurahdara natakam vii) Govardhanodhara natakam viii) Satipatidana

vilasam ix) Vignesvara Kalyana natakam."

Costumes

"The costume pattern of dancers in Śarabhōji II’s court resembles the present

costume style except a long garland which extends from their shoulder to the knee.

Like present Bharatnātyam costume, the court dancers also had a fan like dress. She

also used to adorn herself with a wide range of jewelleries which includes Candrama

(a hair accessory), Panpattya (a hair accessory), Diamond Rakodi (a hair accessory to

be put on bun), Besari (nose stud), Makara Kanti (long necklace with pendant),

Addigai (small necklace), Jodvi and Biradi or Metti (toe rings), Bugadi (earnings with

extensions), Kamarapatti or Macpatta (Metal Waist belt), Tirukuppu (hair plait

ornament), Pattukunjalam (three balls attached at the end of the hair plait), Krsna

kondai (a head bun with ornament)."346

"According to the article ‘Raja Śarabhōji-II and his patronage to the

development of art’, the author enumerated the list of the court dancers during the rule

of Śarabhōji II, extracted from Modi records. These all dancers continued their service

345 Raja Śarabhōji-II and his patronage to the development of art. p.78-79. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1786/9/09_chapter%202.pdf
346 Ibid., p.84.

246
till the rule of Sivaji-II. They are as follows: i) Sundari and her daughter ii) Kaveri

iii) Krsna iv) Candraprabha v) Vehkatacalam and her daughter Unnamalai vi) Kaveri

and her daughter Periya vii) Muddumanga viii) Adilaksmi ix) Mangaja Nayaki

x) Rukmini (Natakashala’s Nattuvanar)."

"Along with these rules for dancers, it is equally important to note that there

were special rules framed for the Nattuvanars or dance teachers which were to be

strictly followed by them at the time of conducting the dance in the court."

"Śarabhōji’s son Sivaji II ascended the throne in 1832 A.D., and in 1856 A.D.,

the kingdom was fully annexed to the East India Company. With this, cultural

patronage in the city of Thanjavur officially collapsed, and most dancers and

musicians moved to Madras city, turned to the smaller feudal kingdoms (zamindari

samasthanams) for patronage, joined emergent Tamil theatre companies, or left the

practice all together."

5.3.3 The Contribution towards Architecture, Literary Works and Other Dance

Forms

"King Śarabhōji-II had not only contributed in field of dance and music but also

served his patronage towards constructing various monuments, buildings, composing

various literary works and promoting other local dance and drama forms. Talking

about architecture, first and foremost significant building he renovated was Saraswati

Mahal library. Although it was constructed by Tanjore Nayakas, but he maintained

and facilitate with numerous number of books of various subjects and languages."

Architectures

"The Saraswati Mahal Library was the royal library of Tanjore kingdom

from 1535 A.D. onwards. This library is gifted with documents, printed books,

scriptures, manuscript assembled from all around the world. This library evidences

247
the literary works of various kings, royal court composers and various dissertations,

precisely collected from Tanjore Nayaka period onwards.347 It comprises of 37,499

Sanskrit manuscripts, 4500 manuscripts of various languages such as Tamil (3341),

Telugu (783), Hindi (22) and 3062 Marathi documented works of South Indian

Maratha kings from 17th to 19th century. This brings a total of 44,707 documents

preserved in this Library. This library had a wide range of books and treatises on

Music, Dance, Literature, Medicinal Science, usage of various instruments both

mechanical and electrical, description of training procedure of controlling animals

like horses, elephants etc. and also contains a human skeleton.348 Many members were

appointed to maintain the administration of this library. Even King himself used to

visit often and check for the maintenance of the library whether books are in proper

condition with proper binding or not."

Figure 45: Saraswati Mahal Library

347 Saraswati Mahal Library. wikipedia

348 Raja Śarabhōji-II and his patronage to the development of art. p.49. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1786/9/09_chapter%202.pdf

248
 "King Sefoji II was credited with the construction of Dhavantari Mahal

where the patients were facilitating with various kinds of medicines by the doctors

from various ground of Ayurveda, Unani, Allopathic treatments. It said that he had

procedured an eye cataract operation whose documents are maintained here."

"Apart from library, Śarabhōji also built many temples, shrines and

monuments that include Manikarni Keshwara Swami Temple, Shrine of Vithoba in

front of the Palace main gate, Manikarnika Ghat, Vigneshwara temple, huge choultry

and Temple at Muktambapuram at Orathanad, Mahamandapa and Ardhamandapa in

Shankara Mutt, a sea side port, a light house, the Swartz church, Ratnagiriswar

Temple along with installation of Śiva Linga, Narthana, Maha and Nandi

Mandapams, Vinayagara temple in Brihhadeswara temple, etc."349

Figure 46: Anna Chatrams

"He constructed and maintained twenty-two Anna Chatrams where travellers

and poors were given food, ration, medical care and even schooling facilities for

everyone despite of caste and status. Special treatment and care for pregnant ladies

349 Serfoji Memorial hall. Retrieved from http://Śarabhōjimemorialhall.com/maharajah-

Śarabhōji-II.html

249
used to be taken here. Many renovation works were also done that includes

Rama Swami temple, Kumbhabishekam and establishment of 108 Śiva Linga in

Brihaddeshwara Temple, etc. He has been given a title of ‘Sivabhakta

Dhurandharan’ by Shankaracharya Swami. He also established printing press in 1805

A.D. where many journals, books got printed."

Literary Works

"King Śarabhōji II was also fond of literature. He had a large number of court

poets and scholars. He often used to appeal them for Vidwat Sabha and used to

experience aesthetical delights. He, himself being a great author and writer, loved to

listen to the widespread poetry, and had scholarly discussions regarding various books

written and published. It is said that Swati Thirunal of Travancore, before ascending

the throne used to attend his sabha and bring his scholars and musicians to his court

and present their’s and personal compositions."

"King Śarabhōji II was expertise in many fields. Like his ancestors, he was a

great patron too having mastery in music, dance, medical science and even literature

which intend him to achieve a greater height of cultural development. Here are

few Sanskrit and Marathi works of Sefoji II as described in the article350 “Raja

Śarabhōji-II and his patronage to the development of art”- i) Kumara Sambhava Tika

ii) Mudraraksasachaya (in Prakrit) iii) Smrtisangraha iv) Smrti Sarasamuccaya

v) Ganeśa Lilarnava Nataka vi) Ganeśa Vijaya Nataka vii) Gangā Viśveśvara

Parinaya Nataka viii) Radha Krsna Vilasa Nataka ix) Mohinī Mahēśvara Parinaya

Nataka x) Śivarātri Upākhyāna Nataka xi) Nilakanta Kulālavara Caritra xii) Nila

350 Raja Śarabhōji-II and his patronage to the development of art. p.56. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1786/9/09_chapter%202.pdf

250
Bhilla Caritra xiii) Paksa Pradosha Sani pradosha xii) Devendra Kuruvanji Nataka

xiii) Tristhalli Yatrechya Lavanya xiv) Śivarātri Katha."

"He had also contributed his compositional works toward music and dance in

form of his Nirupanas that is ‘Natyaprabandha’ in Marathi.351 It contains many dance

sequences and items customized for the Sadir dance repertoire. These all dance

sequences were performed by the court dancers during his and Shivaji II’s period."

"The word Nirupana means the representation of expounded and magnified

narrations of a story in a single theme with the help of eighteen series of dance items

aesthetically comprises of all the elements of dance which can be termed as

Sangit Upanyasa in one word. Altogether he has composed around 15 Nirupana-s."

"The full text of Nirupana comprises of eight types of dance sequences are set

mostly set in one raga and tāla which are generally performed by single danseuse,

rather in few cases two-three dancers were also amalgamated. Nirupana is like

Prabandha Koothu where a single actor/dancer narrates and enacts the story. It was

mainly composed in Marathi language in Carnatic music style. Along with the

presentation in the court, Nirupanas were also executed during social and temple

festivals."

"The King also composed Suladi Nirupana which represented the dance

presentation of Nirupana composed in various ragas and his implementation of

Suladi Nirupanainto Sapta tāla were known to be Saptasagara suladi as it contained

mixture of various raga seven tālas.352 King Śarabhōji II had set a momentous work

in the fruition and expansion of the concept and practice of the Sadir Nātyam . He, the

Tanjore Quartet along with various composers and choreographers held responsible

for enriching Bharatnātyam repertoire."

351 Ibid., p.51.

352 Ibid., p.58.

251
Contribution towards Other Dance Forms

"Apart from Sadir, King Serfoji II said to have contributed his compositions

also towards many folk and semi-classical art forms. They are Kuruvanji Natakam,

Bhagavatmela Natakam, Pinnal Kolattam, Lavani and many more dance forms. All

this dances were used to be conducted in Sangit Mahal. This shows the extravaganza

of King’s royal court dance and music compositions. Along with classical art form

like Sadir, the importance had been given to all these folk and temple art and had

provided necessary patronage for the full-fledged development."

Figure 47: Kuruvanji

"Kuruvanji is a kind of dance drama which is mainly performed, by a group

of dancers comprises of six to eight members. The story revolves around a heroine

who is either a goddess or princess or a novel woman from respected family. She is

very enthusiastic about getting the love of his lover. In pursuit of her love, she visits

to a gypsy character known as Kuruvanji who is generally a fortune teller by nature.

252
She predicts whether the heroine will win her love or not. One of the oldest Kuruvanji

dance composed by Tirukura Rajappa Kabirayar was Kutral Kuruvanji."

"King Śarabhōji also composed many Kuruvanji Nataka which were famous

as Devendra Kuruvanji."

"The theme of Devendra Kuruvanji was completely different from regular

Kuruvanji. The King was so much particular of producing something out of the box

that is the reason why his nakatas got so much popularity. His Kuruvanji teaches the

complete topography of the World which includes various mountain ranges, water

bodies, locations of various countries.353 This description was generally made by the

gypsy girl in the dance drama through rendering stunning songs composed in Marathi

language. King Śarabhōji’s Kuruvanji was excelled in exquisiteness and gave a

platform to explore more on geographical context which grew curiosity in the mind of

the common people of the kingdom to attain more knowledge on this field."

"Bhagavat Mela Natakam was a product of Melattur which has been

discussed in the previous sub chapter. Now acknowledging King Śarabhōji II’s

involvement will directs one towards Chatrams. The King dedicatedly formed a

special Bhagavat Mela Nataka troupe who generally used to perform both in Chatram

and royal court. The Chatram situated at Orathandu was known as Muktambapuram

Chatram, sheltered this dance drama troupe. These actors were provided with

costumes, jewelleries used for the performance and free meals by the King. This

temple dance drama of Melattur evolved during Nayaka’s rule and got extended

patronage by Tanjore Marathas specially by King Śarabhōji II."

"Lavani is traditional folk songs of Maharashtra. It is mainly performed with

dance sequence accompanied by a percussion instrument called Dholki. A group of

353 Krishnamachari, S. The Maratha connection. The Hindu, 13th Jan 2011.

253
people usually perform this during the festive and celebrations like Holi, etc. The

singer renders the song along which the dancer with rhythmic movement expresses

the meaning in folk style. King Śarabhōji had composed musical notes and lyrics of

Lavani which is known to be ‘Tristhali Vātrēchya Lavanvā’."354

Figure 48: Lavani performance

"The folk art of Lavani was patronised by both King Śarabhōji II and King

Shivaji II. But instead of Marathi language, the implementation of Tamil can be

witnessed. The theme also differs rather being a folk art form, it transformed into

religious form describing the greatness of the various deity and sacred places like

kashi, etc. in poetic format. Many more music and dance forms got support and

encouragement from this patron. He involved himself totally into the field of research

and innovation of various art forms prevalent during that time in his Kingdom."

5.3.4 The Contribution towards Music

"King Śarabhōji-II was a profolic contribution in the field of music too. He

himself was a great music composer and had knowledge of both Indian and Western

music. He had a big musical instrument collection which consists of both western and

354 Raja Śarabhōji-II and his patronage to the development of art. p.62. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1786/9/09_chapter%202.pdf

254
local instruments and maintained those properly. The King amalgamated great

musicians and instrumentalists from his kingdom and formed a Band. He was the first

one to introduce the concept of fusion in music. His band had both English and Indian

equipments and he named it as Tanjore Band.355 He attributed his compositions in

many languages and tuned it to western style music and beats. Even he made use of

Carnatic style of music in Western compositions which were also orchestrated through

Western notations. His unique collections were preserved in many musical books."

"Apart from band, he had presented Tanjore with the famous Tanjore Quartet.

The various compositions made by them were mainly meant for Sadir Dance. These

four brother’s contribution always will be remembered in the history of Bharatnātyam

dance. The famous musical trinity-Saint Tyagaraja (1767-1847 A.D.), Muthuswami

Dikshitar (1776-1835 A.D.) and Syama Sastri (1762-1827 A.D.) were the famous

musicians of king Śarabhōji II’s period."

Figure 49: The famous musical Trinity

355 Bhosle, PSSR. (2017). Contributions of Thanjavur Maratha Kings. 2nd ed.

255
 "The Maratha of Tanjore continued the legacy of Vijayanagar and Tanjore

Nayaka in usage of Telugu language as their court language. Actually during

Vijayanagar Era, the Emperors maintained Telugu for official use and Nayakas who

being a part of Vijayanagar, also used the same. Telugu became the integral part of

Thanjavur. Many compositions were dedicated to Telugu literature during Serfoji II’s

period. The compositions like Prabandhas and Padas were revitalized and succeeded

during this period. Both Nayakas and Marathas took initiative for smooth continuation

of this tradition carried out from lineages by the contribution of various royal

composers."

"Although Yakshagana and Prabadha were composed by royal pen Shahji I,

but it showed the combination of dance, music and literature through musical

compositions. This innovation brought vital change in the history of Carnatic music

which gave birth to various Varnam, Kirtana and Swarajati composed by various

composers under the patronage of Tanjore Maratha royal family."

"According to the article, ‘Raja Serfoji-II and his patronage to the

development of art’, the Scholars and poets of his court were – i) Uthke Govindacarya

ii) Hirusvami Ghatke iii) Tammacarya iv) Kuppacarya alias Ranganatha Kavi

v) Narasimha Sastri vi) Krsnasvami/Krsna Śastri vii) Subba Dīkskit viii) Cakravart

iix) Kottaiyur Sivakkolundu Dekshikar x) Srinivasa xi) Venkates’a Sastri

xii) Muthusvami Diksitar xiii) Govinda Kavi xiv) Virupaksa Kavi xv) Siva Kavi."

"All these royal poets and authors written their scripture mainly in Sanskrit

based on Indian Mythology and Puranas. Here is a chart representing the poets their

compositions."356

356 Ibid.

256
 Composer Composition Description
Danurmasa Purana Based on Agneya puranam
Vykhasya Mahatmiyam Based on Skandapuranam
Govinda Kavi
Pancanada Mahatmiyam Based on Tiruvaiyyar Sthala Puranam
Śarabhendra Thirthavalli Based on the King’s pilgrimage
Agnis Vara Mahatmiyam
Pancanada Mahiatmiyam
Virupāksakavi Padma Purana Translation from Sanskrit to Marathi
Adi Kailasa Mahatmiyam
Siva Bhakta Vilasam
Ranganatha Kartika Mahatmiyam
Based on Mythology
Kavi Tula Mahatmiyam
Samgraha Based on Nātya Śāstra
Sivalila
Govindacarya
Harilila Hari Kathas
Uthke
Rama-Uma Samvada’
Dvādaśabhavas Based on Astrology
Subba Dikshit Sivalinga Bandha

Contribution to Western Music

"Rev. William Gerrick had taken care of King Śarabhōji-II since his

childhood. King Śarabhōji-II got influenced and passionate with European music style

and had got instinct of learning various Western instruments. Rev. William Gerrick

played the role of catalyst in inspiring the desire in his mind which dragged him to

receive musical training mainly from Thomas Chapman357 and also from various

other teachers. Hence, the King Śarabhōji-II became the first king of South India to

inculcate the Indian instruments with the Western style of orchestra which gave birth

to a new orchestra group, popularized as Tanjore Band. King Śarabhōji made a use of

clarinet and violin in South Indian music which was one of the influential turn-over of

Western music. In the musical composition of Sadir Nātyam , the usage of violin have

been implemented by him and from that time onwards it has become mandate in

Bharatnātyam performance. It is justified to say that King Śarabhōji has embraced

both Carnatic style of music as well as Western instruments in his royal court."358

357 Menon, A.S. (2003). Vadivelu-Swathi Thirunal.

358 Bhosle, PSSR. (2017). Contributions of Thanjavur Maratha Kings. 2nd ed.

257
 "In concise, King Śarabhōji-II formed one of the eminent rulers who shaped

the current format of Sadir Nātyam , and composed many musical compositions

which include Nirupama and many more songs dedicated for dance and drama like

Kuruvanji, Prabandhas, Lavani. Being a bibliophile, had composed many literary

treatises in Sanskrit and Marathi. Many temples, monuments, the famous Saraswati

Mahal and Chatrams are attributed to him. His contribution towards music was

pedestal for Carnatic music which stood unparalleled today also. But unfortunately, at

the age of 34, the reign of magnificent rational scholar got over."

5.4 THE CONTRIBUTION OF WODEYAR PATRONS TOWARDS

BHARATNĀTYAM

Figure 50: Mysore Palace

"Through this chapter, the role of Wodeyars in developing the Mysore school

of Bharatnātyam will be discussed. The previous South Indian rulers like Vijayanagar

dynasty, Thanjavur Nayak-s and Tanjore Maratha-s were the patrons of dance and

music. They all have encouraged and supported in uplifting Bharatnātyam (previously

known as Sadir). Mainly Bharatnātyam flourished in last two and three hundred years

258
in Tanjore, Trivandrum, Mysore and Baroda. Soon after the independence Chennai

(Madras) played a vital role in promoting and propagating the dance form. Talking

about the Mysore, Wodeyars also not left behind in endorsing and enriching

Bharatnātyam and soon became a seat of dance learning."

"Present Karnataka was always involved with the art and culture since

4th century A.D. Many temples and architectural evidences prove the rich and heritage

culture of Karnataka. Talking about dance, many schools offered methodical courses

in classical dance and music from 4th century A.D. to 13th century A.D. The

Universities at Talagunda, Balligavi and Talakadu used to facilitate with the study of

classical dance.359 So, here also one can see the contributions of various royal patrons

like Kadamba, Rāstrakuta, Chalukya, Ganga, Hoyashala, Yadava, etc. this can be

evident from various Kannada literatures, paintings and inscriptions."

"Many temples during Chalukya rule at Badami and Aihole show the

knowledge of dance and dramaturgy as described in Nātya Śāstra since 4th century

A.D. The royal patrons not only supported the classical dance but also learnt this

classical dance form and danced in front of everyone. For example, the Queen

Shantala of Hoyesala Empire was a great danseuse. Vijayanagar Empire, the Nayakas

of Keladi and the Wodeyars of Mysore also encouraged and supported classical dance

during 16th to 19th century.360 The contributions of Vijayanagar Empire are already

discussed earlier."

"The Vijayanagar Empire enhanced the art of dancing during its golden ages

through various ceremonies, events and rituals. After the fall of the Vijayanagara

Empire, the art of dance known as Dasiattam was fostered by the Devadasis or temple

359 Sathyanarayana, R. (1969). Bharatnātyam – A critical study, p.223.

360 Rao, U.S.K., & Devi, U.K.C. (1993). A Panorama of Indian Dances. p.8.

259
dancers. Later on, Mysore, the place of Wodeyars, came as a saviour in protecting and

promoting the classical dance known to be Bharatnātyam."

5.4.1 The Kings of the Wodeyar Dynasty of Mysore

Figure 51: Wodeyar Emblem

"Yadavas of Dwarka once visited to Mysore and got mesmerized with its natural

beauty and decided to reside there only. Like this way, two brothers Yaduraya (also

known as Vijaya) and Krishnaraya from Dwarka established their Kingdom in Mysore

in 1399 A.D. This has been mentioned in writings of Govinda Vaidya who was a poet

in court of Narasaraja Wodeyar in 17th century. Later Tirumalarya, court poet of

Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar also highlighted this incident in his writings. He stated that

Yaduraya killed Mara Nayaka, army general of Late King Chamraja and got married

to his daughter Chikkadevarasi. As there was no male heir in his dynasty, Yaduraya

ascended the throne as Wodeyar.361 Although there are many controversies regarding

this particular incident and is not accepted by the historians who believed that two

brothers came and settled there. Subsequently they became King of that state."

"Yaduraya Wodeyar ruled Mysore as a part of Vijayanagar Empire till 1423.

The kingdom remained under Vijayanagar until 1565 A.D. and various kings like

Hiriya Bettada Chamaraja Wodeyar I (1423-1459 A.D.), Timmaraja Wodeyar I

361 Mysore Kingdom. wikipedia

260
(1459-1478 A.D.), Hiriya Chamaraja Wodeyar II (1478-1513 A.D.), Hiriya Bettada

Chamaraja Wodeyar III (1513-1553 A.D.) were integrated with Vijayanagar Empire.

Mysore came as an independent state after the fall of Vijayanagar Empire and got

absolute monarchy. Many rulers like Timmaraja Wodeyar II (1553-1572 A.D.), Bola

Chamaraja Wodeyar IV (1572-1576 A.D.), Chamaraja Wodeyar V (1576-1578 A.D.)

Raja Wodeyar I (1578-1617 A.D.), Chamaraja Wodeyar VI (1617-1637 A.D.), Raja

Wodeyar II (1637-1638 A.D.), Kantheerava Narasaraja Wodeyar I (1638-1659 A.D.),

Dodda Devaraja Wodeyar (1659-1673 A.D.), Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673-1704

A.D.), Kantheerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1704-1714 A.D.), Dodda Krishnaraja

Wodeyar I (1714-1732 A.D.), Chamaraja Wodeyar VII (1732-1734 A.D.) and Immadi

Chikka Krishnaraja Wadiyar II (1734-1761 A.D.) ruled Mysore till 1761 A.D. as

independent rulers."

"From 1761 A.D. onwards, rule came under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan and

it lasted till 1799 A.D.. The Wodeyar kings like Krishnaraja Wadiyar II (1761-1766

A.D.), Nanjaraja Wodeyar (1766-1770 A.D.), Bettada Chamaraja Wodeyar VIII

(1770-1776 A.D.) and Khasa Chamaraja Wodeyar IX (1776-1796 A.D.) were titular

rulers of Mysore under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. In 1799 A.D., after the death of

Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, a part of the kingdom of Mysore was

occupied and divided between the Madras Presidency and the Nizam. The remaining

terrain was transformed into a Princely State of Mysore of the Wodeyar family."

"During the rule of Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1799-1831 A.D.), the monarchy

came under the power of British rule. Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1731-1868 A.D.) and

Chamaraja Wodeyar X (1868-1881 A.D.) acted again as a titular ruler where

monarchy was abolished. Chamaraja Wodeyar X (1881-1894 A.D.), Rajarshi

(Nalvadi) Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV (1894-1940 A.D.) and Jayachamaraja Wodeyar

261
Bahadur (1940-1947 A.D.) again restored absolute Monarchy as allies of the British

crown.362 Jayachamaraja Wodeyar Bahadur (1947-1950 A.D.) ruled Mysore as

constitutional monarchy in Dominion of India. Jayachamaraja Wodeyar Bahadur

(1950-1974 A.D.), Srikantadatta Narasimharaja Wodeyar (1974-2013 A.D.) and

Yaduveer Krishnadatta Chamaraja Wodeyar (2015 A.D.-till date) are again titular

rulers after the abolishment of monarchy in independent India."

5.4.2 Wodeyars and Bharatnātyam

"The Wodeyar Dynasty ruled Mysore for nearly 600 years and Bharatnātyam

dance had been encouragement during their reigns under the royal emblem of two

eagles. It is already discussed about the first explicit reference of the Wodeyar

Dynasty which had been done in a Kannada literature written in 16th century during

the reign of the Vijayanagara king Achyuta Deva Raya (1529–1542 A.D.). However,

one more inscription was also available during the rule of Timmaraja II in 1551 A.D..

All the rulers of Wodeyar dynasty were mainly culture oriented and loved the cultural

development of various art forms. Later on, Mysore became a shelter of all art forms

under the Wodeyar Dynasty and subsequently became a great seat of learning.

Henceforth, they have patronage various kinds of art and artistes in their state as well

as in their court. In Karnataka, Bharatnātyam was practiced and performed which

reached its peak during this period. Many artists attached themselves to the court of

Wodeyar kings for their magnificent encouragements towards art and culture."

"In 1610 A.D., Raja Wodeyar (1578-1617 A.D.) started celebrating Mysore

Dasara festival at Srirangapatna as a part of Wodeyar dynasty. Previously, it was

celebrated by Vijayanagar Empire. The tradition of special Darbar (royal court or

hall) in Mysore Palace was arranged during the Dasara by Krishnaraja Wodeyar in

362 Ibid.

262
1805 A.D. Generally now also, on Vijayadasami day, a big procession of colourful

tableaux, dance groups, music bands, decorated horses and camels are conducted from

Mysore Palace to Bannimantap. Many music and dance concerts are conducted in

various auditoriums of Mysore where dancers and singers around all over India are

invited to perform and witness the occasion."363

"Ranadhira Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar (1638-1659 A.D.) have

extended his state territory until Tanjore, Tiruchirapalli, Madhurai, Konkan, Jinji,

Tiruvannamalai, etc. had organised a Bharatnātyam school in Srirangapatna where

Bharatajnas used to teach young maidens the art of Bharatnātyam. Their dance was

also accompanied with the tala and maddale."364

"Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar (1672-1704 A.D.), one more patron of

Bharatnātyam dance, has composed two dance dramas – Geeta Gopāla and

Cikadēvarāya Saptapadi. The former one is based on Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda where

the songs describe the devotion towards Lord Krishna. Each piece of Gitagopala

consists of seven songs known as Saptapadi. The latter one is a composition which

contains forty six songs described in seven books. The most of the songs were written

in Kannada in form of Pada and Javali for the dance choreography. Few songs were

also composed in Telugu. R. Sathyanarayana, in his book ‘Bharatnātyam – A critical

study’, mentioned about Cikadevaraya Saptapadi and also described the situation of

the first song of the fourth Saptapadi about annual dance performance before the

King. He also quoted: Such was the great by these Mysore Wadiyars to Bharatnātyam

that a firm convention of rajavandana (sabhapati vandana) through high laudation in

a curnika (a musically rendered prose of praise, vide infra) came to be established in

363 Madur. (2015). The Wodeyar Kings of Mysore, May 28.

364 The Maddale is a percussion instrument from Karnataka. This instrument is used to
accompany Yakshagana, etc.

263
their courts. A recent curnika which was frequently employed in the court of that

royal sage, Krishnarāja Wadiyar IV flows as follows:"365

"One of the most eminent rulers of Mysore kingdom was Krishnaraja

Wodeyar III (1811-1868 A.D.) who enhanced the cultural growth of the Mysore state

and held responsible for the development of art, music and dance. Krishnaraja

Wodeyar III was the twenty-second Maharaja of Mysore Kingdom. Like other

Maharaja-s, he also gave patronage to music and dance and his contribution brought a

distinct style which is now known as ‘Mysore Style’ of Bharatnātyam. As a writer, he

wrote many Kannada books like Sritattvanidhi and Sougandhikaparinaya and also

had a thorough knowledge of Sanskrit literature and written various books."

"He patronised many scholars in his court. Krishnaraja was a ruler who gave a

lot of importance to the development of art during his period. During his reign, a

Yakshagana writer Parti Subba from southern part of his kingdom wrote many

compositions and flourished the art form to a great extent. In other word, Krishnaraja

Wodeyar was responsible for literature, growth and existence of Yakshagana in

today’s world. Many scholars like Devachandra, Venkatarama Shastri, Basavappa

Shastri, Aliya Lingaraja, Kempu Narayana, Srinivasa Kavisarvabhouma, Thammaya

Kavi, Nanjunda Kavi, Shantaraja Pandita got patronised by the king."366

365 Sathyanarayana, R. (1969). Bharatnātyam – A critical study, p.226.

366 Ibid.

264
 Figure 52: Krishnaraja Wodeyar III

"During his period, he shifted his capital from Srirangapattna to Mysore and

adorns his court with assemblage of several great dance artists from various dance

schools all over the kingdom. Śrirangapattana, Ballāpura, Tirumakūndalu, Mūgūru,

Halasūru, Holenarasīpura, Hāsana, Cikkanāyakana Halli, Nāgamangala, Hosūru-these

were the few branches which enhanced the flow of the Mysore Style of Bharatnātyam.

Hence, Mysore style of Bharatnātyam got its shelter under the royal patronage of

Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and known today as the Mysore School. He himself was

265
scholar-patron of the arts who followed the style of Great Trinity of Carnatic Music –

Muthuswami Dikshitar, Shama Shastri, and Thyagaraja.367 He also gave a

contemporary look in his Bharatnātyam style by succeeding the Tanjore Quartet

consisting of the four brothers- Chinayya, Ponnayya, Śivanandan, and Vadivelu who

gave a Marga (format) to the Bharatnātyam solo recital."

"Chamaraja Wodeyar (1868-1894 A.D.) succeeded the throne after

Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. He was also a great patron of arts and music, his court

comprised of various vocal and veena artists like Veena Subbanna, Veena Seshanna,

K. Vasudevacharya, Veena Padmanabiah, Mysore Karigiri Rao and Bidaram

Krishnappa. He was also a skilful violin player and used to accompany Veena

Subbanna’s vocal and Veena Seshanna’s veena performances daily. Chamarajendra

Wodeyar continued the patronage music and dance. He appointed Chinnayya in his

court who had composed several varnams and tillanas appropriate to dance. Chinnaya

was an influential person who motivated the dance teachers and musicians of the

court for great performances.368 Thus, the ethnic tradition of dance moulded into a

new vessel of tradition which succeeded the continuous flow of music and dance style

in Karnataka."

"Nalwadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar (1894-1940 A.D.) came into the throne

after his father Chamrajendra Wodeyar X. He was considered to be Emperor Aśoka

by Lord Samuel. Even he was rewarded as Rajarshi or saintly king and his kingdom

was compared with Lord Rama’s Rajya (state) by Mahatma Gandhi.369 His period was

known to be the best administered state in the world."

367 Mukund, S. (2003). Mysore style of Bharathanatyam – Origin and Evolution.

368 Ibid.
369 Madur. (2015). The Wodeyar Kings of Mysore, May 28.

266
 "He was also a great patron of art and dance and had knowledge of playing

eight types of instruments like Sitar, violin, flute, saxophone, piano, mridangam,

veena and nadaswara.370 In his royal court, several musicians and dancers were

present. Out of all Barkatulla Khan served his court from 1919 to 1930 A.D. until his

death. He also established University of Mysore in 1916."

"Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar (1940-1974 A.D.) was the last Maharaja of

Mysore. He was also a patron of arts, music, and sports. Very keen to Sanskrit work,

have sponsored in translating them into Kannada language which are known to be

Jayachamaraj Grantha Mala that includes 35 parts of Rig Veda. He encouraged

various Kannada authors and motivated many on historical research on Modern lines.

He was fond of both Carnatic and Western classical music. He funded Russian

composer Nikolai Medtner in recording his music and also founded Medtner Society

in 1949. In 1948, he became the first president of Philharmonia Concert Scoiety,

London. He was also a fellow and president of Sangeet Natak Academy, New Delhi

1n 1966. Having a thorough knowledge of music, veena and dance, had also

encouraged various singers, dancers and instrumentalists in his court like Mysore

Vasudevachar, Veena Venkatagiriyappa, B. Devendrappa, R.N. Doreswamy, H.M.

Vaidyalinga Bhagavatar, Titte Krishna Iyengar, etc. Mysore Sri V. Ramarathnam had

written a book about the patronage and contribution of Wodeyars to Carnatic music in

1980s."371

"Venkatalakshamma, K. belonged to the Lambani or Gypsy community. She

was hired at the Royal Court by Nalwadi Krishna Raja Wodeyar. She learnt the

lessons of Bharatnātyam from Nātya Saraswati Jatti Thayamma.372 She served the

370 Sathyanarayana, R. (1969). Bharatnātyam – A critical study, p.227.

371 Op.cit. 364.
372 Sathyanarayana, R. (1969). Bharatnātyam – A critical study, p.228.

267
royalties for 30 long years dancing in front of Mysore kings, continued her journey till

the last king Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar. Later, she became a reader of dance at the

fine arts college founded by Jayachamaraj Wodeyar under University of Mysore. She

had been awarded with the central and state academy awards – Nātya Shantala (the

highest award for a dancer in Karnataka) and Padma Bhushan by Government of

India."

"Srikantadatta Wodeyar ascended the throne in 1974 A.D. after the demise

of his father Jayachamarajendra Wodeyar.373 He continued the legacy of conducting

Mysore Dasara with the rituals as performed by his ancestors till his death in

2013 A.D."

5.4.3 The Emergence of Mysore School of Bharatnātyam

"Mysore school of dance is one of the schools which follows specific

characteristic and features. It imbedded with the flavour and style of soil of Mysore

along with the imprints of royalties. From last one hundred and fifty years, this style

had been practiced all over Karnataka. The main characteristic features of this school

are techniques and traditional performance. A peculiar feature about this school that

Nattuavanga-s, generally were men, but here many ladies and dancers performed as

Nattuavanga-s.374 They have a large repertoire of dance compositional forms, mainly

jāvalis, padas, tillāna and ślokas."

"Many great dance exponents like Muguru Amrtamma, Koyamatturu

(Coimbatore) Tayi, Nagaratnamma of Kolara, Bhāvāni of Ballapua, Mariyasani, and

her daughter Venkatasundarasani of Halasuru, Bengaluru Nagaratnamma, Varalu,

Muguru Puttadevamma, Cikkadevamma, Sundaramma of Hasana, the outstanding

Nātyasarasvati Jatti Tayamma and her disciple Venkatalakshamma emerged in

373 Madur. (2015). The Wodeyar Kings of Mysore, May 28.

374 Sathyanarayana, R. (1969). Bharatnātyam – A critical study, p.228.

268
Mysore during 19th and 20th century. Many well-known Nātya Gurus (dance teachers)

also tribute to Mysore school of dancing like Muguru Subanna, his brother Amrtappa,

Dasappa, Bangalore Kittappa, Kasiguru, Girivasappa, Kasisvara Giriyappa,

Subbarayappa, Arani Appayya, Kolar Puttappa, etc. Mysore school of dancing got

popularities because of these dancers and dance teachers along with the palace

dancers and Devadasis like Rangamma and Jeejamma. These all group of dancers

together with their high qualities of talents raised the aesthetical technical of this

school."375

"The school used to provide both practical and theoretical knowledge

of Bharatnātyam. Many artists or nartakī-s of this school were intensely educated

in the theory of nātya along with alankāra, nātaka, kāvya, etc. and had personal

library in music and dance. These libraries contained rare manuscripts work on

these art forms. But during those days, the texts were generally orally transmitted

due to less copying facilities. These nartakī-s lived in close association with the

music composers who generally composed new beautiful songs tailor-made for their

dance choreography. They are exceptional in their profession having very high

standards of theory and practical acquaintance which honoured the state of Mysore to

achieve supremacy in the world of Bharatnātyam. These nartaki-s transformed

them as Guide, who used to be elderly, scholar in dance, expert teachers, used to teach

other dancers and renowned for their high standard of knowledge in their own field."

"According to Jyāyana,376 whenever there was a controversy regarding the

incompetency of a dancer, a special judgement session used to be conducted by these

guides who formulate and test the accused. Once, the Gaikwaid of Baroda presented a

pair of silver bells to a daughter of Mysore. After returning, whether she can wear that

375 Ibid.
376 Ibid., p.229.

269
bell or not, it was in controversy. For this, a performance was arranged and test was

conducted by the guide who therefore after the examination, declared that she was not

enough competent and should not wear the bell further. So, through this incident one

can infer the standard of Mysore school of Bharatnātyam."

"Mysore school of Bharatnātyam is the amalgamation of the Tanjore tradition

and Kanchi tradition of Bharatnātyam with the local types of dance. The Mysore

school incorporates all the artistes of the state those had a distinct essence of its own.

The performance of Mysore tradition generally starts with a mangala śloka and

tattakāra sung by the nattuva on the cymbals without the accompaniment of

mrdanga. As tattakāra sets the atmosphere for the performance, Ganeśha Prārthana

in praise of Lord Ganeśha was performed as appeasement of removing obstacles

during the performance which is generally followed by mangala, also an invocatory

song sung by the musician troupe."

"Soon after the song rendered on the stage, the pātra or the character or the

dance performer entered the stage and performed pradakshina which involves the

circling with devotion around the nattuva, tāladhāri, the mārdangika and other

instrumentalist if any. This particular event was followed by sthānika, sabhāpūja and

a song rendered in admiration of dance. Then a Sanskrit verse or a śloka for the dance

were usually verses from Kalidāsa which was introduced by Jatti Thayamma were

performed."377

377 Mukund, S. (2003). Mysore style of Bharathanatyam – Origin and Evolution.

270
 Figure 53: Jatti Thayamma

"Jatti Thayamma was one of the eminent dancers of that era. She did not

belong to a Devadasi community and also not a royal court dancer of Mysore but very

excelled in abhinaya both in the Bharatnātyam style and Hindustani nautch. She used

to accompany thumris and ghazals with extensive skills of abhinaya. She had been

titled as Nātyasaraswathi by the President of India, Dr. Radhakrishnan. As it is

said that Jatti Thayamma introduced the cūrnikā, a prelude piece of dance in

Kacēri paddhati, but this is well in trend during 1880 A.D. too. This contains

inventory of significant elements of dance and music on various topics. According

to R. Satyanarayan, in his book, Bharatnātyam – A critical study, mentioned a

composition which is as follows."

271
 "Although the text grammar in the above written verses were meager and

somewhat not in original form which culminates the collection of various phrases

which relates many fields where Bharatnātyam is also highlighted. The author who

272
had written this was a connoisseur and indicates two features of the performance: One

it showcases atmosphere of the stage and the auditorium before the commencement of

the performance which implies the mood of both artist and the auditorium. Secondly,

it brings out the works in the various allied fields during those eras in Karnataka."

"Art of abhinaya has been given importance in Jatti Thayamma School. Dancers

of this school were not only a simple dancers but also proficient in music, literature

and Sanskrit language. The Jatti Thayamma School topped in abhinaya and had an

exceptional execution of Poorvaranga Vidhi. Ślokas, Asthapadis, Padas and Javalis

from Geetha Govinda, Amarushataka, Nithi Shataka, Mukundamālā and also many

Kannada compositions were pearls of performance which makes a perfect garland."378

"Usually before commencing the performance in the royal court, the dancers

used to stand behind the musicians and used to pay homage to their guru and the

musician. They followed Poorvaranga Vidhi as elaborated in the Nātyaśāstra. A

prelude called cūrnikā was generally sung by the dancers in raga Arabhi to invoke the

blessing of Ranghadi Devata (stage God). The cūrnikā is a prologue in the

Bhartanātyam dance recital which comprises of appreciation of the magnitude and

accomplishment of Bharatamuni, the author of Nātyaśāstra and considered to be the

creator of Bhartanātyam. This particular piece of the dance recital is little lengthy

sung in gamaka rāga (kavya vācana) without the accompaniment of tāla and

repetition of the passages. This is a beautiful presentation sung in ancient type of song

known as gadya by Someśvara in his book Mānasollāsa (IV, xvi, 247) and cūrnapada

by Kumbhakarna in his book Sangitarāja."

"Now in present scenario, few cūrnikā is presented and included in dance

repertoire. As discussed earlier cūrnikā introduced as an introductory presentation but

378 Ibid.

273
later it has been included in the formal structure of the dance repertoire. Generally

cūrnikā is based on two themes. One of the themes is already told that it is performed

in sabhā vandana in praise of Bharatamuni. The theme of the latter one can be

extracted from the following phrase."379

"Like the previous work, this also enumerates the elaborate frameworks of

music and dance and this form one of the characteristic features of cūrnikā

compositions. Here, the theme goes as the artist is praying to the sabhā which she

considers as the lotus feet to ignore her defects and view her faults as virtues.

According to the composition, the dancer recognizes that the accuracy and perfection

of Bharatnātyam comes only by long and tough practice and penance (tapasyā) and

she thinks herself fortunate enough to present her performance in front of honourable

experts. This cūrnikā is known as sabhāpati vandana. The culture of carrying this

process of performing cūrnikā in the dance recital from generation to generation can

be acknowledged through this particular phrase."380

379 Sathyanarayana, R. (1969). Bharatnātyam – A critical study, p.230.

380 Ibid.

274
 "The repertoire of dance presentation flowed in this manner. After the prelude,

the dancers used to perform a sabhavandanaśloka that is salutation to the audience,

and a Nātyaprashamsaśloka from the Nataka Malavikagnimitra by Kalidasa and at

the end generally Pushpanjali Śloka is performed. Here, the dancers throw the flower

all around the dais with beautiful gestures and movements. This resembles the

puspavarno of Balinese dance. Then a Ganapathi śabdam or normal śabdams were

staged. Generally Alarippu was avoided in the repertoire. But later the Pushpanjali

was replaced by Alarippu which remain stable in today’s date too. Now Alarippu is

followed by Jatisvaram, varna, śabdam and tillāna. The abhinaya part is portrayed

after the pure dance which has been taken from the verses from epics, Kalidasa and

other works of Sanskrit poems like Amaruka, Gitagovinda, Krshnakarnāmrtam,

Mukundamālā stotra, etc.381 These all followed by padābhinaya and ahinaya for

jāvali. Many jāvali-s were composed in Kannada by various eminent composers in

last one and half centuries. This flowchart is for current format of dance presentation

which is generally performed in the evening programme. One can also see a

dasavatāra abhinaya in the phrase and finished with mangala."

"Mysore style of Bharatnātyam resembles Tanjore style dance as the Mysore

dancers got influenced by Chinnayya, one of the brothers of the Tanjore Quartet. Like

Tanjore, they used to perform Jatiswaras, Shabdas, Varnas, Thillana-s which are

usually performed without any break. The abhinaya part had been taken from Geetha

Govinda, Kshetrangna Padas, Kannada Javalis and Telugu ślokas of Amara,

Krishnakarnamrita, Mukundamala, Neethi Shataka of Bharatahari. Many dances were

based on the poetic compositions of the Dasarakoota and vachanas of various poetic

works like Rajeswara Vilasa, etc. Many other devaranamas and kritis of well-known

381 Mukund, S. (2003). Mysore style of Bharathanatyam – Origin and Evolution.

275
composers like Mutthaiah Bhagavathar, Mysore Sadasiva Rao, and Mysore

Vasudevacharya were performed and included in the repertoire."382

"The abhinaya technique Mysore was like toppings over the ice cream which

forms one of the most eminent characteristic flavours of Mysore style of dancing. The

dancers sometimes sit and enact the abhinaya part and sing the lyrics of the pada.

This feature is also very common in Mysore style of dancing. Here the dancers always

rendered a śloka before performing a pada, which becomes a prelude and follows the

same mood as pada. Similarly, performing kandha padhya before a Javali, enumerates

the scenario or mood of particular nayika (heroine) of the Javali. Even, the peculiarity

of jaru adavus (slide or rest steps) makes Javalis more attractive and dynamic."

"The main features of the Mysore School of Bharatnātyam are the aesthetical

technique and approach to the art form through inflection on abhinaya. The dancer

depicts the sentimental fluidity as well as the different shades of the meaning and

feelings; thus the style gives more emphasis on nrtya rather than nrtta. Here, the

verbal representation and interpretation are given more weightage which makes the

style unique and extraordinary. The approach is towards the content and it explains

the form against this background. That does not mean that the original form is not

followed. It pertaining the art form with accuracy, perfection and with full grace.

However, in today’s world so much of free style and imitation can be observed. We

should always embrace the new creative and imaginative ideas sprouting out from

new generation but at the same place should not turned away from the most attractive

and anticipated qualities of the form."

"The tradition of Mysore school of dance was transmitted orally and thus not

has any manuals and technical reference of this particular style of Bharatnātyam

382 Sathyanarayana, R. (1969). Bharatnātyam – A critical study, p.229.

276
dance. It is quite difficult to maintain and extent the tradition where pedagogy is

different in different regions under such tempestuous social and political

circumstances. The surviving minor variety can be seen based on individual penchants

of guruparamparā. Venkatalakshmma, K. was the doyenne of Mysore style of

Bharatnātyam383 and living example till 2002 who carried and protected the rare

varieties of classical dances prevalent in the Mysore Court."

5.5 THE CONTRIBUTION OF TRAVANCORE KINGDOM TOWARDS

BHARATNĀTYAM

Figure 54: His Highness Swati Thirunal

"The Kingdom of Travancore ruled the provinces of present Kerala from

1729 to 1949 A.D. Although the existence of this family can be traced during the

Sangam period, but Marthanda Varma was the official King of Venad to establish

383 Mukund, S. (2003). Mysore style of Bharathanatyam – Origin and Evolution.

277
Travancore Kingdom and ruled from 1706 A.D. onwards. They ruled Kerala as being

Thiruvananthapuram their capital. Previously Thiruvananthapuram was known to be

Thiruvazhumkode during the rule of Chera Empire384 and it got transformed to

Travancore due to the effect of anglicise."

Figure 55: Travancore Kingdom

"Like other South Indian rulers Travancore Kingdom also a great patron

of dance and music. Their contribution in the field of Kathakali, Mohiniattam,

Bharatnātyam, Carnatic music, Koodiāttam, and other various folk and ritual arts was

remarkable. The development of Kathakali and Koodiāttam under their reign is

already discussed in chapter 4. Most of the rulers of this dynasty supported and

uplifted the prevalent temple and folk art of Kerala. Even in music, Sopana Sangit

was predominant. Many attakathas and prabandhas had been written under their

384 Travancore Kingdom. wikipedia

278
patronage. They promoted various art forms which came which survived because of

their immense contributions. But with the advent of Maharaja Swati Thirunal,

Carnatic music and Bharatnātyam in the state of Kerala came into existence."

5.5.1 Travancore and Swathi Thirunal

"Highness Maharaja Swati Thirunal, also addressed as Rama Varma, was born

in April, 1813 to his parents Changanachery Thampuran-Raja Raja Varma Valiya

Koli and Maharani of Travancore family-Rani Gouri Lakshmi Bai.385 He was declared

as Maharaja of Travancore Dynasty on the same year of his birth in July, 1813 that’s

he was addressed as Garbha Srimān which means being the King of throne before the

birth. But unfortunately, his mother Rani Gouri Lakshmi Bai died soon after the birth

of his brother Uthram Thirunal Marthanda Varma and the power of the administration

went to her sister Rani Parvati Bai and the Kingdom of Travancore was under her

regency before it was handed over to Swati Thirunal at the age of 16. According to

Prof. A. Sreedhara Menon, the famous royal poet of Travancore Irayimman Thampi

composed one lullaby ‘Omanathinkal kidāvo’ in Malayalam assigning to the newly

born prince, which signifies the well-being and fulfilment of desires in life.386 The

poet’s wish had come true and he became one of the most skilled, talented and

progressive monarchs of the well-known royal dynasty of Travancore."

"Early education of Swati Thirunal had been under the care his father, aunt

and British officer of that state, Colonel John Munro. He had got abundant number of

tutors and mentors which nurtured him to learn various languages which can be

numbered as much as 18 enumerated by Rama Varma Vijaya Champu.387 According

to the source, he was proficient in Tamil. Marathi, Telugu, Kānarese, Hindi. Persian

385 Swati Tirunal life and his contribution. p.70. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/173586/9/09_chapter%204.pdf
386 Menon, A.S. (2003). Swathi Thirunal.
387 Swati Tirunal life and his contribution. p.71. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/173586/9/09_chapter%204.pdf

279
and of course, English. He was trained under various mentors to get the knowledge on

various subjects. Subba Rao of Travancore was considered to be his English teacher

as well as he familiarized Swati Thirunal with the rich legacy and tradition of Carnatic

style of music. Swati Thirunal got the training of music from Saint Singer

Meruswamy of Tanjore who also helped him to discover the complexities and

gradations of different tradition of music of India.388 This training helped him to

explore the Indian style of music and experience the essence of music which led him

to achieve the title of Nādopāsaka. His study in pursuit of spiritual awareness had

been processed under the guidance of an enlightened scholar Guru Sivarāma also

addressed as Ksheerābdi Shastri who was known for his advaita Philosophy."

"Swati Thirunal has ascended the throne and got the official charge of the

kingdom in 1829 A.D. from Regent Parvati Bai. He was one of diligent and generous

ruler who customised his administration for the well-being of his Kingdom and the

people. He was the first one to shift the Huzur Cutchery and other administrative

offices from Kollam to Trivandam within city fort which saved the revenues and other

expenses and at the same time, the employees of various government offices in his

province used to be under his surveillance. Even he found one printing press in

Trivandam and imported the machineries from England. Due to the effect of the

colonial rule, the Kingdom of Travancore was under the supervision of British and

continuous interference and involvement bothered him a lot. His contribution in the

field Music and Dance was extraordinary. He was responsible for the propagation of

Carnatic music, Bharatnātyam and Mohiniattam in Kerala. He was a great devotee of

Lord Padmanabha and dedicated his musical compositions towards the god. The

prodigious ruler and the patron of Travancore demised in 1846 A.D."

388 Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma. wikipedia

280
5.5.2 The Role of Swathi Thirunal towards Bharatnātyam

"The Maharaja was very fond of music, dance and literature. He was so much

indulged that led him to compose various literary and musical compositions. Being a

proficient musician himself, he used to organise Sangeet Kacheri where musicians,

dancer, literary composers and various scholars used to come from all around India

and adorn his royal court. The King had a great skill artistic recognition and used to

award them various jewelleries and many other gifts. His royal court comprises of

several talented artists, they are Srirangam Nagaratnam, Tanjore Neeral, Tiruchandur

Ramanatha Manikam and Tanjore Kanakamala.389 A remuneration of Rs. 300 used to

be given to the performers and composers for their splendid performances."

"Maharaja Swati Thirunal was a substantial patron of art performers and

chroniclers. His royal court was the gathering of various music composers, singers,

scholars and dancers from all over India. Merswami formed one of the most

distinguished musicians in his court. He was well trained on the concept and

application of Carnatic music. The King was so much enthralled with his high pitch

singing pattern that he conferred him a title Kokila Kantha.390 He carried a significant

position and became the first to initiate the delicacies of Carnatic music in the King’s

court."

"Among other celebrities of Travancore royal court Subbukutti Ayya also held

an important place in Swati Thirunal’s court. He was an accomplished Veena player.

Kannayya Bhagavatar was one more eminent singer in his court who mostly used to

389 Swati Tirunal life and his contribution. p.7. Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/173586/9/09_chapter%204.pdf
390 Menon, A.S. (2011). Keral history and its makers, p.185.

281
sing his teacher (Guru) Saint Thyagaraja’s songs and initiate the spark of devotion

and spirituality with the subtleties of Carnatic music."391

"Swati Thirunal’s patronage not only bound to musical compositions but also

encouraged dancers, painters, handicrafts, and extended his contribution also in the

field of architecture. He had many poet laureates like Irayimman Thampi, Vidwan

Rajaraja Varma Koil Tampuran of Kilimanoor who was attributed for his work

the Ravanavijayam Attakatha, Sankaranatha Josier, Kshetrajna, Virabhadrayya,

Parameswara Bhagavatar of Palghat, etc. He used to maintain a group of eight dancers

proficient in Kathak and other Hindustani style of dance. His skilled architectural

monuments can be exemplified in Puthanmalika and Rangavilasam in Valiyakottaram

at Trivandrum and Durbar Hall at Padmanabhapuram. His interest in painting and

arts tent him to hire few artists in his court. They were Ramaswami Naickar,

Alagiri Naidu and Pedda Dasari. He also credited to patronage famous dexterous

handicraft artists from Changanacherry who used to make intricate works made of

ivory."392

"Swathi Thirunal got special attraction towards Bharatnātyam. As prince he

used to visit Tanjore Maratha court and attend the Sabha conducted by King Serfoji II

which comprises of music and dance recitals of various skilled artists. Even many

scholars and poets also used to come and had intellectual conversation. Swati Thirunal

was mesmerised with the Carnatic music pattern and Bharatnātyam compositions

presented there. After the stretch of Tanjore Maratha, the famous Tanjore Quartet, the

four brothers Vadivelu, Ponnayya, Chinnayya and Sivanandan moved to Swati

Thirunal’s court. These brothers inherited the skills of music and dance from his

father Subbaraya Oduvar and also got trained under Muthuswami Dikshitar who is

391 Ibid.
392 Menon, A.S. (2003). Swathi Thirunal.

282
considered to be the one of the Trinity of Carnatic music. They lighted up the court of

Travancore and brought many changes in the musical and dancing pattern of Kerala."

"Vadivelu was hired by the King as royal court musician and composer. His

contribution in Travancore court was remarkable which brought the revolution in the

dancing and singing compositions. Vadivelu’s skills as a vocalist, dance expert and

violinist immediately caught the fancy of Swathi Thirunal."393

"Vadivelu was a proficient dance and music composer. He worked together

with the King for accomplishments of covetable implementation in the field of music

and dance. Being a great Violin player which he learned as a part of Tanjore band in

King Serfoji’s court, implied its effect and application in Swathi Thirunal’s court too.

He used to play Kalpita Sangeetam as well as Manodharma Sangeetam adroitly in

violin. The influence of employment of violin in Cartanic style had been derived from

Baluswami Dikshitar, the brother of Muthuswami Dikshitar.394 As a token of

gratitude, he had been rewarded with an ivory violin. For its extensive work on music

and dance, he will be always remembered."

"Vadivelu’s contribution in the field of Bharatnātyam is notable. He not only

composed various musical compositions for Bharatnātyam but also choreographed

many dance items. He influenced Swati Thirunal and with his consent, he promoted

Bharatnātyam. Swati Thirunal composed many Padas, Varnas, Svarajatis and

Tillanas as a part of Bharatnātyam dance compositions."

"Vadivelu was so close to Swati Thirunal that oftenly he used to get gifts. Even

for his daughter’s marriage, the King had donated an amount of Rs. 700 as wedding

gift. Despite of all, they had some discrimination which led them for separation from

393 Contribution of court composers and Musicians to the Development of Sadir. p.184.
Retrieved from
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1786/11/11_chapter%204.pdf
394 Tanjore quartet. wikipedia

283
each other for certain period of time but later again reunited and presented a dance

performance on a Nataraga Varna in front of the king which describes the exploits of

Maharaja Swati Thirunal and expressed him as Lord. But on an unobvious comment

of Swati Thirunal made him to compose one more dance recital which was in praise

of Lord Padmanabha and representing Swati Thirunal as his extreme devotee and the

name of the Varna was the Atatala Varna ‘Sammugamu’ in Nata.395 This showed the

devotion and gratitude of Swati Thirunal towards Lord Padmanabha."

"The dance compositions of Swati Thirunal consist of various Varnas and

Padas. The Varnas are the musical forms which are the presentation of musical verses

amalgamated with Raga which have two distinct parts viz., Purvanga and Uttaranga.

The former one comprises of three parts a Pallavi, an Anupallavi and Muktayisvara

whereas the latter one have two parts a Charanapallavi and few Ethukkada Svara.

The Varnas further classified into two viz., Tanavarnas and Chowkavarnas which are

performed in medium and the slow tempo respectively. Tanavarnas is generally sung

without the usage of Svarasahitya in which bodily movement or more Nrtta is given

weightage. Chowkavarnas gives the scope to the dancer to express more on Abhinaya

through usage of intricate gestures which were popularised as Padavarnas. Swathi

Thirunal had composed his Varnas based on this theory. Here is the list of few songs

of Swathi Thirunal meant for dance performance."396

395 Menon, A.S. (2003). Vadivelu-Swathi Thirunal.

396 Subrahmanya, S.V. (2003). Dance compositions of Swathi Thirunal.

284
 Sl.No. Raga Tāla
1 Indumukhi Sankarabharanam Ata
2 Chapalasampad Bhairavi Do
3 Chalamela Sankarabharanam Do
4 Jagadisa Suddhasaveri Do
5 Dani samajendra Todi Adi
6 Paramakula Saurashtram Rupakam
7 Palaya mam Purnachandrika Ata
8 Mamava Begada Ata
9 Vanajaksha Saveri Adi
10 Sarasi janabha Athana Adi
11 Do Kambhoji Ata
12 Do Mayamalavagaula Adi
13 Saridisavasa Todi Ata
14 Satura Kamini Kalyani Do
15 Sadaramiha Madhyamavati Do
16 Sadhu vibhatam Bhupalam Do
17 Sa paramavivasa Ghanta Do
18 Sami ninne Yadukulakambhoji Do
19 Sarasamridupada Kambhoji Do
20 Sarasasara Nilambari Do
21 Sa vama rusha khamas Do
22 Sa veriha tanuja Saveri Do
23 Sumasayaka Kapi Rupaka

"Swathi Thirunal was credited with many Tillana compositions for dance. The

Tillanas are consists only jatis but later it has been improvised by adding little sahitya

part. He composed six types of Tillanas. Out of six one was composed in Hindi as the

Sahitya part in raga Dhanasari raga which got immense popularity. The sahitya part

comes in beginning of the Pallavi and Anupallavi. The other Tillanas were composed

in Kalyani, Anandabhairavi, Bhupalam and Purvi. The remarkable compositions of

Swati Thirunal had taken a significant position in the classical Bharatnātyam

performance and were still act as a pinnacle in the history of Bharatanātyam."397

"Swathi Thirunal with Vadivelu had introduced the dance form Mohiniattam

in his court. It is said that the time of Swati Thirunal, Travancore Kingdom had only

supported existing dance forms of Kerala like Kathakali, Koodiāttam, and other folk

397 Ibid.

285
and ritual art forms. The concept of female dancing was not in vogue except

Koodiāttam where Nangyars actively participate in the performance. But pure dancing

was restricted only to prevalent Devadasis in Kerala. But Vadivelu was the first one to

explain and developed Mohiniattam scoping the way for female dancers in

Travancore court along with support of Maharaja Swathi Thirunal."

"Maharaja Swati Thirunal, himself contributed his expensive poetical

compositions in form of Padas and Padavarnas in Malayalam exclusively tailor-made

for Mohiniattam and developed it in his court. He customised the graceful costume of

Mohiniattam. He also believed to extend his patronage towards famous dance

exponents like Nagaratnam of Sri Rangam and Kanakamala of Tanjore.398 Swathi

Thirunal’s name in the history of Bharatnātyam and Mohiniattam are incredible and

his contributions flourished these dance forms in the state of Kerala and got immense

popularity due to the propagation and promotion of the female dancing in the royal

court as well as throughout the state."

Figure 56: Mohiniattam

5.5.3 The Musical Contribution of Swati Thirunal

"Swati Thirunal was known for his musical compositions. He sowed the

pinnacle of seeds of Carnatic music in his Kingdom as well as in the state of Kerala. It

398 Menon, A.S. (2011). Keral history and its makers.

286
has been already described the last sub chapter about his contribution towards

Bharatnātyam and Mohiniattam. He contributed to these dance forms through various

musical compositions. His musical compositions are of high standard and are still

stand tall in the history of Carnatic music."

"Being a poet par excellence, authored many literary texts in Sanskrit which

are of high distinction. Out of all, the three prominent and famous texts are

Bhaktimanjari, Syanandurapura Varnana Prabandha and the Padmanabha Sataka

dedicated to Lord Padmanabha. Even he composed few more Sanskrit literary

works Ajamilopakhyana and Kuchelopakhyana which were authored in a combination

of verse and prose. The two above mentioned texts were mainly meant for the use of

the proponents of Harikatha Kalakshepam.399 After authoring these Sanskrit texts, he

allocated suitable raga and tāla pertaining to the tempo and mood. He executed

these songs in praise of Lord Padmanabha which used to be performed in

Sri Padmanabhaswami temple during festive occasions."

"King Swati Thirunal said to have composed various Kirtanas mostly in

Sanskrit and may be one in Kannada. However, no documents are found regarding his

Kirtana composition in Malayalam or any other language. He set Kirtanas into

various raga and tāla and composed near about two hundred in numbers. He also got

influence with the Vaishnav culture and conferred his composition towards Lord

Vishnu. Nevertheless, very few Kirtanas can be traced where description of other god

and goddess like Lord Shiva, Ganapathi, Hanuman, Saraswati, etc. are found. These

Kirtanas were perfect balance of raga and tāla with the corresponding notation which

is known to be Swaraskhara. He also have introduced his newly created raga like

Mohanakalyani and executed in the Kirtana. He composed Kirtanas of two types viz.,

399 Menon, A.S. (2003). Swathi Thirunal.

287
Navaratri Kirtanas and the Navaratnamalika. Navaratri Kirtanas were composed to

be sung during the occasion of Navaratri and nine songs were dedicated."

The latter one was the compilation of nine devotional compositions.

"He almost composed fifty Padas out of which Utsavaprabandham forms one

of his Malayalam describes the ten festive days of Sri Padmanabhaswami temple and

also meant to practice in Harikatha Kalakshepam. It is said that he had also composed

musical compositions in Hindustani classical music which may be enumerated around

thirty six. The lyrics of the songs were taken from the verses of famous poets and

poetess viz., Surdas, Tulsidas, Mirabai, etc. Few verses of these authors were

amalgamated with Carnatic music too."400

"Though King Swati Thirunal had abundant number of composers, poets and

scholars in his court, but Irayimman Thampi and Shadkala Govinda Marar held a

prominent position in his court. Both of them were genius and extraordinary and

contributed many musical compositions to Travancore kingdom."

Figure 57: Irayimman Thampi

"Irayimman Thampi (1782-1856 A.D.) is also known as Rama Varma

Thampi. His father Kerala Varma Thampuran, was a King of Cherthala and his

400 Ibid.

288
mother Parvati Pillai was the niece of Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma.401 He acquired

a significant position as a poet in Travancore royal court during the time of Karthika

Thirunal who got impressed by his composition made at the age of fourteen. Many

Kirtanas, Varnas, Padas, Attakathas and poems were attributed to him. He got

patronage from four kings and two queens of Travancore Kingdom."

"Swathi recruited him and conferred him as the ‘Asthanakavi’ which means

Poet Laureate. He was so dear to him that he used to address him as Thampi maman."

Some prominent compositions are given below.402

Sl.No. Type Compositions Raga Tāla

i) Neelavarna Pahimam Surutti Chempata

ii) Pahimam Girithanaye Saveri Chempata

Malayalam
1
Kirtanas iii) Karunacheyvan
Saveri Chempata
Enthuthamasam

iv) Adimalarinnathanne Saveri Chempata

i) Amba Gouri Arabhi Atanta

2 Varnam
ii) Manasi Parithapam
Sankarabharanam Chempata
Dussaham Ayyo

i) Aroducholvan
Indisa Jhampa
Azhalullathellam

ii) Kamaladikalam
Kamodari Chempata
3 Padam Narumalarellam

iii) Enthujnanihacheyvu Neelambari Chempata

iv) Prananthanenikkunalkiya Kamodari Chempata

401 Irayimman Thampi. wikipedia

402 Sharma, V.S. (2003). Irayimman Thampi an artist Genius.

289
 Figure 58: Shadkala Govinda Marar

"Shadkala Govinda Marar (1798-1841 A.D.) was a musical genius in royal

court of Swati Thirunal. He belonged to the family of eminent percussionists which

includes Chenda, Timila and Edakka from Ramamangalam near Muvattupuzha. He

being a physically handicapped unable to move which devoid him to learn the

ancestral art form. Despite of that he did not lose the hope and given his more

attention in learning vocal music. He got his training under Haripad Ramaswami

Bhagavatar for six intense years and became proficient in the skills of vocal music.

He gave his performance in Trivandam where he presented Pallavis in six various

tempos whereas other proficient singers had taken up not more than two or three and

for this achievement, he was rewarded with a title of ‘Shadkala’.403 Along with

singing, he also diverted his talent in learning Tamburu of seven strings and excelled

in it."

403 Menon, P.T.N. (2003). Shadkala Govinda Marar.

290
 "Apart from the musicians and composers mentioned earlier, the famous

musicians and singers namely Parameswara Bhagavatar of Palghat, Maliyekkal

Krishna Marar, etc., the Veena players Mukundaram and Nandaram of Mysore, the

Hindustani vocalist Alauddin and the Svarabat player Syed Sulaiman have adorned

the royal court of Travancore during the reign of His Highness Swati Thirunal."404

404 Menon, A.S. (2003). Swathi Thirunal.

291