Educational (instructional)

design models
Daniel K. Schneider (ed.)
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Contents
CRESST learning model 1

4C/ID 2

5e Learning cycle 6

5e's of education 7

7e Learning cycle 8

8 learning events model 9

ABAHCOCOSUCOL 10

ARCS 12

Advance Organizer 16

Advance backward design organizer 18

Aesthetic principles for instructional design 19

Agile learning 20

Anchored instruction 21

Backwards design 23

C3MS project-based learning model 24

C5 simulation framework 36

CPM 37

Campbell-Lom mentoring model 38

Carroll model of school learning 40

Case-based learning 42

Case-based reasoning 52

CeLS 52

Cognitive flexibility hypertext 57

Cognitive flexibility theory 62

Cognitive load 64

Collaborative Face to Face Educational Environment 68

Community of inquiry model 71

Component display theory 73

Computer simulation 74

Constructivist emotionally-oriented model 77

Cybergogy 78

DialogPlus Toolkit 81
Direct instruction 89

Discovery learning 92

Dukes simulation and gaming model for sociology teaching 97

E-moderation five-stage model 99

E-tivity 100

E2ML 102

Educational design language 104

Educational modeling language 114

Eight-component framework for e-learning 122

Elaboration theory 123

Engagement theory 125

Exploratory learning 126

FEASP 127

Felder design model 129

First principles of instruction 131

Gerlach and Ely design model 136

Gerson's e-class 137

Hypermodel 138

Hypertext 140

Inquiry-based learning 150

Instructional design model 155

Instructional systems design 159

Instructional time 160

Instructional transaction theory 162

Kemp design model 163

Knirk and Gustafson design model 165

LAMS 166

Laurillard conversational framework 174

Learning by design 176

Textbook genres and examples 179

Textbook research 194

Textbook writing tutorial 199

Learning design 215

Learning management system 218

Learning sequence 222

Learning to teach with technology model 223

Lesson planning 224

Madeline Hunter method 227

Mastery learning 229

Medicine Blends Computers and PBL 232

Mentoring 233

Microlearning 237

MiniQuest 240

Minimalist instruction 241

Model-based learning 242

Moursund project-based learning model 243

Nine events of instruction 245

OASIF 247

PALO 248

POME 259

Peer-to-peer learning 260

Phoebe pedagogic planner 262

Problem-based learning 263

Programmed instruction 273

Progressive project assignment 279

Project-based learning 281

Project-based science model 295

Project-methodology-based learning 298

R2D2 299

Sandberg learning environment functions 300

Scaffolded knowledge integration 301

Science writing heuristic 303

Self-regulated strategy development model 305

Shuell model of learning functions 306

Simulation 308

Super motivation 309

Taba teaching strategy model 311

TeachML 313
 Team learning 320

Teleteaching 322

Trialogical learning 323

Universal design for learning 325

WIPPEA 326

WebLabs model 327

WebQuest 328

Wiki-supported project-oriented learning 334

Writing-to-learn 336

References
Article Sources and Contributors 344

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 347

Article Licenses
License 349
 1
CRESST learning model

CRESST learning model

Draf

Definition
The CRESST learning model has been proposed by Baker (1995) of the Center for Research on Evaluation, Standard,
and Student Testing (CRESST) to describe “the range of cognitive learning in which students engage”. The "cognitive
types of learning" are a composite of taxomomies and theories from by Gagné, Merrill and others.
Five families are used to describe the kinds of learning that can take place.
Content-specific activities:
• Content understanding - learning of domain specific material. Activities may include student explanations,
concept map builiding.
• Problem solving - processes and strategies engaged to acheive a goal that has no apparent solution, including
the trasfer of content-understanding and use of metacognition to the resolution of an unfamiliar problem.
Content-independent activities:
• Collaboration - learning to work with others, acquiring interpersonal skills, including teamwork (group
performance on task) and taskwork (individuals' effectiveness within the group) (Morgan, Salas, & Glickman,
1993)
• Communication - learning to express thoughts and ideas effectively, written and/or verbally within the content
domain (use appropriate terminology to explain content.
• Metacognition - learning to regulate one's cognitive activity through awareness, knowledge of cognitive
strategies, planning and self-monitoring.
CRESST publishes handbooks for creating assessment materials to assess performance in each of these families. The
handbook for assessing content understanding is available as a free sample (PDF) [1].
CRESST is also proposed as a method to analyse the cognitive demands of a technology by evaluating the extent to
which each family of learning is activated through the use of a particular technology (Baker, O'Neil, & Klien, 1998).

References
• Baker, E.L. (1995), Finding our way. Presentation at the annual conference for the Center for Research on
Evaluation, Standard, and Student Testing (CRESST), University of California, Los Angeles.
• Baker, E.L. , O'Neil, H.F., & Klien, D.C.D. (1998), A Cognitive Demands Analysis of Innovative Technologies, CSE
Technical Report 454, National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standard, and Student Testing (CRESST), UCLA.
• Morgan, B.B, Jr., Salas, E., & Glickman, A.S. (1993). An analysis of team evolution and maturation. Journal of
General Psychology, 120, 277-291.

4C/ID
Draf

Definition
• 4C/ID is an instructional design model by van Merriënboer and others.
4C/ID 2
• "4C" means "four components", "ID" means "Instructional Design". It also can be found in Merrill's first
principles of instruction.
[1]
• According to Martin Ryder , the The 4C-ID instructional model is characterized by four components: (1)
Learning Tasks, (2) Supportive Information, (3) Procedural Information and (4) Part-Task Practice. The tasks are
ordered by task difficulty and each task offers at the beginning a lot of scaffolding which is reduced as the
learner progresses.
See also: Elaboration theory (a much earlier model from Reigeluth).

The design
4C/ID is what I call a "main-stream" Instructional Design Model that addresses the issue of how to teach complex
skills, i.e. solid know-how that can be applied to real problem problems.
According to Merriënboer et al. (2002): “ The 4C/ID-model [....] addresses at least three deficits in previous
instructional design models. First, the 4C/ID-model focuses on the integration and coordinated performance of
task-specific constituent skills rather than on knowledge types, context or presentation-delivery media. Second, the
model makes a critical distinction between supportive information and required just-in-time (JIT) information (the
latter specifies the performance required, not only the type of knowledge required). And third, traditional models
use either part-task or whole-task practice; the 4C/IDmodel recommends a mixture where part-task practice
supports very complex, "whole-task" learning.”
According to Merrill (2002:56), the model is clearly problem-based although not in the sense of typical problem-
based learning models. “ At the heart of this training strategy is whole-task practice, in which more and more
complex versions of the whole complex cognitive skill are practiced. In ... the analysis phase ... the skill is
decomposed in a hierarchy of constituent skills; ... classified as recurrent constituent skills, which require more-or-
less consistent performance over problem situations, or nonrecurrent constituent skills, which require highly
variable performance over situations" (p. 8). "While learners practice simple to complex versions of a whole task,
instructional methods that promote just-intime information presentation are used to support the recurrent aspects
of the whole task while, at the same time, instructional methods that promote elaboration are used to support the
non-recurrent aspects of the task" (p. 10).”

The four components are described in detail in Merrienboer (2002) [2] and from which this picture is taken:
4C/ID 3

Some features of 4C/ID

This section are made from notes taken during a van Merriënboer keynote talk on March 14 2013 [3].
4C/ID can be described as a method that will describe the backbone of a curriculum where each element is
connected and does have a function with respect to the whole. It addresses two problems:
• Students can't apply "knowledge"
• Students and life-long learners are not self-directed learners
There is research-based evidence that transfer is improved when using a 4C/ID design.

Learning tasks
Create a "spiraled2 sequence of tasks, based on induction
• Provide variability in each task
• Provide task classes i.e. sequences of easy to difficult tasks. Each task should be meaningful right from the start.
Make sure to offer several variants for each class, i.e. a series of task that address the same learning outcomes at
same difficulty level.
• Provide guidance: Scaffolding should be provided in each task. However, for task set, define a Zone of proximal
development using a sawtooth pattern: First task in a class uses a lot of support, last task in a class should have
no support. If learners are successful, then move them to a higher level.
• Typical learning technologies for task support: Simulated/real task environments and development portfolios

Supportive information
Is information that helps learnings getting the tasks done. It shows how the domain is organized (e.g. anatomy in
medicine) and shows how to approach a task. Design of supportive information is based on knowledge elaboration
and is linked to all tasks in a given class. An other class may require more simple or more difficult information.
• Can be provided before (tell "theory") or during a task sequence (typically in project-oriented designs)
• "What should I study in order to be able to....." (self-directed learners)
4C/ID 4
• Typical learning technologies: Hypermedia and Internet in General

Procedural information
Refers to knowledge needed to solve parts of the task. Based on knowledge compilation and may require drill and
practise (see next item)
• Routine aspects
• How-to information that is used "just-in-time"

Part-task practice

Based on strengthening
• Repetition and drill
• However, part-time practice should only be presented within a cognitive context, i.e. a whole task
• Sometimes more practice is needed for procedure learning

Use of simulation, real tasks and video

[4]
This section are made from notes taken during a van Merriënboer keynote talk on March 14 2013 . 4C/ID also can
be used as model for vocational training
Merriënboer presented three projects from which we point out a few highlights:
(1) STEP portfolio project with hairdressers.
Steps:
• Simulation in school
• Select and do a task in the work context
• Fill in a portfolio page that includes an evaluation grid, i.e. collect assessment information on each task •
Coaching meeting in regular intervals (e.g. once per week) with the teacher Positive:
• Both students and teachers like Negative:
• Teacher's complain about missing time (e.g. time for coaching meetings)
A mobile app project called "PERFECT" tries to implement a self-coaching approach.
(2) Care Village project, targeting nursing education:
• Web application
• Provides tasks to complete in various contexts
• A task describes a patient first, then defines 2 tasks one for the school and one for the workplace
• Again, all tasks can be scored in a portfolio
(3) CRAFT - Mechatronics project:
• Serious game
• In the virtual world, simulated machines can be explored
• In a virtual workplace, parts are made and then integrated into an attraction park
• In the real workplace, parts are made and the student can obtained credits for the game

Implementation
How to implement a 4C/ID design:
Work with a team:
• more than one teacher
• professionals (of the subject area)
4C/ID 5
• one or more students
• Media/technology specialists if needed
... i.e. have all stakeholders participate
Cost-effectiveness is an issue, ... being investigated now.

References
• Merrill, David, First Principles of Instruction, ETR&D, Vol. 50, No. 3, 2002, pp. 43-59 ISSN 1042-1629. Preprint
[5]
version

• van Merriënboer, J.J.G (1997). Training complex cognitive skills: A four-component instructional design model for
technical training. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications
• van Merriënboer, Jeroen.J.G, Richard E Clark, Marcel B M de Croock, (2002) Blueprints for complex learning: The
4C/ID-model, Educational Technology, Research and Development. 50 (2);39-64, DOI: 0.1007/BF02504993,
Abstract/PDF [6] (Access restricted).
• Frederick Kwaku Sarfo & Jan Elen, Powerful Learning Environments and the Development of Technical Expertise
in Ghana: Investigating the Moderating Effect of Instructional Conceptions, IEEE Explore, ??? PDF [7]
[8]
• van Merriënboer, J.J.G & Kirshner, P. (2007). Ten Steps to Complex Learning . Erlbaum.

Links
• http://www. tensteps.info
 6
5e Learning cycle

5e Learning cycle
Definition
The 5e learning cycle is an instructional design model that defines a learning sequence based on the on the
experiential learning philosophy of John Dewey and the experiential learning cycle proposed by David Kolb.
Attributed Roger Bybee of the Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS)[1], the model presents a framework for
constructivist learning theories and can be effectively used in teaching science.

The model
Engage
Here the task is introduced. Connections to past learning and experience can be invoked. A demonstration of an
event, the presentation of a phenomenon or problem or asking pointed questions can be used to focus the
learners' attention on the tasks that will follow. The goal is to spark their interest and involvement.
Explore
Learners should take part in activities that allow them to work with materials that give them a 'hands on'
experience of the phenomena being observed. Simulations or models whose parameter can be manipulated by
learners, so that they can build relevant experiences of the phenomena, can be provided. Questioning, sharing and
communication with other learners should be encouraged during this stage. The teacher facilitates the process.
Explain
The focus at this stage is on analysis. The learner is encouraged to put observations, questions, hypotheses and
experiences from the previous stages into language. Communication between learners and learner groups can spur
the process. The instructor may choose to introduce explanations, definitions, mediate discussions or simply
facilitate by helping learners find the words needed.
Elaborate/Extend
Using the understanding gained in the previous stages, now learners should be encouraged build and expand upon
it. Inferences, deductions, and hypotheses can be applied to similar or real-world situations. Varied examples and
applications of concepts learnt strengthen mental models and provide further insight and understanding.
Evaluate
Evaluation should be ongoing and should occur at all stages, in order to determine that learning objectives have
been met and misconceptions avoided. Any number of rubrics, checklists, interviews, observation or other
evaluation tools can be used. If interest in a particular aspect or concept is shown, further inquiry should be
encouraged and a new cycle can begin that builds upon the previous one. Inquiries may branch off and inspire new
cycles, repeating the process in a spiralling fractal of interrelated concepts, where instruction is both structured and
yet open to investigation.
5e Learning cycle

Examples
 7
• [2] 5e Model Lesson - 3 science lesson plans using the model
• [3] Designing Constructivist Lesson Using the 5 E Model - Instruction on how to use the model and rubric for
evaluating student performance during each stage

Related articles
• 7e Learning cycle
• 5e's of education

References
• Anthony W. Lorsbach, The Learning Cycle as a Tool for Planning Science Instruction, Illinois State University
(accessed June 15, 2006) [4]
• 5 E's Lesson Components, The Maryland Virtual High School of Science and Mathematics (accessed June 15,
2006) [5]
• Miami Museum of Science (2001). Constructivism and the Five E's, The pH Factor, (accessed June 15, 2006) [6]

5e's of education
Draf
A variation of the 5e Learning cycle was developed (and copyrighted) in the 90's by the MG Taylor Corporation. It
takes a constructivist approach to learning, cradling expectations, examples and explanations within experience and
exploration The 5e's are:
• experience
• expect
• explore
• exemplify
• explain
[1]
From MG Taylor's website :
As already noted, the model implies that explanations and examples form the foundation of education, but this
doesn't mean that they necessarily come first in the process of education. Perhaps exploration and some
experience come first--then out of the experience the learner can extract explanations and develop a systematic
approach to hunt for further examples to confirm, deny, or expand their conclusions. The clear explanation, in a
way, is the LAST step in the process. Only a master of a concept can explain it. Only a master has the experience and
exploration behind her to do so.
The E's in this model correspond to the elements that make up the 5e Learning cycle but their order is different. Placing the
explanation at the end bases this model more on experiential learning than the 5e
Learning cycle or the 7e Learning cycle

7e Learning cycle
 8

7e Learning cycle
Draf

The 7e Learning cycle is an expansion of the 5e Learning cycle.

Comparison of the 5e and 7e learning cycles

5e Learning cycle 7e Learning cycle

engage elicit engage

explore explore

explain explain

elaborate/extend elaborate

evaluate evaluate

extend

The model differs from the 5e Learning cycle in two ways. The engage element is expanded into elicit and engage.
This places a greater emphasis on prior experience and eliciting tacit knowledge that can be used as a foundation
for the learning to come.
Elaborate and evaluate are expanded into elaborate, evaluate and extend. This mostly aims to differentiate
between the 2 types of 'elaboration' possible in the 5e model. The elaboration phase of the 7e Learning cycle is
limited to elaborating on the current situation (e.g. introducing/changing parameters), while the post-evaluation
extend phase involves transfering newly acquired skills and knowledge to new situations within the domain.

Links
• A good overview and example of the 7e Learning cycle from the man who developed it [1]
 9
8 learning events model

8 learning events model

Draf

Definition
Developed by Leclercq and Poumay (2005) at the University of Liège, the Eight learning events model is an
instructional design model for describing "the activity of the learner (receives, prectices, creates, etc)" (Leclercq &
Poumay, 2005) in a learing situation that is independant of the content.
All learning events fall roughly into eight different activities through which a learning event can occurr and are
paired with teaching events i.e. the teacher or coach's activity or role. In thier publication The 8 Learning Events
[1]
Model and its principles. Leclercq and Poumay define each type of activity below and provide an outline
dedescribing the teacher or trainer's role, the domains of learning best governed by the activity, where the activitty
can be situated, how it usually occurs in a classroom context, associated words and the learning theory tthat
supports the event.
The 8 Learning Events are

The eight Learning Events

Learner Teacher Activity Domain of Application Related Learning Theory
Activity

Imitate Provide a model Movements, Noises, Words, Melodies, Social Learning (Bandura)
Postures etc

Receive Transmitt Information Many Domains (except: Mastery of skills, Verbal Learning (Ausubel)
Information Adoption of values, sensory-Motor...)

Exercise Guide, Feed-back Sensory-Motor, Music etc... Law of Effect (Thorndike), Reinforcement
(Skinner)

Explore Provide Access to Data History, Geography, Personal Relations etc... Theories related to conceptual maps

Experiment Provide Environment for Sciences, Computer Sciences, Social Relations Cognitive Learning (Piaget, Polya and De
Experimentation, Supervise etc... Bono)

Create Facilitate Arts, Learning Technologies Divergent Production Concept (Guilford),

Criteria for Creativity (Torrance)

Self-Reflect Co-Reflect Intellectual, Relational or Sensory-Motor Metacognition (Flavell, Brown, Leclercq)

Debate Animate Complex Mental Models, Construction of Social Interaction (Doise, Perret-Clermond),
Mental Representations Cognitive Learning (Piaget)

A learning strategy (comparable to a lesson plan or pedagogical scenario) is any combination of learning events.

Links
[1]
Leclercq, D., Poumay, M. (2005) The 8 Learning Events Model and its principles. . Release 2005-1. LabSET,

university of Liège. (accessed January 30 , 2008 at http:/ /www.labset. net/media/prod/8LEM. pdf [1].

ABAHCOCOSUCOL
Definition
ABAHCOCOSUCOL 10
• ABAHCOCOSUCOL get's the prize for the longest acronym and has been invented by Michele Notari.
• ABAHCOCOSUCOL means Action Based, Hypertext - Constructive, Computer Supported, COLlaborative

The model
From (Notari 2003) "cut and paste":
Scripting for ABAHCOCOSUCOL can be cut in four phases:
1. Initiation
2. Comparison
3. Re-grouping
4. Discussion
An initiation phase leads students into the problem and gives them an indication for an appropriate first action. For
this phase, there is no big difference between an ABAHCOCOSUCOL and conventional teaching. The comparison
phase is very important and should start immediately after the unit is up and running. Here a difference from
conventional constructive learning can be seen, where a comparison between the work of all members of the
learning community is difficult to set-up, and such an environment of commenting and comparing cannot be easily
created. The comparison phase then leads into the re-grouping of the produced work, which aids in the
construction of mental models of the different concepts and is fruitful for learning. This sets the stage for the
discussion phase, and the feedback and comment culture described above leads to a re-grouping of the content.
These phases can be repeated more than once. At the end of the learning unit a discussion should give students the
opportunity to formulate and discuss different opinions or concepts. The positive feedback cycle of production,
comparison, and re-grouping can also be formulated in the following way:

The scripting input leading to the creation of input is important at the beginning of the unit. Here we call it creation
of a critical mass of input. Students should immediately compare and comment the works of the other to augment
the interactions between the learning community. Scripting should induce students to publish what they have
produced as soon as possible and it should be mentioned that there will be an 'evolution' of the text during the unit
due to the comments and questions of the other members of the community. The 'critical mass' of input at the
beginning is important for the start of interactions and creation of the communication culture. Of course other
'creating inputs' can be made during the learning unit for instants when new questions rise.
The linking of concepts is important for the awareness of the common goal and the cross-linkage of the treated
concepts of the unit. The learning community creates one collaboratively elaborated hypertext where the different
pages are interwoven and linked together. Creating links sustains the awareness of the community and gives a basis
for the comments and comparisons produced as a further action of the students. Finally the distillation and re-
grouping of relevant information leads to an self evaluation of the product of the learning community.
ABAHCOCOSUCOL 11
Technology used
A wiki
The unstructured collaboration tool was well-adapted to our needs. It turned out to be easy enough to use after a
20 minute introduction, it was stable enough to permit the focalisation of content production, and it was open
enough to adapt its structure and strategies while the units were running. Furthermore, it permitted a good level of
collaboration without other communication tools such as forums or chat groups, and it could be adapted to
different subjects, and to fit the needs of the different classes. Students liked to publish articles but they did not like
so much to comment the work of other members. The creation and support of a feedback culture turned out to be
important for learning success. Scripting should intervene here and support the communication culture. Swiki
turned to be an optimal tool for small and medium projects. We did not test any bigger learning projects with long
inputs about different subjects. We can imagine that such project need different conception and a more structure
within the produced document. We tried to sustain input quality and quantity without regarding structure. (Notari
2003: 103)

Tips for teachers

The following guidelines should be considered by teachers who are setting up a Swiki for ABAHCOCOSUCOL:
• Watch the structure of the entry page
• Be aware of editing conflicts
• Give a short introduction to the tool
• Be careful of signatures and references, and mention it whenever it is possible
• Prepare the main inputs and the guiding scripts
• Build a hypothetical framework of core mechanism(s) to foster the pedagogical goal and the actions of the
students for every sub unit of you course
• Create a feed-back culture from the beginning on. Induce students to interfere and intervene in a constructive
way in the actions of other members of the class
The size of the Project has a big impact on the structure of the constructed hypertext. While for smaller projects
(one or two classes working for five to eight lessons) no specific structuring is necessary for larger projects it is
important to steer the development of the hypertext in order to build up indicators for main concepts and
additional information.
ABAHCOCOSUCOL 12

References
• Michele Notari (2003),
[1]
Scripting Strategies In Computer Supported Collaborative Learning Environments , Mémoire présenté pour
l'obtention du DES STAF, TECFA FAPSE, Université de Genève
• Notari, Michele (2006). How to use a Wiki in education: 'Wiki based effective constructive learning',
[2]
Proceedings of the 2006 international symposium on Wiki, PDF . (Similar ideas 3 years later, unfortunately
he dropped this very unusual acronym...)

ARCS
Draf

Definition
• ARCS is an instructional design model developed by John Keller and that focuses on motivation.
• ARCS stands for: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction
This model is particularly important for distance education, since motivation seems to be a key factor that
determines if learner's complete their training. Motivation is a diametral responsibility for learners and teachers,
and so it has to be boost over the entire learning process respectivly the developing of an learning environment.

Basic aspects
The significance of motivation was early developed by some scientists. The implementation of multimedia elements
isn't enough to reach permanently motivational goals. So the ARCS Model was developed in the 80s by John Keller,
for the systematically boosting of motivational aspects. It contains four main categories.
• Attention - Getting and Holding Learners's Interests and Attention
• Relevance - The learning has to show a kind of usefulness. The learner should reach personal goals.
• Confidence - The user has to espect success and should have the possibility to controll his learning process Self-
regulation
• Satisfaction - There has to be attractive acts, rewards, feedback, and Self-Assement.
(Niegemann 2008) See also: Super motivation

The ARCS Model of Motivational Design

(This needs to be rewritten sometimes, it's basically just a potpourri from links you can find below - Daniel K.
Schneider 23:26, 14 August 2007 (MEST))
Attention (perceptual arousal, inquiry arousal, variability)
As in Gagné's model (nine events of instruction) one must gain the learner's attention and keep it. A few pedagogic
methods are:
• Provide variety (e.g. in the teaching materials used and within these materials, e.g. see textbook writing tutorial
• Create mystery by presenting interesting case problems.
• Use different methods to instruction
• Engage learners in active participation, e.g. questions, role-play
• Use interesting examples or cases (in particular some that run contrary to learner's expectations)
ARCS 13

• Use humor
• Avoid distraction
• Boost inquiry learning
• Short Instructions
• Variate the format of pictures
Practical implementation: The attention can be boost through contents, which are unexpected, surprising,
conflicting or ambiguous. So they unexpected appearance of a water fountain, if you do a "Mentos" into a "Cola
Bottle" can bring the learners to interest to chemical aspects. So a learning environment could contain interesting
multi media elements with interesting and unexpected experiments. (Niegmann et. al. 2008)
Relevance (goal orientation, motive orientation, familiarity)
The learner has to believe that learning is relevant. A few pedagogic methods are:
• Relate new information to something the student is familiar with, in particular how they reuse previous
knowledge and skills.
• Make sure that the learner can relate instruction to personal learning goals.
• Working together with Collaboration / Cooperation
• Language has to be coherent
• Show things, which are similar und things which are equal
Practical implementation: The learner has to know why he has to learn the stuff. So it's advisable to use adequate
games and simulations, to make this aspect visible. If the learners abilities are very similar (heterogeneity), it could
be good to offer similar learning methods and similar learning goals In an interactive language journey, learner have
to possibility to choose there own learning goals. It depends of there similar goals. Some want to learn for an exam,
others want to train there pronunciation. (Niegemann et. al 2008).
Confidence (learning requirements, success opportunities, personal control)
Learners should feel that they could achieve the learning goals. A few pedagogic methods are:
• Provide opportunities for success
• Go from the simple to complex stuff
• Make clear what kind of sub-learning goals are expected and make clear that learning may involve climbing small
steps.
• Give learners some control over their own learning
• Provide precise feedback
• Control the Learning Process through canceling and jumping over some chapters.
• No automatically change between pages on the monitor.
Pracitical Implementation Learners should search a challenge, but the risk to don't pass a challenge should be
limited. The criterias of assement has to be clearly visible. Furthermore they should know in a exam, how many
time they have and how many items they have to solve. (Niegemann et. al 2008)
Satisfaction (intrinsic reinforcement, extrinsic rewards, equity)
Learners should receive awards. A few pedagogic methods are:
• Let learners apply newly acquired skill
• Assess with a score and hand out praise (if deserved)
• Learn > Practice > Test
• No exceeding praise
Practical Implementation In according to the point "Learn> Pracitce > Test", learners have to use abilities they learn
into the learning environment in gaming or simulated situations. (Niegemann et al. 2008).

Subcomponents
According to Huang (2006),
ARCS 14

the ARCS model is mostly applied as a design guideline for developing effective motivational strategies (Song &
Keller, 2001). In addition to the four ARCS components (i.e., attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction),
there are sub-categories attached to each component to facilitate the design process. Small (2000) summarized all
four components and sub-categories as follows.
• Attention: perceptual arousal, inquiry arousal and variability;
• Relevance: goal orientation and motive matching;
• Confidence: learning requirements, success opportunities and personal responsibility; and
• Satisfaction: intrinsic reinforcement, extrinsic rewards and equity.
See also: Flow theory

Methods
The Instructional Material Motivational Survey (IMMS) (Keller, 1933) contains is a 36 Likert-scale statements. Each
statement measures an individual ARCS component.
Huang et al. (2006), published a modified version, which they claim to be more appropriate for studies in higher
education. Here is sample of 4 items:
• When I first looked at (M-Tutor), I had the impression that it would be easy for me. (confidence)
• There was something interesting at the beginning of (M-Tutor) that got my attention. (attention)
• Completing the exercises in (M-Tutor) gave me a satisfying feeling of accomplishment. (satisfaction)
• It is clear to me how the content of (M-Tutor) is related to things I already know. (relevance)
Niegemann et al. adds, that not every aspect of the ARCS Modell has to be consider. It's impossible, that a planner
or designer chooses the aspects which are important for the individual project. (Niegemann et. al 2008)

Links
• arcsmodel.com [1] John Keller's official ARCS Website.
[2]
• John Keller's academic website

• Attribution Theory and Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation [3] by Jerry T. Fernandez, George Mason University.
[4]
• Motivating Distance Learning Students Using the ARCS Method , a Netnet page

• Developing Instruction or Instructional Design [5]

[6]
• ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller) at Learning-Theories.com.

• The Magic of Learner Motivation: The ARCS Model [7] by Kevin Kruse, e-learningguru.com.

References
• Bohlin, R. M. & Milheim, W. D. (1994). Analyses of the instructional motivation needs of adults. Canadian Journal
of Educational Communication, 23, 47–55.
• Chang, M. & Lehman, J. D. (2002). Learning foreign language through an interactive multimedia program: an
experimental study on the effects of the relevance component of the ARCS model. CALICO Journal, 20, 81-98.
• ChanMin Kim and John M. Keller. Effects of motivational and volitional email messages (MVEM) with personal
messages on undergraduate students' motivation, study habits and achievement. British Journal of Educational
Technology DOI 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00701.x [8]
• Driscoll, M. (1994). Psychology of learning for instruction. (1st edition). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
• Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Introduction to theories of learning and instruction (2nd ed.). In M.P. Driscoll (Ed.),
Psychology of learning for instruction (pp. 3-28). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
ARCS 15

[9]
• Fritz, Constance (1997), Motivation To Learn, University of Saskatchewan, Term paper, HTML , retrieved 22:43,
14 August 2007 (MEST).
• Huang, Wenhao; Huang, Wenyeh; Diefes-Dux, Heidi; Imbrie, Peter K. (2006). A Preliminary Validation of
Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction Model-Based Instructional Material Motivational Survey in a
Computer-Based Tutorial Setting, British Journal of Educational Technology, v37 n2 p243-259 Mar 2006. (One of
the best starting points for educational technologists - Daniel K. Schneider 14:52, 18 June 2008 (UTC))
• Keller, J. M. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and
models: an overview of their current status (pp. 386-434). Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Keller, J. and T. Kopp, An Application of the ARCS Model of Motivational Design, in C. Reigeluth (ed.),
Instructional Design Theories and Models, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey, pp. 289-320, 1987.
• Keller, J. M. (1987a). Strategies for stimulating the motivation to learn. Performance and Instruction, 26, 1-7.
• Keller, J. M. (1987b). The systematic process of motivational design. Performance and Instruction, 26, 9/10, 1-8.
• Keller, J. M. (1993). Motivation by design. Unpublished manuscript, Florida State University, Florida.
• Niegemann, H.; Domagk S. ; Hassel, S. ; Hein, A.; Hupfer, M. ; Zobel, A. : Kompendium Multimedials Lernen,
Heidelberg 2008.
• Song, S. H. (2000). Research issues of motivation in web-based instruction. Quarterly Review of Distance
Education, 1, 225-229.
• Song, S. H. & Keller, J. M. (2001). Effectiveness of motivationally adaptive computer-assisted instruction on the
[10]
dynamic aspects of motivation. Educational Technology Research and Development, 49, 5. [ISI
• Wenhao Huang, Wenyeh Huang, Heidi Diefes-Dux, Peter K. Imbrie (2006) A preliminary validation of Attention,
Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction model-based Instructional Material Motivational Survey in a computer-
based tutorial setting British Journal of Educational Technology 37 (2) , 243–259 http://xs.doi. org/ /
10.1111/j.1467-8535.2005. 00582. x (HTML/PDF)
Advance Organizer 16

Advance Organizer
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Definitions
• An 'advance organizer is a cognitive instructional strategy used to promote the learning and retention of new
information
• “ An advance organizer is information that is presented prior to learning and that can be used by the learner to
[1]
organize and interpret new incoming information (Mayer, 2003).”, cited by Advance organizers
• “ These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of
abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer or series of
organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they
precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing
the organization strength of cognitive structure." (Ausubel, 1963:81)” cited by Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel)
[2]
, retrieved 19:35, 2 October 2006 (MEST).
• “ An advance organizer is not an overview, but rather a presentation of information (either verbal or visual) that
[3]
are "umbrellas" for the new material to be learned.” Advance Organizers , retrieved 19:35, 2 October 2006
(MEST).
The avance organizing principle is compatible with many modern instructional design models like Merril's first
principles of instruction.

The framework and the instructional design model

• “ According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial
processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning is subsumption in which
new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis”
[2]
Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel) , retrieved 19:35, 2 October 2006 (MEST).
• “ Ausubel suggests that advance organizers might foster meaningful learning by prompting the student regarding
pre-existing superordinate concepts that are already in the student's cognitive structure, and by otherwise
providing a context of general concepts into which the student can incorporate progressively differentiated
details. Ausubel claims that by presenting a global representation of the knowledge to be learned, advance
organizers might foster "integrative reconciliation" of the subdomains of knowledge - the ability to understand
[4]
interconnections among the basic concepts in the domain.” (Ausubel's Advance Organizers , retrieved 19:35, 2
October 2006 (MEST))
Advance organizers are used in good "transmissive" teaching, e.g. direct instruction. Such teaching is different from
simple rote learning, since learners are encouraged to relate new knowledge to old knowledge (what they already
know).
According to Joyce et al. (2000), the advance organizer model has three phases of activity:
Phase I (includes presentation of the advance organizer)
• Clarify the aimes of the lesson
• Presentation of the advance organizer
• Prompting awareness of relevant knowledge
Advance Organizer 17

Phase II (includes making links to/from the organizer)

• Presentation of the learning task or learning material
• Make organization and logical order of learning material explicit
Phase III (strengthening of the cognitive organization)
• Integrative reconciliation and active reception learning (e.g. the teacher can ask learners to make summaries, to
point our differences, to relate new examples with the organizer).
• Elicit critical approach to subject matter (have students think about contraditions or implicit inferences in the
learning material or previous knowledge)
The simple principles behind advance organizers are that:
1. Most general ideas should be presented first in an organized way (not just a summary) and then progressively
differentiated.
2. Following instructional materials should integrate new concepts with previously presented information and with
an overall organization.
Therefore, advance organizers present a higher level of abstraction. They are not just simple overviews, illustrating
examples etc. ! But they share with such techniques the idea, that they must be integrated with other
teaching/learning activities.
“ Advance organizers provide the necessary scaffolding for students to either learn new and unfamiliar material (an
expository organizer which provides the basic concept at the highest level of generalization) or to integrate new
ideas into relatively familiar ideas (a comparative organizer which compares and contrasts old and new ideas).
Ausubel contends that these organizing ideas, which may be single concepts or statements of relationship, are
themselves important content and should be taught because they serve to organize everything that follows.
Advance organizers are based on major concepts, generalizations, principles, and laws of academic disciplines.”
(The Advance Organizer
[5]
, retrieved 19:35, 2 October 2006 (MEST)).

Variants
• Novak and Gowan's hierarchical cognitive maps.
• K-W-L group instructional strategy (Ogle)

Technology
• concept maps or other kinds of concept drawings
• Text and talk passages

Links
• The Advance Organizer [5] (Methods in secondary social science).
[6]
• Cues, Questions and Advance Organizers from Focus on Effectivements - Integrating Technology into Research-
[7]
Based Strategies (includes a good bibliography [8])

• Creating and Using Advance Organizers for Distance Learning [9] by NetNet
[1]
• Advance organizers , A wiki page.

• Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel) [2], A TIP [10] entry.

[4]
• Ausubel's Advance Organizers

• Minds On Science: How Students Learn Science [11], including Meaningful Learning Model [11]
Advance Organizer 18

[12]
• Advance Organizers

• Advance & Graphical Organizers: Proven Strategies Enhanced through Technology [13] by John Hendron
[14] [15]
• Do We Really Need All that Glue? by JoAnn Hackos, PhD . An interesting article that discusses the use of
advance organizers in technical manuals and the difference between simple TOC bullets and "real" advance
organizers à la Ausubel.

References
• Ausubel, D. P. (1960). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 51, 267-272.
• Ausubel, D. (1978). In defense of advance organizers: A reply to the critics. Review of Educational Research, 48,
251-257.
• Joyce, B., Weil, M., Calhoun, E. : (2000). Models of teaching, 6th edition, Allyn & Bacon, 2000. ISBN 0205389279
• Joyce, B., & Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2003). Models of teaching (7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Ogle, D. S. (1986). K-W-L group instructional strategy. In A. S. Palincsar, D. S. Ogle, B. F. Jones, & E. G. Carr (Eds.),
Teaching reading as thinking (Teleconference Resource Guide, pp. 11-17). Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
• Mayer, R. (2003) Learning and Instruction. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Stone, C. L. (1983). A meta-analysis of advanced organizer studies. Journal of Experimental Education, 51(7), 194-
199.

Advance backward design organizer

The Advance backward design organizer (ODBA) method is a hybrid of the backward design and advance organizer
methods. In the ODBA method, you begin with the end in mind. You tell the students where you're going. You show
them why it's neat (or how it can be applied). Then you show them why it's cool (or why it works).

Example
In teaching derivatives, instead of the traditional limits -> tangent -> derivative sequence, an educator would teach
the students how to do derivatives first, show them how it's useful (e.g., to calculate the slope of a line tangent to a
function), and then show them why it works (using limits).
 19
Aesthetic principles for instructional design

Aesthetic principles for instructional design

Draf

Definition
Aestehtic principles for instructional design refer to a high level instructional design model and associated
instructional design methods like coUML proposed by Patrick Parrish et al.

First principles
1. Learning experiences have beginnings, middles, and endings (i.e., plots)
2. Learners are the protagonists of their own learning experiences
3. Learning activity, not subject matter, establishes the theme of instruction
4. Context contributes to immersion in the instructional situation
5. Instructors and instructional designers are authors, supporting characters, and model protagonists

Links
[1]
• Beauty and Precision in Instructional Design (slides). Derntl, Michael; Pat Parrish & Luca Botturi, EdMedia
2008.

Bibliography
• Parrish, Patrick, E. (2007). Aesthetic principles for instructional design, Educational Technology Research and
Development (ETRD), http:/ /dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11423-007-9060-7. (Abstract/HTML/PDF) (Access restricted).
Agile learning

Agile learning
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Definition
Agile learning is a relatively recent buzzword that can take several mearnings. There seems to be quite a confusion
between "agile planning of instruction" (as one may find on commercial e-learning web sites), introducing "agile
design methodology" in the project-oriented and/or reflective classroom and finally introducing "agile thinking" in a
given population (e.g. a company).
• Using agile design methodology for instructional design, as for example in the rapid prototyping approach. I.e.
we talk about an "agile professor" who will design and redesign a course in function of emerging "parameters".
E.g. see the R2D2 model.
• A similar idea is to favor dynamic planning of learner activities in teaching. Many inquiry-based learning settings
require dynamic (agile planning) for both the teacher and his students. An very typical example would be the
knowledge-building community model.
 20
• Agile learning also can to refer to running a class like a development group. This implies that one has to provide
students with practice in agile development, regardless of their subject area and to use agile principles in
working together with students to achieve the learning objectives of the module.
• Agile learning also can refer to supporting emerging individual learning path, i.e. how students progress through
a set of learning objects in traditional e-learning. From the teaching perspective, this can be summarized as "give
students what they need when they need it".
• Agile learning can refer to introducing agile thinking in companies. This perspective is frequently found in talks
and papers that deal with innovation and organizational learning.

Links
Agile learning as proposed by CS and management people
[1]
• Agile learning - an alternative learning model Agile learning and teaching with wikis: building a pattern Marija
Cubric,
[2]
• PDF of the Poster
Agile development
[3]
• Agile Manifesto
[4]
• Open Agile is a simple agile method designed to be broadly applicable to many different types of work. It
includes a basic definition of a process, roles, artifacts, and basic practices as well as a glossary and comparisons
to other methods of working.
• Agile software development [5] (Wikipedia)
Agile learning

Bibliography
• Bork, Alfred (2002). Agile learning with highly interactive computer modules, Library Hi Tech News, 19 (4).
• Novak J.& Patterson E. (1998). Just-In-Time Teaching: Active Learner Pedagogy With WWW, IASTED International
Conference on Computers and Advanced Technology in Education,May 27 -30.
• Cohn M.2006.Agile Estimating and Planning.NewJersey: Pearson Education (An introduction to agile
development principles)

Anchored instruction
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Definition
• Anchored instruction “ refers to instruction in which the material to be learned is presented in the context of an
authentic event that serves to anchor or situate the material and, further, allows it to be examined from multiple
perspectives.” (Barab 2000:5)
• “ Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for technology-based learning that has been developed by the
Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV) under the leadership of John Bransford.” ( Anchored
Instruction [1], retrieved 13:24, 21 July 2006 (MEST))
 21
• “ Anchored instruction lies within the social constructivist paradigm since small groups work together to
understand and solve realistic problems. Anchored instruction is most closely related to the goal-based scenario
model. While anchored instruction may also resemble problem-based learning (PBL), it is less open-ended.” [2]

The model
Draf
• Learners are presented "stories" (a case study, a problem, etc.) that encourages learners to perceive / formulate
problems.
• This material and further materials then serve to "anchor" subsequent learning. It also should encourage
exploration.

Jasper
Jasper [3] was the main anchored instruction project at Vanderbilt.
The Jasper series is based on the assumption that thinking is enhanced by access to powerful concepts and not
simply through access to a general set of thinking skills. Therefore, Jasper is designed to teach thinking in contexts
that are rich in content as well as in the need for general strategies.
Jasper's close cousins are case-based learning, problem-based learning, and project-based learning. More
specifically, Jasper series represents an example of problem-based learning that has been modified to make it more
useable in K-12 settings. These modifications include the use of a visual story format to present problems, plus the
use of "embedded data" and "embedded teaching" to seed the environment with ideas relevant to problem
solving. Jasper is also designed to set the stage for subsequent project-based learning. Its overall goal is to help
students transform "mere facts" into "powerful conceptual tools."
[4]
(Jasper in More Detail , retrieved 13:24, 21 July 2006 (MEST))
Anchored instruction

Technology
• Jasper Adventure Player and Adventure Maker software programs (available somewhere ??) • Delivery
System: initially videodisks then CD Roms

Links
• Anchored Instruction [1] from the TIP database.
[3]
• The Adventures of Jasper Woodbury . 'The anchored instruction project.

References
• Barab,S.A. K. E. Hay & T.M. Duffy (2000), Grounded Constructions and How Technology Can Help, CRLT Technical
Report No. 12-00, The Center for Research on Learning and Technologyn, Indiana University.
• Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1992). The Jasper series as an example of anchored instruction:
Theory, program description and assessment data. Educational Psychologist, 27, 291-315.
• Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. The Jasper Experiment: An exploration of Issues in Learning and
Instructional Design. ETR and D, 1992, 40, 65-80
• Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1993). Anchored instruction and situated cognition revisited.
Educational Technology, 33(3), 52-70.
• Glaser, C. W., & Prestidge, L. K. (1995). Using Technology to Support Special Education Teachers'
 22
Implementation of the Theory of Anchored Instruction. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research
• The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1997), The Jasper Project Lessons in Curriculum, instruction,
Assessment, and Professional Development ISBN: 0-8058-2593-2
Backwards design

Backwards design

Definition
• Backwards design (or backward design) is an instructional design method invented by Wiggins and McTighe and
is part of their larger Understanding by Design framework.
• “ Backward design begins with the end in mind: What enduring understandings do I want my students to
develop?” ([1]). It is particularly suited for teacher designers who think in terms of what they wish to achieve.

The model
The model has 3 stages:
1. Identify desired results (learning outcomes)
• “ What should students know, understand, and be able to do? What is worthy of understanding? What
enduring understandings are desired?” ([2])
2. Determine Acceptable Evidence (means to assess if learners have learnt)
• “ How will we know if students have achieved the desired results and met the standards? What will we accept
as evidence of student understanding and proficiency?”([2])
3. Plan learning experiences and instruction. This includes:
• definition of knowledge (know-that), skills and procedures (know-how) students ought to master •
definition of materials
• definition of learning /teaching activities (scenarios).
Wiggins and McTighe insist a lot on enduring understandings and that go beyond simple facts and skills to include
larger concepts, principles or processes.

Variants
There exist other variants, e.g. below is a set of steps adapted to specific schoolteachers in a specific environment
(see Backward Design Overview & FAQ [1]:
1. Decide on the themes, enduring understandings and essential questions for the unit.
2. Design a summative for the end of the unit.
3. Align the unit with the New York State ELA Standards and choose outcomes, strategies and best practices to
teach them.
4. Choose resources to create a rich and engaging multi-genre thematically-linked unit.
5. Weave back and forth across the curriculum map to make revisions and refinements.

Links
[3]
• Developing Goals and Objectives
• Understanding by Design Exchange [4]. This is the Website sponsored by Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe.
 23
Includes resources.

• Understanding by Design [5] (PDF Slides by Ellen.B Meier)

• Principles of Backward Design [6]
[1]
• Backward Design (Overview & FAQ at B. Ladwig and K Pagano-Fuller's English Language Arts Site.)
[7] [8]
• Backward design process at DigitalLiteracy (include a nice 1-page summary in PDF .
[6]
• Principles of Backward Design (Short overview and some pointers).
Backwards design

[9]
• Janice Christy (2004), Teaching for Understanding (This short article gives and overview of the larger context
"learning by design").

References
[2]
• Wiggins,G., McTighe, J. (2006) Are the Best Curricular Designs "Backward"?
• Wiggins,G., McTighe, J. (2001). Understanding by Design, Prentice Hall. ISBN 013093058X
• Wiggins,G. & Jay McTighe: (2004). Understanding by Design Professional Development Workbook, Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD [10]), Alexandria, VA.

C3MS project-based learning model

Draf
Author: Daniel K. Schneider, TECFA, University of Geneva

Definition
This article is Part 1 of the TECFA SEED Catalog. It is a summary of Conception and implementation of rich
[1]
pedagogical scenarios through collaborative portal sites: clear focus and fuzzy edges and Conception and
[2]
implementation of rich pedagogical scenarios through collaborative portal sites . It also takes into account recent
technological developments.
The C3MS project-based learning model is a project-oriented design that engages students in frequent content-
production as well as collaboration through collective activities. In addition it attempts to build "community". C3MS
stands for Community, Collaboration and Content Management System and refers to both a design (a conceptual
system) and to C3MS, a kind of portalware.
Since the emergence of web 2.0, we also can argue that webtops would support a C3MS 2.0 variant of the model.
Examples described in here were technically implemented with the PostNuke portalware, but with some
modifications they also could have happened within a "Web 2.0" space. E.g. sharable webtops such as pageflakes
could replace the integrating function of a portal.

The model

Activity-based and production-based teaching

At the core of the model is the idea that some forms of learning rely a lot on "activity-based teaching" strategies
that orchestrated, scaffolded and monitored by the teacher.
 24
Activity-based teaching and learning can be tied to various socio-constructivists thoughts. Our definition of socio-
constructivism is quite large. First of all as an understanding of learning that stresses the importance of knowledge
construction based on previous knowledge and interaction with the social environment, e.g. theories that have
grown out of constructivism (Piaget) and socio-culturalism (Vygotsky). Second as a set of pedagogies that use
strategies like project-, problem-, case-based learning. These pedagogical models favor "production or
construction-based" teaching, since both internal meaning and external artefacts are to be constructed (see also:
writing-to-learn). We call them "activity-based", since the teacher has to design, to facilitate and to monitor
student activities.
Socio-constructivist pedagogies present a certain amount of differences, but it is possible to isolate common
denominators. For instance, Wilson (2000) distinguishes three key principles for an efficient use of the Internet for
learning:
C3MS project-based learning model 25

• Provide access to rich sources of information

• Promote fruitful interaction with contents
• Get learners to overcome challenges, support each others and answer to others' inputs
Powerful learning environments that aim at the development of general problem skills, deeper conceptual
understanding and more applicable knowledge include according to Merriënboer and Pass (2003) the following
characteristics:
"(1) the use of complex, realistic and challenging problems that elicit in learners active and constructive processes
of knowledge and skill acquisition; (2) the inclusion of small group, collaborative work and ample opportunities for
interaction, communication and co-operation; and (3) the encouragement of learners to set their own goals and
provision of guidance for students in taking more responsibility for their own learning activities an processes." Our
own common denominators are:
• A certain kind of task authenticity, including information richness
• (repeated) student productions leading to a final "product"
• exchange and discussion
• some openness regarding the solution process, e.g. the student has to do some goal setting
Socio-constructivist pedagogical strategies including project-based and collaborative learning do not guarantee
automatic results. Framing and support by teachers is crucial to their success. Both learners and teachers are
frequently "lost" and it therefore is important that teachers do not just propose "projects to do" and provide "help
whenever needed". In other words, effectiveness is not guaranteed by adapting vague pedagogical strategies. One
way to achieve pedagogical effectiveness is to use somewhat structured scenarios where the teacher fulfills a triple
role of orchestrator (designer), facilitator, and manager of pedagogical scenarios.

The teacher's role in a C3MS design

As we shall explain below, design of appropriate environments are not courseware centered, although some
courseware may be used to tutor individual students according to emerging needs. What we need are tools to
support this "structured activity-based learning" and that includes a lot of writing activities as we shall see.
We believe that our C3MS approach also be useful to teachers who favor more instructionalist (behaviorist
designs). Our concerns also can be expressed in more classical instructional design theory. For instance, Merril's
first principles of instruction identify the following five components:
• Learning is facilitated when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems.
• Learning is facilitated when existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge.
• Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner.
• Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is applied by the learner.
• Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is integrated into the learner's world.
What is common between more socio-constructivist design and modern instructional theory à la Merril or
Merriënboer and that can be found in influential readers like Reigeluth (1999) is the idea that learners have to "do"
things and that "doing" must be meaningful. The major difference is that more cognitivist approaches usually apply
higher guidance including direct instruction during initial phases of a project-oriented course. Daniel K. Schneider
believes that this "C3MS" model is compatible with both. After all, it only claims that a project-oriented design
should be segmented into smaller scenarios (activities) which should be structured and lead to
C3MS project-based learning model 26

inspectable/discussable products and the whole thing should happen within a computer-supported environment
that also favors building a community of learning (see the end of this article).
The workflow "Ur-loop" (to be adapted of course to specific scenarios) is the following:

The C3MS activities "Ur-loop"

Details of the model and supporting technology

Overview
Pedagogical story-boarding with a C3MS follows a simple principle. The teacher creates a pedagogical scenario
(activity) by defining different phases of the work process. Each phase contains at least an elementary activity
which in turn should be supported by a tool (portal or web 2.0 brick). Larger projects can contain several smaller
scenarios. See the Catalog of simple scenarios for some suggestions.
The scenario building bricks are elementary activities, e.g. something like "search on the Internet", "insert a link",
"make a comment", "coedit a text", "vote for something", "enter an item to a glossary". See the Catalog of
elementary activities for a list of these.
Supporting software
Any computer-supported activity-based pedagogy needs tools that are different from traditional learning
management systems. There are many choices, e.g. to implement scenarios in the spirit of IMS Learning Design one
could use a system like LAMS. However, the C3MS approach is a bit a different: There is less emphasizing of story-
boarding and activities happen in more open project-oriented atmosphere. Basically, students engage in writing
activities in various forms of collaboration (single, group collaborative, class collective) and we need a system that
supports this.
The following figure points out the differences between a system needed for simple transmissive e-learning
("learning I" in Baumgartner and Kaltz) and software needed for a project-oriented design ("learning III"). Main-
stream e-learning requires that teaching materials are well prepared in advance (by either a teacher or a content
expert) and that it is used "as is". Learners usually are supposed to digest this material (repetitively if needed) in a
rather isolated way. The same contents are used over many classes, unless something needs to fixed. Activity-based
pedagogies assign a more diverse role ICT and to the document. Learners generally select the documents they need
by themselves from a larger choice (which includes the whole Internet). More importantly, they actively participate
in the production of documents, some of which can be reused later on. They also should be allowed to annotate
documents, i.e. enrich them by their own experience. In more general terms, activity-based teaching needs a
C3MS project-based learning model 27

computer mainly as a facilitating structure, a thinking, working & communication tool and not as a content
transmission device. Accordingly, most student and teacher activities should be supported by computational tools
and lead to new "contents". Within this perspective we can see that activities and roles are defined in a
collaborative expressive digital media framework

Learning management systems vs. Living

document and collaboration systems

A living document and collaboration system can be as simple as a wiki, but a integrated set of several tools may turn
out to offer some advantages, i.e. we claim that different kinds of writing and collaboration activities may be better
scaffolded by different tools. Environments that integrate various useful tools are portals or webtops, and also
some software developed in educational technology research labs. In this context we stick to popular open source
or web
2.0 open access software since it is software that is both teacher-enabling (they have control) and "street proven".
Such environments should provide at least the following functionalities:
• Access to rich information sources (not just stream-lined e-learning blocks) by various means, e.g. browsing,
searching by categories or popularity, searching by keywords.
• Affordable interaction with various types of information contents (including annotation).
• Rich interactions between actors, that are facilitated by awareness mechanisms (who did what, what is new,
etc.)
• Simple integration of these activities through a "place".
Of course these environments can not provide all the tools than can be imagined (e.g. data analysis), but it should
be planned that at least the products of activities should be posted on-line, in order to discuss, annotate and reuse
them.
Story-boarding with a C3MS
Pedagogical story-boarding with a C3MS follows a simple principle. The teacher creates a pedagogical scenario
(activity) by defining different phases of the work process. Each phase contains at least an elementary activity
which in turn should be supported by a tool (portal brick). Larger projects can contain several smaller scenarios.
The scenario building bricks, i.e. elementary activities are something like "search on the Internet", "insert a link",
"make a comment", "coedit a text", "vote for something", "enter an item to a glossary".

Designing courses with the C3MS model

Integration of scenarios and activities

C3MS project-based learning model 28

In large project-oriented design, various scenarios need to be integrated. Since neither C3MS nor webtops provide
integrated workflow capabilities, the teacher must select one or two special announcement tools in order to
"drive" a scenario or a larger project. The easiest solution for scenario management (i.e. setting tasks, describing
resources and providing feedback) is to use a News engine, Forums or a Wiki.
Of course, once could imaging that richer integration modules could be programmed. In the SEED project, we
actually did develop a few prototype tools.
ePBL is a "Project-Based e-Learning" module and it provides the following functions: (1) Scaffold students during
their projects by "forcing" them to fill in their project specification (through an XML grammar); (2) help students
write their final article and (3) help teachers monitor easily several projects in parallel and give them feedback on
time. We will describe an example course using ePBL later .
pScenario was a prototype tool inspired by Moodle and that allows teachers to assemble scenarios for various
pedagogical formats (face-to-face, at distance or mixed) and to associate student activities with other tools. It is up
to teacher to clearly identify needed tools and to combine pScenario with other PostNuke tools (e.g. Wiki, Links
manager, News Engine or special educational tool) into a teaching portal. pScenario also could be used to
administer a typical American graduate course that features readings, short exercises and a term paper. Finally, the
CRAFT laboratory at EPFL developed a project management tool that allows a teacher to run larger project-based
courses. See
Since the project ran out in 2004 and we lack resources, these modules haven't been further developed. It's the
common story of edutech projects. Therefore, we suggest to teachers to use the News Engine or a blog to drive
scenarios. An other alternative is to look at recent (2007) developments like CeLS and LAMS that are activity-based
pedagogical workflow engines. IMS Learning Design engines, once implemented also are of interest to teachers
who whish to work with a formalized environment that supports workflows.
The TECFA SEED Catalog
Since both C3MS portalware and modern webtops have a modular and an extensible architecture, they can be
adapted/combined/ configured to many specific usage scenarios. Our hope was to create some sort of educational
modules economy with the PostNuke platform. The next figure shows the model of such a "scenarios and portal
modules" economy. It did not happen in education, i.e. not many new specifically educational modules came to
existence. However, since we only came up with the idea in 2001, it is too early to call the idea a failure. Innovation
usually takes longer and other initiatives like the educational user community for Drupal may have more success.
On the other hand, creative educational repurposing of all sorts of Internet technology (including portals and web
2.0 tools) did and does happen. Creative teachers use any software that helps them teaching, and Daniel K.
Schneider often has the impression that tools not made for education are popular than the ones made for
education and for various reasons we will not develop here.
By "modules economy" we mean that a teacher installs some portalware (not too difficult) or a sharable webtops
(easy) and that he expands this environment by adding modules in order to support various teaching scenarios.
Below is figure dated 2003.

Portal configuration and modules economy

[3]
Now compare this diagram with Michele Martin 's diagram of her personal learning environment.
C3MS project-based learning model 29

Michele Martin's PLE

What she did for herself could inspire a teacher:

• He could have his private environment (webtop page) or individual tools
• An environment share with a class (webtop page) or individual tools
• Have students create their individual, group or class environments that are shared with the teacher
• Encourage students to create their own private space.
The whole thing then would be a networked C3MS from his teaching perspective, but with the additional benefit
that learners may have their own personal environments and that they could customize their productions as
learning e-portfolios. “With the increase of teachers using blogs and wikis, and students networking and utilizing
[4]
online tools, the demand for easier and more efficient ways of learning is on the rise.” Brian Benzinger , retrieved
19:15, 1 June 2007 (MEST)).
I made a little mockup with pageflakes to demonstrate the principle.

To jump start your own scenarios

The TECFA SEED Catalog

To make things a bit easier for teachers, we created in 2001 the TECFA SEED Catalog. It is split into three sub-
catalogs in this wiki:
1. Some simple example activities are described in the Catalog of simple scenarios (also called catalog of activities).
Each scenarios is composed of a certain amount of steps that can be described in terms of generic elementary
educational activities.
2. We labelled this generic simple activities described in the Catalog of elementary activitieswith a tag like
"BrainStrom" or "SubmitComment".
3. Technical "C3MS bricks" are described in Catalog of C3MS bricks support most of these labeled generic activities.
A recent addition is the list of web 2.0 applications which is a more modern alternative to using portalware.
A teacher can plan educational scenarios with the help of a more abstract vocabulary that will help him to choose
from a set of supporting technology. But this is not a necessity. He also can just make up a scenarios and the
browse through portalware modules repositories and/or web 2.0 module catalogues and see if there is a set of
tools that might support a design.

Example 1 - A scenario template at high-school level

Let's examine a small scenario template that illustrates the basic principles of scenario planning that could happen
in a specialized biology class a high school level. Imagine a class where students have to study wild-life of the area.
One could imagine that each student can select an animal for study (including more "exotic" genres like insects and
fish) and that for each animal a certain amount of options remain open, e.g. study of habitat, behavior with
humans, reproduction, etc.
Each project should be defined individually, but the general approach could remain similar for all participants as
expressed in the figure. There also could be a certain amount of collective activities, like the construction of a
glossary that defines essential terms. If the teacher considers glossary making important for reasons like "students
will better understand terms if they search and write and discuss them" or "students really should put some effort
C3MS project-based learning model 30

into understanding the vocabulary of a domain before they work within", then he can look at our template and fit it
to his own needs which are driven by constraints such as education level, time constraints and available technology.

Glossary scenario within a larger project

This collaborative glossary template is just a suggestion. It is important to state again that we only provide ideas
regarding the different phases and that we do not even suggest a single mapping to elementary activities nor a
single mapping of elementary activities to a technical module. In other words, the teacher must be in control
throughout the whole design process. Daniel K. Schneider believes that educational technologists should only offer
"half-baked" solutions. Ideally, teachers have to adapt a pedagogical-technical implementation to their conceptual
and technical skills and to what they have available. There is also a technical compromise to made between
selecting the best tools for each task and not to overwhelm the students with too many tools to be used within a
scenario. This example nicely shows some of the "open decision space" teachers may have. After examining the
situation he may for instance come with the following solution (table below). As one can see, our hypothetical
teacher winds up with 3 tools (Wiki, Links Manager and the News Engine):
Phase Tools Instructions to students

1 participants identify Wiki After discussion in the classroom, each student has to select three terms and enter them
interesting "words" to the wiki as homework (first come, first goes)

2 agree on a provisional list Wiki In the classroom, the list is discussed and cleaned up and each student will receive 3 items
to work on.

3 search for information and Google,Links Each student has to produce 4 links (day 1) and comment 2 other links (day 2 of
share links manager homework)

4 synthesis and editing Wiki Each students receives 2 links and has to edit them. Students are encourages to link to
other items and external links.

5 teacher feedback News engine Teacher writes a feedback article which is also discussed in class.

6 editing of final definitions Wiki Students make final modification to their work and will be evaluated on this.

This example illustrates the structure of exploratory scenarios. Generally speaking, a teacher should think about the
following setup which reflects the principles of pedagogical workflow introduced in the article on the design of
smaller scenarios.
• Activities should start with some sort of conditioning that will generate curiosity, interest, motivation and also
show the interest of technology in our case. The initial classroom discussion and the perspective of publishing a
nice glossary on the Internet should do this. In addition, entering 3 words on a Wiki is not very difficult and will
make students familiar with the particularity of this tool
• Activities should give space to discovery by induction and therefore include exploration, search for information,
experimentation and formalization of working hypothesis that can be confronted to the others. Activities in
phase 3 of the above example partly implement this.
• Learners should be active and creative, even when they are involved in seemingly simple tasks like glossary
making. They should discuss and cooperate with their pairs. Our glossary scenario has some "build-in"
collaboration requirements.
• Feedback is important for each student activity. Therefore, we also suggest a formal evaluation of the final
product (including a score). The teacher may also give bonus points for cooperative behavior, e.g. forum
messages or helpful comments for the other's work. More details are discussed below.
C3MS project-based learning model 31

Example 2 - University teaching

Computer-supported project-based courses can nicely be set up in a « blended situation », where face to face
teaching is mixed with distance teaching. The methodology and techniques we are reporting here are developed
and studied by Synteta (2002) as part of her PhD Thesis and have been tested within DSchneider's teaching.
Variants of this model have then been carried out for 2 other classes a TECFA and for 2 distance teaching courses
outside our unit. We estimate that the methodology is ready to be used, although adjustments are needed in
several areas.
The course that we shall briefly describe here was about « exotic hypertexts » and taught in a mixed format by the
authors in 2002. It lasted 6 weeks, with a few initial half days in classroom and a 2 hour presentation of the projects
at the end of the course to 12 graduate students in educational technology, who were from many different
backgrounds. The students were given a large freedom of choice of subjects within the general theme. The basic
requirements were to produce a research plan, to respect task schedules, to participate in mandatory collective
work (including diary writing), then to execute the research plan and produce a draft on paper that presented
results.
Several pedagogical goals were set, namely (1) Learning something about a specific topic related to more exotic
hypertexts (Topic Maps, MOO spaces, Wikis, RDF/RSS syndication, etc.) ; (2) Learning XML ; and (3) learning how to
run exploratory projects.
Major phases of the Staf-18 course on « exotic hypertexts »
Phase Major Activity Date imposed tools
(products)
1 Get familiar with the subject 21-NOV-2002 links, Wiki, blog

2 project ideas, QandR 29-NOV-2002 classroom

3 Students formulate project 02-DEC-2002 newsengine, blog

ideas
4 Start project definition 05-DEC-2002 ePBL, blog

5 Finish provisional research plan 06-DEC-2002 ePBL, blog

6 Finish research plan 11-DEC-2002 ePBL, blog

7 Sharing 17-DEC-2002 links, blog, annotation

8 audit 20-DEC-2002 ePBL, blog

9 audit 10-J AN-2003 ePBL, blog

10 Finish paper and product 16-JAN-2003 ePBL, blog

11 Presentation of work 16-JAN-2003 classroom

Project ideas have previously been discussed in the classroom. Then, the course starts with a « wake up » activity in
which students had to fill in resources into the Links manager, and few definitions in the Wiki. The classroom
activity also includes some traditional teaching, i.e. several introductory lectures plus some questions. The next
step consists in formulating projects ideas as articles by the students.
Once they started working on a project, students had to use a special purpose project tool named ePBL, which
stands for « Project-Based e-learning » (Synteta, 2003), they had to define particularly research plans with a
specially made XML grammar. The required information did concern overall aim of the project, research goals and
questions, work packages, etc. Students could upload these files to a server by the means of a « versioning »
system. Since students had to work with a validating editor (of their own choice) the XML grammar reinforced the
research plans according to some norms. More importantly, the grammar acts as scaffolding or thinking tool
helping the students to produce and structure ideas. Contents of the uploaded project file are automatically parsed
and summary information is made available in a students/teacher cockpit. Students were asked at regular intervals
to update the project file (including workpackage completion information). Teachers then use the cockpit to
annotate the project with comments and to register a more formal evaluation. After each audit the teacher also
post a summary article in the portal. At the end of the course, students had to write a paper, using once more an
XML grammar from which an electronic book containing all the work has been produced.
C3MS project-based learning model 32

In addition to the above mentioned main activities, other interactions were carried out. Sometimes, articles about a
course-related topic were posted (even spontaneously by students). The portal has also support forums (both
technical and conceptual), it displays RSS news, and feeds summary of the news from other interesting sites. Some
side blocks contain awareness tools (that is connected, that is passed by new messages in forums, etc.). A shoutbox
(mini-chat) was used to reinforce the feeling of being « present » and for short messages from the teacher. Other
tools include a calendar and chat rooms.Daniel K. Schneider 17:28, 3 September 2009 (UTC): A shoutbox (mini-
chat) was used to reinforce the feeling of being « present » and for short messages from the teacher. Other tools
include a calendar and chat rooms. Lastly, after each activity students had to make a diary entry (personal Weblog)
that gave the teacher important information on encountered difficulties. The students have also used this tool and
the Wiki as personal sounding board.
The main tool used by the teacher besides the ePBL project definition and monitoring application tool was the
news engine. It was to be used to announce activities (at least one / week) and to provide feedback regarding
activities or observations (namely major difficulties found in Weblogs or forum messages). The news engine
therefore is a « heart- beat » tool that gives « pulse » to the whole process, which is considered as very important.
Results of this activity and several experiments with other teachers were very encouraging. We found that all
students defined interesting projects (either some exploratory empirical studies or some technical developments)
and that they came up with interesting results. The quality of the final paper in this specific course was not
generally very good, but then only a draft has been required and we hardly could ask more in a period of 6 weeks.
We found that by using this design, students worked harder and respected deadlines much better than others did
in previous promotions. Class spirit was quite extraordinary and we shall comment on this later. It also turned out
(and this is not surprising) that teacher involvement was a very critical variable. Constant pressure, but also rapid
feedback and availability of both the teacher and his teaching assistant were judged to be highly positive in student
interviews that we carried out.
We are therefore quite happy in claiming that this quickly outlined design seems to be a good instance of the
teacher as facilitator, manager and « orchestrator » paradigm. There were, of course, difficulties encountered in our
Staf-18 course, in particular, working with an XML grammar at the very beginning of their studies was both a culture
shock and a technical difficulty for most students. They never encountered structured text before and had big
difficulties to adapt to a knowledge-tree organization of text. They also had initial difficulties to work with several
tools at the same time and to participate in collective knowledge sharing and confrontation activities. However,
since activities were mandatory and tools were gradually introduced they very quickly (after about 2 weeks) felt
even « at home » in the portal, and really appreciated learning together.
See also the project-based learning article that addresses issues related to the general study environment.

Community, flow and creativity boosting with C3MS portals

While as we showed before, C3MS portal provide rich functionalities for pedagogical "story-boarding" they have
been designed first of all as community portals and therefore are ideally suited to boost collective learning,
creativity and optimal experience. As formulated by e-learning practitioner Gilroy (2001) "E-learning should be first
and foremost about creating a social space that must be managed for the teaching and learning needs of the
particular group of people inhabiting that space". Going one step further, on can claim that: "In order for
individuals to learn how to construct knowledge, it is necessary that the process be modeled and supported in the
surrounding community. This is what occurs in a learning community" (Bielaczyc & Collins 1999: 272).
While a large part of our knowledge comes indeed from formally planned learning scenarios, people learn a lot
from informal exchange with fellow learners, with professors, experts, i.e. from exchange within tightly or loosely
defined communities. We can define communities as networks, made up of individuals as well as public and private
institutions. They share a certain amount of practices, common goals and common language. They do have a social
organization including formal or informal hierarchies and some idea of "social service" (members helping each
other). To support community creation we believe that learning environments should be a social "place".
C3MS project-based learning model 33

Sharp focus and fuzzy edges

The C3MS environment summarized and revisited

First, the portal should be a rich information space for "domain support" and it should encourage students add
their own contribution. Such a space also encourages exploration. Typical tools are links managers, wikis, news
engines and RSS feed that keep users up-to-date about articles posted to other interesting portals or individual
weblogs. Intellectual support is provided via forums, annotations and articles. Student productions are always
accessible to all (including visitors) and therefore provide for recognition. One could manage activities by using
various standard tools like articles, forums and the calendar, but it may be more appropriate to use special purpose
tools.
In our experience, it has been shown that students are more like to contribute to an environment if they own an
identity. In the student's partly automatically generated home page on the portal one can see their contributions,
read public parts of their personal weblog and conversely each production in the portal is signed with a clickable
link to the author.
It is very important to us that teaching generates enthusiasm, enhances concentration and favors creativity, which
are very distinct but somehow interconnected phenomena. Lloyd P. Rieber (1998) convincingly argues that learning
process itself - and not just the result - should be interesting, if one seeks higher motivation among learners.
"Serious play" or "hard fun" are intense learning situations where learners engage large amounts of "energy" and
time and that do provide equally intensive pleasure at certain moments and which have been identified as flow or
"optimal experience" by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi in 1990.
Creativity is a far more complex issue and its relation to flow is not obvious. "Optimal experience" has been
described by gamers or programmers and enhances without doubt productivity, but does not necessarily entail
creativity. Creativity arises as combination of (1) the social field, (2) the domain (symbol systems of knowledge) and
(3) the individual traits. Education can act upon conditions, i.e. on educational tasks and the general learning
environment like the "class spirit" with the help of specially designed technology that we will introduce below. By
exposing students to open-ended, challenging, authentic and partly self-defined projects on one hand and by
providing scaffolding and support on the other, the teacher does create situations where individual traits can be
exposed and developed.

Creativity variables and enabling software

A successful teaching by projects pedagogy needs to provide strong emotional support and it is therefore
important to encourage spontaneous, playful interaction and corner's for humor that will augment quality of on-
line life and contribute to class spirit. Tools like the shoutbox or a little quotation box can do wonders. Lastly, but
not least, a personal weblog (diary) can stimulate meta-reflection, in particular if the teacher requires that students
write an entry after the completion of each activity.
Here is an executive summary of how to design such a learning environment:
C3MS project-based learning model 34

LE design = landscaping & conditioning

Discussion
to be written, including some results
In the meantime:
• Such a design has high costs for the teacher. Don't do it with more than 20 students (unless you have tutors that
do have domain and teaching expertise)
• Be prepared to be flexible, there is no problem to reorganize a course design. Of course you should respect some
form of pedagogical contract with students, in particular regarding the kind of intermediary products they have
to deliver and your evaluation scheme (Daniel K. Schneider usually grades almost every production).
Alternatives:
• You may find many more sophisticated models and environments to implement project-oriented and activity-
based designs, e.g, Learning Design with LAMS or workflow designs with CeLS (once this system becomes
available).
• However, this model is more failsafe and does rely on software that millions of people use. What you loose is
workflow integration, but workflow often means deadlocks, in other words more sophisticated designs with
sophisticated toolkits need more preparation. Once you do have a portalware or shared webtop installed, you
don't need more than 1 day of preparation for a course. Guiding, scaffolding and monitoring cost of course are
high or even higher. You can however profit from student productions, e.g. use them in a next round of teaching.
Real data (not just propaganda):
• 2 PhD thesis on the road, one completed ...

References
• Baumgartner, P. & Kalz, M. (2004). Content Management Systeme aus bildungstechnologischer Sicht in
Baumgartner, Peter; Häfele, Hartmut & Maier-Häfele, Kornelia: Content Management Systeme für e-Education.
Auswahl, Potenziale und Einsatzmöglichkeiten, Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2004.
• Baumgartner, P., I. Bergner und L. Pullich (2004). Weblogs in Education - A Means for Organisational Change. In:
Multimedia Applications in Education Conference (MApEC) Proceedings 2004. L. Zimmermann. Graz: 155-166.
[5]
• Baumgartner, P. (2004). The Zen Art of Teaching - Communication and Interactions in eEducation. Proceedings of
the International Workshop ICL2004, Villach / Austria 29 September-1 October 2004, Villach, Kassel University
Press. CD-ROM, ISBN: 3-89958-089-3. PDF [6]
[4]
• Benzinger, Brian (2006), Back to School with the Class of Web 2.0: Part 1, HTML . On 19:51, 14 May 2007
(MEST) this was the best "web 2.0" list made specifically for education I found.
• Class, Barbara et Mireille Bétrancourt (2004) Un portail en éducation à distance : vers quelle ergonomie
pédagogique ? / Ergonomics, community portal and distance learning : some pedagogical issues", Actes Ergo'IA
2004 [7]
C3MS project-based learning model 35

• Guzdial 2000, A catalog of CoWeb Uses, Collaborative Software Lab, College of Computing Georgia Tech,
November 2, 2000. URL: http:/ /coweb.cc.gatech.edu/ csl/24
• France Henri, Karin Lundgren-Cayrol. (2001). Apprentissage Collaboratif à Distance, Presses de l'Université du
Quebec, ISBN 2-7605-1094-8
• van Merriënboer, J.J.G. and Pass,F. (2003) Powerful Learning and the Many Faces of Instructional Design: Toward
a Framework for the Design of Powerful Learning Environments, in De Corte, E. et al. Powerful Learning
Environments: Unraveling Basic Components and Dimensions, Amsterdam: Pergamon, 3-20.
[8]
• Merril, David, M. (2002), First Principles of Instruction, PDF

• The Tecfa SEED Catalog [9]

• Schneider, D., Frété C., Synteta,V. (2002a) "Community, Content and Collaboration Management Systems:
socio- constructivist scenarios for the masses?", Proceedings of Ed Media 2002, Denever, 24-29 juin 2002.
• Schneider, D., Synteta,V., Frété C., (2002b) "Community, Content and Collaboration Management Systems in
Education: A new chance for socio-constructivist scenarios?". Proceedings of the 3rd Congress on Information
and Communication Technologies in Education, Rhodes, September 26th-29th 2002
• Schneider, Daniel. (2005) "Gestaltung kollektiver und kooperativer Lernumgebungen" in Euler & Seufert (eds.), E-
Learning in Hochschulen und Bildungszentren. Gestaltungshinweise für pädagogische Innovationen, München:
[10]
Oldenbourg. Preprint in PDF

• Schneider, Daniel with Paraskevi Synteta, Catherine Frété, Fabien Girardin, Stéphane Morand (2003) Conception
and implementation of rich pedagogical scenarios through collaborative portal sites: clear focus and fuzzy edges.
ICOOL International Conference on Open and Online Learning, December 7-13, 2003, University of Mauritius.
PDF [1].
• Schneider Daniel & Paraskevi Synteta (2005). Conception and implementation of rich pedagogical scenarios
through collaborative portal sites, in Senteni,A. Taurisson,A. Innovative Learning & Knowledge Communities / les
communautés virtuelles: apprendre, innover et travailler ensemble", ICOOL 2003 & Colloque de Guéret 2003
selected papers, a University of Mauritius publication, under the auspices of the UNESCO, ISBN-99903-73-19-1.
[2]
PDF Preprint

• Wilson, B. & Lowry, M. (2001), Constructivist Learning on the Web, in Burge,L. (Ed.),Learning Technologies:
Reflective and Strategic Thinking. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education.
HTML [11].

C5 simulation framework
Draf

Definition
C5 (compact, connected, continuous, customizable, collective simulations) is an architecture to tightly connect four
information technologies (handheld devices, desktop computers, the Web, and end-user programming) into an
engaging, inquiry-based learning environment.

This article should be expanded. The concept is from the AgentSheets team. (Alexander Repenning gave a talk [1] at
TECFA and these were the highlights I wrote down - DSchneider 23:30, 7 December 2006 (MET))
C3MS project-based learning model 36

The Mr Vetro project

A distributed simulation of the human body. Tested in real world setting, this approach looks promising. Initial
evidence of a comparative textbook teaching vs. simulation field test with 2 classes shows:
• Better scores in non-standard complex problem-solving tests ("deeper understanding")
• Same standardized test scores (which is a good result)
• Better retention (after 1 month)
• Increased motivation

Links
• Alexander Repenning and Andri IoannidouDistributed Simulations: Mr. Vetro [2]

References
• Mr. Vetro: a Collective Simulation Framework [3]
 37
CPM

CPM
Draf

Definition
CPM was developed by Pierre Laforcade and others in the context of a PHD thesis.
“Within the industrial context of e-learning, Educational Modeling languages (EML) aim in essence to describe the
content and process within "units of learning" in order to support reuse and interoperability. These languages
emphasize the formal specification of models called scenarios. We present in this paper our research results about
the proposition of a UML-based modeling language dedicated to Problem-Based Learning design. The CPM (Co-
operative PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING Metamodel) language successes in providing a rich-graphical formalism to
designers/authors of PBL. Our contribution covers the instructional design process from initial requirements step to
design step upstream EMLs. Thanks to a binding mechanism provided when using dedicated tools, the CPM
language finally conforms to the EML definition.” ([Laforcade, 2005: Abstract]).

Screen Capture of the CPM system. Source:

http:
www-liumuniv-lemansfr ~laforcadCPM
CPM%20-%20presentation%20v0pp

Software
CPM was a research system.
CPM is implemented a module for the free-of-charge UML CASE-tool Objecteering. Dowload

You can download from Thierry's home page [1].

Links
• Homepage Laforcade [2] (includes publications, etc. Some online).
• PPT presentation slides [3]
CPM

Bibliography
• Laforcade, P. (2005). Towards a UML-Based Educational Modeling Language, Advanced Learning
 38
[4]
Technologies, 2005. ICALT 2005. Fifth IEEE International Conference, pp. 855-859. Abstract/Citeulike . ISBN 0-
7695-2338-2
• Laforcade, Pierre; Thierry Nodenot, Christian Sallaberry (2005). Un langage de modélisation pédagogique basé
[5]
sur UML. STICEF vol. 12. Abstract/HTML/PDF
• Laforcade, Pierre (2005). Méta-modélisation UML pour la conception et la mise en oeuvre de situations-
problèmes coopératives, Thèse de doctorat de l'Université de Pau et des pays de l'Adour, Le mémoire de thèse
[6]
(PDF [8Mo )]
• Laforcade P., Nodenot T., Choquet C., Caron P.-A., (2007), Model-Driven Engineering (MDE) and
Model-Driven Architecture (MDA) applied to the Modelling and Deployment of Technology Enhanced Learning
(TEL) Systems: promises, challenges and issues. In: Architecture Solutions for E-Learning Systems, p. 116-136,
Edité par Claus Pahl, ISBN 978-159904633-4.
• Nodenot, Thierry; Pierre Laforcade, Xavier Lepallec (2007). Visual Design of coherent Technology-Enhanced
Learning Systems: a few lessons learned from CPM language, in
• Laforcade Pierre (2007). Visualization of Learning Scenarios with UML4LD, Journal of Learning Design, Vol. 2,
Num. 2 Page : 31-42

Acknowledgement: This article or part of this article has been written during a collaboration with the EducTice [7]
[8]
group of INRP , which attributed a visiting grant to DKS in january 2009.

Campbell-Lom mentoring model

Draf

Definition
The Campbell-Lom mentoring model is a simple e-mail mechanism to enhance reflection, independence, and
communication in young researchers. (Note: Our name of the model - Daniel K. Schneider, the authors call it five
questions method).
The aim of this model is to promote higher levels of thinking necessary for successful research.
See also: Metacognition, Self-regulation, Self-directed learning, mentoring.

The model
To enhance communication, comprehension, reflection, and independence among undergraduate research
students, Campbell and Lom (2006) developed a simple mechanism. On a regular basis, they ask their research
students to answer these short questions via e-mail:
Question 1 - How have you spent your time?
• Stimulates students to document their progress.
• Mentor can evaluate student participation and efficiency.
• Can also help the mentor and student identify any issues with efficiency, time management, and research
priorities that may arise.
Question 2 - What do you know? (what did you learn recently)
• Also stimulates students to document their progress.
Campbell-Lom mentoring model
 39
• this question sets an upbeat tone and helps them document new lessons learned since their last entry.
• helps both students and mentors appreciate the intellectual gains students are making as they go through the
research process.
Question 3 - What don't you know?
• Encourage students to identify gaps in their knowledge and ways to fill in those gaps (see also next question)
• By explicitly encouraging students to define the specific gaps in their knowledge, students are helped
acknowledge and approach their uncertainty in a way that encourages them to communicate and problem solve.
• A first step for students learning to take charge of their own education, think independently, and develop
problem-solving strategies.
Question 4 - How can you find out what you don't know?
• Encourage students to identify gaps in their knowledge and ways to fill in those gaps
• Identifies critical areas where the mentor may have inadvertently assumed knowledge that the students do not
yet have, where students misunderstood important information, or where expectations may have been unclear.
Question 5 - What are your frustrations?
• Allows students to identify and share any roadblocks they encounter in their research and learning.
• Opens the door for students and mentors to address personal problems related to lab research. This is important
since failures of interpersonal communication can result in situations that reduce the efficiency with which the
laboratory operates

Practical issues
Cost
“ Principal investigators typically are busy people with responsibilities that extend far beyond supervising new
students in their labs. Consequently, our five-question approach may sound like more busywork that will add to e-
mail accounts that are already overwhelming. However, the time commitment of our approach is minimal and the
payoff substantial, even time saving, for student learning and meeting our research goals.” (Campbell & Lom, 2006).
Frequency
According to the authors, “ a once-a-week e-mail works well for independent study or group investigation research
courses during the academic year. For full-time summer research students, daily answers combined into one week-
long document submitted Friday afternoons works very well”.

Evaluation
This 'five questions' method was piloted during the summer of 2005 with four research students. During the 2005-
2006 academic year, Campbell and Lom used these questions in two group investigation courses.
“ The five-question e-mails revealed many important issues that could be addressed easily during the lab meeting
such as allocation of research time, clarifying research objectives, assigning research tasks, scheduling training
times, and addressing conceptual questions. Any lingering or individual questions were addressed by e-mail or in
person. At the end of the semester, students commented favorably on anonymous evaluation sheets that asked if
the weekly e-mail assignment helped them reflect on what they were learning and communicate with the
instructor.” (Campbell & Lom, 2006).
Campbell-Lom mentoring model

References
Main reference
• Campbell A. Malcolm and Barbara Lom (2006). A Simple E-Mail Mechanism To Enhance Reflection,
Independence, and Communication in Young Researchers, CBE Life Sci Educ. 2006 Winter; 5(4): 318-322. doi:
 40
[1]
10.1187/cbe.06-06-0170 Abstract/HTML/PDF
Some references used by Campbell and Lom
• Blank L. A metacognitive learning cycle: a better warranty for student understanding? Science Educ.
2000;84:486-506.
• King, P. M.; Kitchener, K. S. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 1994. Developing Reflective Judgment: Understanding and
Promoting Intellectual Growth and Critical Thinking in Adolescents and Adults. Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult
Education Series and Jossey-Bass Social and Behavioral Science Series.
• Pfund C., Pribbenow C. M., Branchaw J., Lauffer S. M., Handelsman J. The merits of training mentors. Science.
2006;311:473-474. Abstract/PDF [2]
• Smith C. D., Whiteley H. E., Smith S. Using email for teaching. Computers Educ. 1999;33(1):15-25.
• Tobias, S. Tucson, AZ: Research Corporation; 1992. Revitalizing Undergraduate Science: Why Some Things Work
and Most Don't.
• Yu, F.-y.; Yu, H.-J.J. Incorporating e-mail into the learning process: its impact on student academic achievement
and attitudes. Computers Educ. 2002;38(1-3):117-126.

Carroll model of school learning

Draf

Definition
• In 1993, John Carroll proposed a model for school learning. Learning was defined as function of efforts spent in
relation to efforts needed. Most of the model is time based.
• According to Huitt ([1]): School Learning = f(time spent/time needed). (DSchneider believes that this definition
does not capture the full model).

The Model
According to Reeves (1997) Carroll's model include six elements with one output variable, one input variable and 4
intermediate variables.
• Academic Achievement is the output (as measured by various sorts standard achievement tests)
• Aptitude is the main explanatory variable defined as the "the amount of time a student needs to learn a given
task, unit of instruction, or curriculum to an acceptable criterion of mastery under optimal conditions of
instruction and student motivation" (Carroll, 1989: 26). This definition of aptitude very much reminds the
principle behind mastery learning. "High aptitude is indicated when a student needs a relatively small amount of
time to learn, low aptitude is indicated when a student needs much more than average time to learn" (Carrol:
1989: 26).
• Opportunity to learn: Amount of time available for learning both in class and within homework. Carroll
(1998:26) notes that "frequently, opportunity to learn is less than required in view of the students aptitude.
• Ability to understand instruction: relates to learning skills, information needed to understand, and language
comprehension.
Carroll model of school learning

• Quality of instruction: good instructional design, e.g. like it is usually defined in behaviorist frameworks like nine
events of instruction. If quality of instruction is bad, time needed will increase.
 41
• Perseverance: Amount of time a student is willing to spend on a given task or unit of instruction. This is an
operational and measurable definition for motivation for learning.

Time needed to learn and quality of instruction

The most important question the Carroll model (and numerous follow-up studies) raises is: What is appropriate
time needed to learn (TTL) ?
“ The model of school learning assumes that students differ in the amount of learning time they need. If these
differences are to be adequately taken account of, considerable skill in classroom management is required of
teachers” (Carroll 1989: 29).
See also the instructional time article.
Carrol's model differs from Bloom's by seeking equality of "opportunity", not necessarily equality of attainment. “
Emphasizing equality of opportunity means not only providing appropriate opportunities to learn ( appropriate, not
necessarily equal for all students), but also pushing all student's potentialities as far as possible toward their upper
limits.” (Carroll 1989:30). According to Carroll, good planning is a key factor, but also good instructional design.

Links
[1]
• Huitt, Overview of Classroom Processes / Carroll's Model of School Learning, HTML (retrieved 17:24, 23 May
2006 (MEST)).

References
[2]
• Berliner, David, C. (1990). What's All the Fuss About Instructional Time? HTML . From: The Nature of Time in
Schools Theoretical Concepts, Practitioner Perceptions (1990).
New York and London: Teachers College Press; Teachers College, Columbia University;
• Carroll, J. B. (1968). On learning from being told. Educational Psychologist, 5, 4-10.
• Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64, 723-733.
• Carroll, J. B. (1989), The Carroll Model: A 25-Year Retrospective and Prospective View, Educational Researcher, 18
[3]
(1) 26-31. HTML (restricted access).
Carroll model of school learning
 42
• Reeves, TC, & Reeves, PM (1997). A model of the effective dimensions of interactive learning on the World Wide
Web. PDF [4]. (This paper provides a good introduction to the Carroll Model and adds its own model of WWW-
based learning).

Case-based learning
Draf
Note: I started to overhaul this piece a bit and to find some more literature and web resources. So far I don't like it
(too many vague bullet points, too much copy/paste from sources that are not clearly referenced. Use with care
and rather follow up links.) - Daniel K. Schneider 19:35, 11 October 2007 (MEST).

What is case-based learning?

Case-based learning (CBL) is an instructional design model that is a variant of project-oriented learning. It is popular
in business and law schools. CBL in a narrow sense is quite similar to to problem-based learning, but it may also be
more open ended as in our definition of project-based learning. It is not close to what we called Project-
methodology-based learning.
[1]
According to the Case-based Learning page of the Center for Instructional Development & Distance Education ,
retrieved 19:35, 11 October 2007 (MEST), “Cases are factually-based, complex problems written to stimulate
classroom discussion and collaborative analysis. Case teaching involves the interactive, student-centered
exploration of realistic and specific situations. As students consider problems from a perspective which requires
analysis, they strive to resolve questions that have no single right answer.”
Note: CBL is also a subfield of artificial intelligence. Case-based learning as technology can be found in advanced
systems like Intelligent tutoring systems, e.g. to find stories to support reasoning (Jonassen & Hernandez-Serrano,
2002)
In an earlier (now unavailable) version [2], CIDDE, defines Case-based learning (CBL) as “instruction by the use of
stories about individuals facing decisions or dilemmas” and was characterized as follows: Features
• learner-centered
• Collaboration and cooperation between the participants • discussion of specific situations, typically real-
world examples.
• questions with no single right answer.
Students
• engaged with the characters and circumstances of the story.
• identify problems as they perceive it
• connect the meaning of the story to their own lives.
• bring their own background knowledge and principles.
• raise points and questions, and defend their positions.
• formulate strategies to analyze the data and generate possible solutions.
• may not agree, and sometimes a compromise is reached.
Teacher
• facilitator
• encourages exploration of the case and consideration of the characters' actions in light of their own decisions.
Cases
Case-based learning 43

• factually-based
• complex problems written to stimulate classroom discussion and collaborative analysis.
• involves the interactive, student-centered exploration of realistic and specific situations.
Cases have traditionally been used to teach decision making skills in professional education. More recently, cases
are being used for learning medical science in PBL. The medical school use of cases differs from that in other
professional schools in that PBL focuses on medical subject matter content more so than on decision-making.

Type of Cases
[3]
According to Planning for Case-Based Learning (retrieved 19:35, 11 October 2007 (MEST)), “ the format of a case
often influences how to use it with students. Examples of cases with commonly encountered formats are provided
with a brief description and likely implementation strategies.”
1. Extensive, detailed case study.
• Frequently used in business courses,
• Often center on a particular decision, the people who made it, the people affected by it, and the impact of
that decision on all parties.
• May run 100 pages or more. Usually the student reads the entire case individually and prepares an analysis of
the decisions with recommendations for change. The case is then discussed.
2. Descriptive, narrative cases, parts of which are given successively
• Up to 5 pages
• 1-2 paragraphs per page
• Designed to be used over the course of two or more class meetings.
• Disclosed to the students one page at a time, with discussion, hypothesis generation and development of
learning goals and study questions for each part of the case.
• Objectives are given to the student toward the end of the case.
• This style of case originated in medical settings.
3. MiniCases
• designed to be used in a single class meeting,
• usually tightly focused.
• useful for helping students apply concepts, for introducing practical applications in lab settings, or as a pre-lab
exercise designed to make lab work more meaningful.
4. Bullet Cases
• Two or three sentences with a single teaching point.
• Similar to problems commonly used on exams, however, students discuss them in small groups.
5. Directed Case Study
• Short cases are followed immediately with highly directed questions.
6. Fixed Choice Options (Multiple Choice Cases)
• May be a variation on bullet cases above,
• Is a minicase with 4-5 plausible solutions. In groups students must choose and defend one solution.
• Useful for policy, ethics, design decisions.
• Good for short, in-class uses.
• Multiple choice questions might convert easily to these.

Advantages of CBL
[2]
According to CIDDE (2006, dead link):
Case-based learning 44

• students sort out factual data, apply analytic tools, articulate issues, reflect on their relevant experiences, and
draw conclusions they can relate to new situations.
• they acquire substantive knowledge and develop analytic, collaborative, and communication skills.
• Cases add meaning by providing students with the opportunity to see theory in practice.
• Students seem more engaged, interested, and involved in the class.
• CBL develops students' skills in group learning, speaking, and critical thinking.
• Since many cases are based on contemporary or realistic problems, the use of cases in the classroom makes
subject matter more relevant.

Instructional Models
Clyde Freeman Herreid [4] provides eleven basic rules for CBL.
1. Tells a story.
• It must have an interesting plot that relates to the experiences of the audience.
• It must have a beginning, a middle, and an end.
• The end may not exist yet; it will be what the students need to supply once the case is discussed.
2. Focuses on an interest-arousing issue.
3. Set in the past five years (increase the motivation of the students)
4. Creates empathy with the central characters.
• to make the story line more engaging
• because the personal attributes of the characters will influence the way a decision might be made.
5. Includes quotations.
• add life and drama to any case.
• provide realism.
6. Relevant to the reader.
• This improves the empathy factor and makes the case clearly something worth studying.
7. Must have pedagogic utility.
8. Conflict provoking.
9. Decision forcing.
• In dilemma or decision cases, students can not duck the issue, they must face problems head on.
10. Has generality.
• Cases must be of more use than a minor or local problem; they must have general applicability.
11. Is short.
• must be long enough to introduce the facts of the case but not so long as to bore the reader or to make the
analysis tedious.

Course Structure
CBL course structure can be planning in various ways. Regarding questions like: When does the course meet? How
often? How long? For what purposes? When would you fit in cases?, Fitting Investigative Case Study Approaches
[5]
into Courses , retrieved 19:35, 11 October 2007 (MEST) suggest the following "prototypical weeks":
Traditional 3 hours of lecture, 2-3 hours in lab
Option A Two blocks per week "workshop" style with some time for case work
Option B Combine lecture and case work, sandwiching lab Option C Start case on Fri., work
on in lab, finish next Fri.
Other options Create your own

How to do CBL - take two

Case-based learning 45

How can CBL be used in the classroom?

source: http:/ /www.pitt.edu/ ~ciddeweb/ faculty-development/ FDS/casebase.html
• Cases can be used as the catalyst for class discussions and lectures.
• A student-centered discussion can be a main classroom activity as students collaborate to analyze the full
dilemma and the data provided and decide upon a course of action.
• Case-based studies can be used in small or large classes.
In very large classes
• cases could be short introductory experiences that lead into additional learning experiences in lab or recitation
time.
• Some part of the lecture time is used to provide the case background, perhaps in a short video segment.
• Directed cases with a defined problem space are used within large lecture settings by selecting class members to
respond individually.
• Often individuals are chosen to report on the progress of short periods of work accomplished within proximity
groups of students.
• There are many solutions to having students in larger classes do meaningful work in smaller groups. Additional
support for case based teaching can be provided by faculty working in teams, graduate students (if available) and
advanced undergraduate teaching assistants.
• It is possible to break up large classes into smaller groups, but you do need a high tolerance for noise while a
couple of hundred students, working in near-neighbor groups, discusses a case.
• Peer interactions are enriched by the prior knowledge, experience and interests the larger number of students
bring to the process.
In smaller classes
• real advantage for students learning how to work together on cases.
• Groups can be smaller and more easily interacted with.
• Investigative CBL works well in this setting.
• Further research options might include modeling and simulation, data mining, or data visualization.
In virtual classes
• cases are introduced electronically with student groups working together on-line.
• also works well to extend opportunities for community college students who may be older and working. There
are faculty whose case materials and advice are made available on line.

How to prepare students to use case study approaches

Most college students are ill-prepared for collaborative group work. Nonetheless, at present, college faculty need to
recognize that they will have to teach students how to work together. They will also have to teach them how to use
case study approaches.
Address student concerns by providing access to specific information on what to expect with CBL such as: Notes for
Students on Investigative CBL At Harvard Medical School, incoming classes of medical students are introduced to
CBL in 3 ways.
1. in orientation, they do a case about plumbing (which few know about and it isn't medical, so the pressure is off).
2. also during orientation, they sit as a group of 160 in a lecture hall and watch a small group tutorial take place
live in front of them (run by second year students).
3. in their first real course, time is allotted for discussing group dynamics and case processes.
You will likely want to make a low-pressure situation for your students the first time they do a case. Make it small,
fun and easy, so they can learn how to brainstorm the issues and questions of the case. Don't be afraid to give
explicit directions, such as:
• "We begin by having one person read the case out loud. Who would like to do this?"
• "Are there any words you don't know?" Or "what do you think this case is about?"
Case-based learning 46

• "It will help you later if one ofyou acts as scribe and writes down the ideas (on the chalkboard). You might want
to keep track of facts, questions, issues, and proposed answers to the problem."
• "We have 10 minutes left and you need to plan for next meeting. What do you see as key issues you'd like to
work on?"
Students also need guidelines for how to act during discussions. Having printed guidelines can help, such as
• "Don't interrupt one another" ... "Don't attack people personally, focus on ideas"... "Each person must contribute
to the group. There are many ways to do this."

How evaluate a case

Before writing your own case, ask yourself these questions:
• What is the case about?
• What are some of the potential learning issues?
• Are these central enough to the case for me to use this case?
• Can I modify the case?
• How difficult or obscure are the issues in the case?
• Will there be issues my students will care about?
• Is the case open-ended enough for students to go beyond fact finding?
• What do I see as possible areas for investigation?
• What product might I ask students to produce?
• Is the case too short or too long for the time I have available?
• What sorts of learning resources might be needed for this case? Are they accessible?
• If I use this case, what lectures/labs/discussions might I want to change, add or eliminate?

How to write a case

If no case is perfectly made for your course, you can write your own case. The work required varies enormously
depending upon the materials you decide to provide the students. You can use for example:
• a 100-word paragraph from a journal
• an elaborate preparation requiring dozens of pages of text and extensive research.
• a business cases may require over a year of information gathering and interviews along with thousands of dollars
of investment to develop a case that may extend over several class sessions.
Pre-existing Materials
• can be found prepackaged almost anywhere (newspapers, magazines, novels, cartoons, videos, and television
dramas). For example, the movie "Jurassic Park" is an ideal story to consider questions about scientific
responsibility as well as DNA technology.
• Another technique is to simply collect a series of articles focused around a single topic. If accompanied by a
short series of questions to guide student's reading, an outstanding case can be developed.
• In summary, pre-existing materials are cheap and easy to find. They come from familiar sources and are
recognizable as authentic parts of the student's world. There is an immediacy in their use; one can see an article
in the press in the evening and be using it in the classroom the next day.
Writing Cases
• Many cases are best developed from scratch (most business cases and although it requires considerable time, it
has the advantage that only essential material is included in the writing).
• May be customized exactly to meet the teacher's goals.
• Reynolds (1980) has classified cases into three basic types:
1. Decision or dilemma cases present problems or decisions that need to be made by a central character in a
drama.
Case-based learning 47

• usually consists of a short introductory paragraph setting up the problem to be considered and may introduce
the decision-maker at the moment of crisis.
• A background section fills in the historical information necessary to understand the situation.
• A narrative section then presents the recent developments leading up to the crisis that our protagonist faces.
• Appendices follow including tables, graphs, letters, or documents that help lay the foundation for a possible
solution to the problem.
2. Appraisal cases ("issue cases") are used to teach students the skills of analysis. #* The material is focused
around answering questions like "What is going on here?"
• This type of case frequently lacks a central character in the drama and generally stops short of demanding
that the students make a decision.
3. Case histories are largely finished stories
• generally less exciting than decision or appraisal cases.
• can serve as illustrative models of science in action and they provide plenty of opportunities for Monday-
morning quarterbacking.
• Science is replete with cases of this type (e.g. the Copernican revolution, cold fusion, ...)

How to teach a case

In almost all methods there is a common approach. The instructor must have his objectives clearly in mind, must
structure the presentation to develop the analytical skills of the students, and must be sure that student
participation is maximized.
Discussion Format
• classically used by business and law schools to deal with cases.
• Students are usually presented with decision or appraisal cases.
• The instructor's job is to identify, with the student's help, the various issues and problems, possible solutions,
and consequences of action.
• simple method : the instructor asks probing questions and the students analyze the problem depicted in the
story with clarity and brilliance.
Case discussion instructors vary enormously in their classroom manner:
• strong intimidating approach.
• The "all-knowing" instructor (acting as inquisitor, judge, and jury) tries to extract wisdom from his student victim.
• In its worst form, the questioning can be a version of "I've got a secret, and you have to guess it." • In its
best form, it can bring about an intellectual awakening as insights emerge from a complex case.
• almost nondirective class discussion.
• The instructor can practically stay on the sidelines while the students take over the analysis.
• The instructor may start the discussion with a minimum of fuss saying, "Well, what do you think about the
case?"
• From that moment on, the instructor may merely act as a facilitator, being sure that some semblance of order is
kept and students get to voice their views.
• Finally, the class may end without any resolution of the issue or summation.
Most practitioners of the discussion method prefer a middle ground. William Welty (1989) argues for such an
approach with proper introduction, directive but not dominating questioning, good blackboard work to highlight
the essential issues, and an appropriate summary.
Debate Format
• well suited for many types of cases where two diametrically opposed views are evident.
Public Hearing Format
• ideal format to allow a variety of people to speak and different views to be expressed.
Case-based learning 48

• Their use in case studies has similar strengths and has the added virtue of mimicking real-world events.
• Public hearings are structured so that a student panel, role-playing as a hearing board, listens to presentations
by different student groups.
Trial Format
• have inherent fascination because of their tension and drama.
• two opposing sides each represented by an attorney, with witnesses and cross-examination.
Problem Based Learning Format
• Medical schools have used the case method of instruction for years.
• PBL is faculty-intensive, for it uses one tutor for every four or five students. They stay together for the entire
term, working through a series of cases.
• The cases are typically linked by some common area of study or progressive shift in complexity.
A typical case passes through several stages. In their first meeting, the instructor presents a short written account
of the patient with some symptoms and background. The faculty and students together try to identify the points
they think they understand and determine those terms, tests, procedures, symptoms, etc., for which they need
more information. At the end of this meeting, students agree on how each will divide up the responsibilities to
search for the needed information in the libraries.
In the second meeting, students discuss their findings and share opinions. Their search for the correct diagnosis
narrows down. By the end of the class meeting, the students have determined what new information they need to
uncover and go their separate ways to find it.
At the third meeting, students share their thoughts, data, and understanding. They try to reach closure on the
diagnosis and treatment. This is the last step in the process and generally students will not find out the "real"
answer to the problem. The knowledge and understanding of the case comes from the search for answers, not
from "the answer" to a particular case. The power of this method is its interactive approach between thinking,
discussion, and searching for more information. Consequently, it mimics the approach we usually use in real life.
Scientific Research Team Format
• The essence of most scientific research is the case method.
• scientists are constantly confronted by problems, questions, or dilemmas
• they usually have a large background of information, which they can use to "solve the problem." they use some
version of the hypothetico-deductive method where we ask questions, make hypotheses, make predictions, test
predictions by observation and experiment as they collect data, compare the results with their predictions, and
make evaluations and draw conclusions.
Here is an example of student-research projects which involves the simple collecting of rain samples in different
regions of the campus or city and measuring pH. The data collected over a semester will yield lots of tables and
graphs for comparison with other regions of the country and lead to discussions of acid rain and its effect upon the
ecosystem. Mundane though this project seems it instills in students a great sense of many steps in the collection
and analysis of data.
See also: cognitive flexibility theory

Tools
Virtu@l Consult@tion
The medical curriculum has changed with the adoption of the student-centered and case-based learning paradigm.
Clinical Reasoning Learning (CRL) is a pedagogical method used in order to develop and improve student's clinical
reasoning and problem-solving skills.
Virtu@l Consult@tion:
• Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) environment for Remote Clinical Reasoning Learning (CRL)
sessions in Cardiology .
Case-based learning 49

• composed of a set of cooperative platform-independent tools which allow to the CRL group to communicate and
to share information during the sessions.
• allows teachers and students to simulate medical tele-consultations.
• use of multimedia data making this simulation more realistic than a face-to-face CRL session.
• the multimedia resources are close to formats that students will find in their professional life.
• can be used for undergraduate, internships, residency or continuing medical education at distance.
• useful to prepare physicians to telemedicine technologies.
source:http:/ / www. ea3888. univ-rennes1. fr/ cgi-bin/ ea3888/ ea3888. pl?action=page_perso&
pers=208477 CaseMaster an Interactive Tool for Case-Based Learning over the Network

• Web-based platform supporting presentation of and work with cases as well as other learning scenarios over the
Web.
• CaseMaster allows creating cases (course content) as a non-linear structure like a story with one start, but with
many possible different endings.
• advocates human interaction and gives possibility for solving problems together.
• encourages blended learning with human meetings and discussions.
• successfully used in the PharmaPaC project for learning pharmacology
• successfully used in the SwedKid project for learning more about i.e. treatment of minorities, the position of
recent refugees and immigrants.
• url : http:/ /www.casemaster. co.uk/
• demo: http:/ /www.casemaster. co.uk/ flash/flashdemo.html
source: http:/ /www.educ. umu. se/ ~ojje/om_mig/ CaseMaster_Orjan_Johan. pdf
CAMPUS
Training System in Medicine
• Case-based and Web-based training shell system
• to develop, organise and (re-)use flexible,simulative medical multimedia cases
• can be used by different users (medical students and physicians at different levels) in different learning
scenarios.
• improvement of the own problem- or case-solving competence
• can be used over the Web and locally • http://www. medicase. de
source: http:/ /www.coe.missouri. edu/ vrcbd/ pdf/WorldConfEdMedia2001. pdf

Links
[6]
• Case-Based & Problem-Based Teaching & Learning , CET, USC. This website also includes good links to articles
and guidelines. Best overall site.
[7]
• Pyatt, Elizabeth, Home: About Case Studies , Teaching and Learning with Technology, Penn State University, ,
retrieved 19:35, 11 October 2007 (MEST). Includes guidelines, links and example cases and links to case
repositories.
[3]
• Planning for Case-Based Learning
[8]
• The Case Method of Teaching Science , Articles by Clyde Freeman Herreid and pointers to other online
publications.
[9]
• What Is Case-Based Learning? . Short summary of C.F Herreid's eleven rules.
• http:/ /www.pitt. edu/ ~ciddeweb/ faculty-development/ FDS/casebase.html
Case-based learning 50

• http:/ /www.bioquest.org/usernote. html

Case repositories
• World history sources [10], Center for history and new media, George Mason University
[11]
• National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science

• Case-Based & Problem-Based Teaching & Learning [12], USC. (Pointers to repositories).

References

Guidelines
• Davis, Claire and Wilcock, Elizabeth (updated 2007). Teaching Materials Using Case Studies, UK Centre for
[13]
Materials Education, The Higher Education Academy, HTML . This is a guideline that includes some example
[14]
designs (some of which are detailed at Birmingham University .
[15]
• Doyle, Terry (?), Case-Based Learning , Ferris State University, retrieved 19:35, 11 October 2007 (MEST).
Includes guidelines and some links.
[16]
• Garner (2003), Judy Models and Methods of Case-Based Teaching
• Herreid, Clyde Freeman (1997 What Makes a Good Case?, Some Basic Rules of Good Storytelling Help Teachers
Generate Student Excitement in the Classroom, Journal of College Science Teaching dec 1997/jan 1998, 163-165.
[4]
HTML Reprint

• Hutchings, Pat (1993). Using Cases to improve College teaching. Washington, DC: American Association of Higher
Education. AAHE Teaching Initiative.

Articles
• Andrews, Lanna (2002). Preparing General Education Pre-Service Teachers for Inclusion: Web-Enhanced Case-
Based Instruction, JSET E Journal, Volume 17, Number 3. HTML [17].
• Jonassen, David H. & Julian Hernandez-Serrano, Case-Based Reasoning and Instructional Design: Using Stories to
Support Problem Solving ETR&D, Vol. 50, No. 2, 2002, pp. 65-77 ISSN 1042-1629.
• Kardos, Geza (1979). Engineering Cases In The Classroom, Proceedings of the National Conference On
[18]
Engineering (modified HTML reprint ).
• Leming, Robert, S. (1991). Teaching the Law Using United States Supreme Court Cases, ERIC Digest ED339673
HTML [19]

• Lundeberg, M., B. Levin and L. Harrington (2000). Who Learns What from Cases and How ? : The Research Base
for Teaching and Learning With Cases, Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• McNair, M.P (1954). The Case Method At The Harvard Business School, McGraw-Hill.
• Mustoe L R and Croft A C (1999) Motivating Engineering Students by Using Modern Case Studies, European
Journal of Engineering Education. Vol. 15 No 6 469-476.
• Reynolds, J.I. 1980. Case types and purposes. In Reynolds, R.I., Case Method in Management Development:
Guide for Effective Use. Geneva, Switzerland: Management Development Series No. 17, International Labour
Office (Chap. 9).
• Welty, William M. 1989. Discussion method teaching. Change July/Aug:41-49.
• Williams, S. M., (1992) Putting Case-Based Instruction Into Context: Examples From Legal and Medical Education.
Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2, 367- 427.
 51
Case-based reasoning

Case-based reasoning
Draf
Case-based reasoning defines the rationale applied when cases, stories, or narratives are used in learning contexts
(case-based learning). In its simplest form it represents the learning cycle undergone as lessons learned from them
are applied to present situations.

CeLS
Draf

Definition
CeLS ( Collaborative e-Learning Structures ) is a web-based environment for creating and conducting structured
asynchronous collaborative activities and incorporating them in the existing instructional setting for all subjects and
levels. CeLS is a web-based system designed to create and reuse activity structures; runable formats reflecting
various collaborative instructional strategies e.g., creating and analyzing a common database, reaching an
agreement, peer-product evaluation, contest, creating a group product.
• See also: The LAMS and DialogPlus Toolkit system, Educational modeling language and IMS Learning Design
Note: Contents of this entry are excerpts from Miky Ronen, Dan Kohen-Vacs and Nohar Raz-Fogel (2006) and a PPT
presentation, permission to reuse contents by Miky Ronen (Jan 2007).

Goals and main features of the CeLS project

Design goals
• Encourage & support teachers to create and conduct structured collaborative activities in the actual educational
setting
• Support a wide range of situations, e.g. elementary school to Higher Education, dedicated to busy teachers,
small to large groups
• Focus on courses supported by web-based (asynchronous) components
• Encourage sharable online pedagogies through reusable components (as such the system does address change
management issues)
• Modelling of groups (and roles), artefacts , dynamic features, work and control flow between activities, varied
forms of social interaction
Architecture
• CeLS is an executable XML-based model for collaborative Activity Structures, consisting of stages that are
interconnected and based on each other.

Architecture of the CeLS system

CeLS is a web-based system consisting of a server-side run-time engine and a client side Activity Editor. An
additional server module is responsible for administrative aspects. An Activity Structure (AS) may include any
number of stages of interaction between a learner and the system. Each stage comprises of any combination of
distinct objects of four different types
CeLS 52
• Presentation objects are passive elements used to present information of any kind (text, hyperlink, media). This
information can be provided by the teacher or consist of learners' products from previous stages. A product can
be an organized collection of distinct items contributed by different participants (identified or anonymous) or a
single item that results from the combined action of a group.
• Input objects are interfaces that allow the participant to submit new data to the system (text, hyperlinks, media
or any kind of attached electronic file or as voting on various scales).
• Interaction objects are interfaces that allow participants to interact with products created in previous stages, in
various ways: by grading, ranking, categorizing and editing or responding to these products via text or graphic
manipulations.
• Communication objects are interfaces that allow participants to freely communicate with each other or with the
teacher.

The architecture of the CeLS activity structures

Each object has properties that can be adjusted by the author. Some properties are generic, for instance, if the
completion of an object is mandatory or not, and others are particular to the object or to its type, for instance,
maximum or minimum text length or the vocabulary used for Text Input object.
These basic building blocks are merely technological and do not carry any pedagogical meaning. It is only their
combination as an Activity Stage and or Activity Structure that creates such meaning.
An activity stage can consist of any combination of objects of various types. The functionality is determined by
attributing properties related to groups to the stage or to specific objects, so that different participants may
encounter different information and perform actions on different data items during the same activity stage. As a
result, the process represented by the whole activity is not actually linear, though it may seem linear to each of the
participants. A stage may be assigned "start" and "end" times, advance upon completion or according to other
conditions defined by the author of the activity.
The CeLS master group is a class. Groups can be merged to form 'communities' or divided to families of subgroups
representing subjects assigned to the subgroups or roles played by the subgroups. A family of subgroups has
specific properties such as max and min members in a subgroup, number of subgroups, their generic or particular
names. An Activity Structure may use different families of subgroups in its stages.

Authoring with CeLS

The figure below gives a glance at the CeLS authoring capabilities. My Activities allows teachers to access their own
activities (preview or participate), to manipulate them (edit or duplicate), or to view students' contributions and
follow their actions without interfering. Groups and subgroups creation is handled by the my Groupsoptions. The
definitions of an activity can be edited after the activity has started, enabling the teacher to introduce modifications
and adjustments 'on the fly', by adding or changing objects in a stage or adding stages. Activity Structures present
the teacher with a collection of pre-defined generic structures. These Structures are content-free skeletons and
include recommendations for their customization to various needs and settings. The Sample Activities option
provides a searchable domain of all the activities that were implemented with students by the system users, in all
institutions, contents and levels. Teachers can view and explore these examples, adopt them for personal use by
duplicating them, then adapt their structure and content to their specific needs. If none of the existing resources
seems suitable, the teacher can create a New Structure using the basic building blocks.
CeLS 53

The architecture of the CeLS activity structures

Sample activities
Here is a short list of sample activities that have been implemented with CeLS:
• Creating a common database (simple/complex, open/p.b.v.)
• Responding to peers’ items (grading, ranking, categorizing …)
• Pros & Cons (open/p.b.v.)
• Reaching an agreement
• Creating a group product (parallel/ sequential)
• Peer/self evaluation (rubrics)
• Peer product assessment (online/offline, group/personal)
• Competition
• Group Inquiry / Problem solving (Jigsaw… )
• E-Games, Role play …

Discussion
Daniel K. Schneider believes that CeLS is currently the most interesting system to implement activity-based
pedagogical scenarios. The CeLS project follows a design-based research methodology and is open to various
avenues.

Scenarization power
• Compared to LAMS, the advantage of the CeLS design is its ability to use learners' products from previous stages
and to conduct complex, multi-stage, structured activities. CeLS provides a sample of content-free Activity
Structures and a searchable domain of all the activities that were implemented with students. Teachers can
explore these examples, adopt them for personal use and adapt their structure and content to suit their specific
needs. If none of the existing pre-designed resources seems to suit the needs, they can create new structures
using basic building blocks.

Implementation
• CeLS is implemented with MS .Net server-side technology and Flash / DHTML on the client side. For the moment
CeLS runs on a single server and needs an IE6 webclient. The system is in Beta stage but has been tested by 30
teachers, 50 courses, 3000 students (2004-2006).

Suggestions for further development

(By Daniel K. Schneider 15:28, 30 January 2007 (MET))
Technical
• Implement a replication architecture so that several distributed CeLS servers could be run. This is necessary
because scenario sharing between teachers is integrated in the system.
CeLS 54
• Make it Firefox/Opera compatible (Since IE7 still doesn't implement CSS2 correctly, still doesn't provide
XHTML/SVG/MathML support, Daniel K. Schneider doesn't endorse this software).
Conceptual
• Make explicit a modeling language (while IMS Learning Design is currently the hot format, it will not necessarily
be accepted by everyone and explicit alternatives would be welcome
Documentation
• Write a teacher's manual (this is under progress).

Links
• Prof. Miky Ronen [1] Homepage
• Instructional Systems Technologies [2], Holon Institute of Technology.

References
Main article used as reference
• Ronen, Miky; Dan Kohen-Vacs and Nohar Raz-Fogel (2006). Structuring, Sharing and Reusing Asynchronous
[3]
Collaborative Pedagogy, Paper presented at the International Conference of the Learning Sciences, ICLS 2006 ,
Indiana University, Bloomington IN.
• Ronen, Miky; Dan Kohen-Vacs and Nohar Raz-Fogel (2006). Adopt and adapt: structuring, sharing and reusing
asynchronous collaborative pedagogy, Proceedings of the 7th international conference on Learning sciences,
[4]
Abstract/PDF (access restricted).
References used in the article
• Abrahamov, S., & Ronen, M. (2005). The double blend: integrating a web-based visual literacy layer into practical
photography instruction. Innovations in Education and Teaching International (in press).
• Bote-Lorenzo, M., Vaquero-Gonzalez, L., Vega-Gorgojo, G., Dimitriadis, Y., Asensio-Perez, J., Gomez-Sanchez, E., &
Hernandez-Leo, D. (2004). A tailorable collaborative learning system that combines OGSA grid services and IMS-
LD scripting. In Proc. of the Tenth International Workshop on Groupware: Design, Implementation and Use (pp.
305-321). Springer-Verlag.
• Dalziel, J. (2003). Implementing Learning Design: The Learning Activity Management System (LAMS) In Crisp G.,
Thiele, D., Scholten, I., Barker, S., & Baron, J. (Eds.) Proceedings of the 20th Annual Conference of the
Australasian Society for Computers in Learning (pp. 593-596).
• Dillenbourg, P. (1999). What do you mean by collaborative learning? In Dillenburg P. (Ed.) Collaborative-learning:
Cognitive and Computational Approaches. (pp.1-19). Oxford: Elsevier.
• Dillenbourg, P. (2002). Over-scripting CSCL: The risks of blending collaborative learning with instructional design.
In P. A. Kirschner (Ed.), Three worlds of CSCL: Can we support CSCL? (pp. 61-91). Heerlen: Open University of the
Netherlands.
• Dimitracopoulou, A. (2005). Designing Collaborative Learning Systems: Current Trends & Future Research,
CSCL2005 Conference, May 30-June 4, Taipei, Taiwan.
• Duffy, T. M., Dueber, B., Hawley, C. L. (1998). Critical Thinking in a Distributed Environment: A Pedagogical Base
for the Design of Conferencing Systems, In: Bonk, C. J. and K. S. King (Eds.), Electronic Collaborators: Learner-
centered Technologies for Literacy, Apprenticeship and Discourse (p. 73). Mahawah, NJ: LEA associates.
• Guzdial, M., Rick, J., & Kehoe, C.(2001) Beyond Adoption to Invention: Teacher-Created Collaborative Activities in
Higher Education, Journal of the Learning Sciences, 10 (3), 265-279.
• Hoeksema, K. (2004). Examples of existing standards to describe CSCL scripts. Kaleidoscope: concepts and
methods for exploring the future of learning with digital technologies, D23.2.1 (Final).
CeLS 55
• Hummel, H., Manderveld, J., Tattersall, C., & Koper, R. (2004). Educational modeling language and learning
design: new opportunities for instructional reusability and personalized learning. International Journal on
Learning Technology, 1 (1), 111-126.
• Kali, Y., & Ronen, M. (2005). Design principles for online peer-evaluation: Fostering objectivity, CSCL2005
Conference, May 30-June 4, Taipei, Taiwan. Abstract/PDF [5] (access restricted).
• Peter, Y., & Vantroys, T. (2005). Platform Support for Pedagogical Scenarios. Educational Technology & Society, 8
(3), 122-137.
• Schneider, D. (2004) Conception and implementation of rich pedagogical scenarios through collaborative portal
sites. In Tokoro M. and Steels L., (Eds.), A Learning Zone of One's Own Sharing Representations and Flow in
[6]
Collaborative Learning Environments. Amsterdam : Washington, DC: IOS Press. PDF
Cognitive flexibility hypertext 56

Cognitive flexibility hypertext

Draf

Definition
Cognitive flexibility hypertext is a learning environment designed according to cognitive flexibility theory.
This text presents essentially the foundations for cognitive flexibility hypertexts, a clear design model is yet
missing

Foundations of the model

The Spiro et al. ground their model on 2 issues: Firstly a lot of knowledge to be taught is both complex and ill-
structured and and second that such teaching remains a challenge. “ Cognitive and instructional neglect of
problems related to content complexity and irregularity in patterns of knowledge use leads to learning failures that
take common, predictable forms. These forms are characterized by conceptual oversimplification and the inability
to apply knowledge to new cases (failures of transfer). For learners to develop cognitively flexible processing skills
and to acquire contentive knowledge structures which can support flexible cognitive processing, flexible learning
environments are required which permit the same items of knowledge to be presented and learned in a variety of
different ways and for a variety of different purposes (commensurate with their complex and irregular nature).”
(Spiro, 1996)
Any effective approach to instruction must simultaneously consider several highly intertwined topics, such as:
1. the constructive nature of understanding;
2. the complex and ill-structured features of many, if not most, knowledge domains;
3. patterns of learning failure;
4. a theory of learning that addresses known patterns of learning failure.
(Spiro, 1996)
In particular, Spiro et al. a are concerned by oversimplification for which they identify several forms, e.g. the
additivity bias (learners think that parts integrated into a whole retain the same characteristics), the discreteness
bias (continuous processes are segmented into discrete steps), and the compartimentalization bias (highly
interdependent conceptual elements are treated in isolation with taking into account interaction effects).
“ The remedy for learning deficiencies related to domain complexity and irregularity requires the inculcation of
learning processes that afford greater cognitive flexibility: this includes the ability to represent knowledge from
different conceptual and case perspectives and then, when the knowledge must later be used, the ability to
construct from those different conceptual and case representations a knowledge ensemble tailored to the needs of
the understanding or problem-solving situation at hand.” (Spiro, 1996) Rephrased by Godshalk et al (2004:211)
Cognitive flexibility theory as conceived by Spiro et al. (1987) suggests the following:
• Using multiple case studies to insure that a variety of possible situations are presented.
• Focusing on cross-case differences in how concepts and principles are applied.
• Consideration of multiple perspectives (individual points of view) as an aid to understanding the connected
nature of the domain concepts and promoting flexible knowledge building.
According to Spiro and Jehng (1990), this crisscrossing connection of concepts and cases is most readily
accomplished using the ability of hypertext systems (such as the WWW) to explicitly link information. The key to
deciding how to link concepts is to provide themes and perspectives that may be considered across the cases.
Cognitive flexibility hypertext 57

“ In summary: Ill-structured aspects of knowledge pose problems for advanced knowledge acquisition that are
remedied by the principles of Cognitive Flexibility Theory. This cognitive theory of learning is systematically applied
to an instructional theory, Random Access Instruction, which in turn guides the design of nonlinear computer
learning environments we refer to as Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts.” (Spiro, 1996)

The architecture of a cognitive flexibility hypertext

Spiro et al. (1996) claim that good strategies for advanced teaching and learning in ill-structured domains are in
many ways the opposite of what works best for introductory learning and in more well-structured domains as for
example in the direct instruction model.
A few contrasts of design features:
introductory learning and well-structured domains advance learning and ill-structured domains

knowledge compartmentalization knowledge interconnectedness

organization

generalization general principles with wide scope of application across-case variability and case-sensitive interaction of
principles

representation single unifying representational basis multiple representations

Since it is impossible to teach each occurrence of ill-structured knowledge, Spiro et al. (1996) argue that “ emphasis
must be shifted from the retrieval of intact knowledge structures to support the construction of new
understandings, to the novel and situation-specific assembly of prior knowledge drawn from diverse organizational
loci in preexisting mental representations.”
Jacobson & Spiro (1993, 1995) derive five instructional principles from cognitive flexibility theory. These are:
• Use multiple conceptual representations of knowledge (e.g. multiple themes, multiple analogies, multiple
intellectual points of view).
• Link and tailor abstract concepts to different case examples (illustration of concepts to demonstrate nuances of
abstract conceptual variability).
• Introduce domain complexity early (but still in a cognitively manageable manner)
• Stress the interrelated and web-like nature of knowledge (variable thematic links across cases). •
Encourage knowledge assembly (from different conceptual/thematic and case sources)
• Promote active learning (provisions for learner control of navigation paths).
These theory principles then can be mapped to hypertext features as described in the experimental setup of
Jacobson & Spiro (1995:307). There were 3 experimental groups. Both groups were exposed to the same "reading
stage" (see below). After that one group was exposed to criss-crossing activities (the study stage below) whereas
two others groups were exposed to drill and practise over facts and concepts taken from phase 1.
Theory principles Hypertext features

The reading stage (i.e. a minimal "treatment")

Use multiple conceptual representations of knowledge Multiple cases and multiple dimensions of a complex concept

Link and tailor abstract concepts to different case examples Theme list and theme commentaries that accompany case
presentations
Introduce domain complexity early Minicase organizational structure
(but in a cognitively manageable manner)

The study stage (i.e. an experimental treatment or an instructional task)

Stress the interrelated and web-like nature of knowledge Have students reread minicases exemplifying different combinations of
themes
Cognitive flexibility hypertext 58

Encourage knowledge assembly Knowledge assembly from different conceptual and case source
(explicit demonstration of abstract and case-specific knowledge
components)

Results of this study showed that the minimal hypertext/drill group had higher scores on factual knowledge but the
transfer group was better in using/transferring the knowledge, which corroborates the hypothesis that simple
instruction tends to create rigid knowledge representations and inert knowledge. We therefore can assume that the
above table represents the core of a defendable instructional design model.
More precisely, DSchneider has the impression (but is not sure) that cognitive flexibility hypertexts should feature:
• Links from concepts (complex themes) to full cases (e.g. a movie)
• Links from concepts to sub-units of cases, i.e. mini-cases (e.g. a short movie sequence).
• Optional links from sub-units to situated definitions (extra information / perspectives)
• Optional links from concepts and extra information to related concepts (since each concept is ill-structured,
understanding of a situation depends on more than one concept)
• Rearranged instructional sequences, i.e. the system could adapt to the user
• Concepts can be explored in multiple ways, i.e. there isn't necessarily a recommended navigation path.
“ Implementing Cognitive Flexibility Theory is not a simple matter of just using the power of the computer to
"connect everything with everything else."” (Spiro et al. 1996). E.g. the learner should not become lost in a
confusing labyrinth of incidental or ad hoc connections. Therefore this wiki while it could be used as a basis for
flexibility hypertext to teach educational technology is not yet a cognitive flexibility hypertext.
Hypertext design must not just reflect ill-structuredness of a domain but aim to train construction of new
understandings in new situations. It's aims at a competence to build dynamically situated knowledge (situation-
sensitive knowledge assembly).
On method to insure that instructional goal is described as "conceptual structure search".
Conceptual structure search
Content is automatically re-edited to produce a particular kind of "criss-crossing" of the conceptual landscape that
visits a large set of case examples of a given conceptual structure in use. The learner then has the option of viewing
different example cases in the application of a concept he or she chooses to explore. That is, the instructional
content is re-edited upon demand to present just those cases and parts of cases that illustrate a focal conceptual
structure (or set of conceptual structures). Rather than having to rely on sporadic encounters with real cases that
instantiate different uses of the concept, the learner sees a range of conceptual applications close together, so
conceptual variability can easily be examined. Learning a complex concept from erratic exposures to complex
instances, with long periods of time separating each encounter, as in natural learning from experience, is not very
efficient. When ill-structuredness prevents telling in the abstract how a concept should be used in general, it
becomes much more important to show together the many concrete examples of uses.
E.g. in the KANE hypertext (Knowledge Acquisition in Nonlinear Environments) which explores thematic structure in
Citizen Kane, the learner could see film scenes in a row, that illustrate different varieties or "flavors" of the "Wealth
Corrupts" theme. Each of these scenes constitutes a case that illustrates this theme. Furthermore the learner then
can consult case-specific particularized background informations (definitions). Furthermore, there are cross-
references to other instances of the conceptual structure or even other conceptual themes that are related to the
"wealth corrupts" topic and that can also explain the behavior of Citizen Kane. “ Thus there is a double
particularization in Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts: the generic conceptual structure is particularized not only to the
context of a specific case, but also to the other concepts simultaneously applicable for analyzing that case. That is,
each case or example is shown to be a complex entity requiring for its understanding multiple conceptual
representations, with the role of non-additive conceptual interdependencies highlighted.” (Spiro et al., 1996).
A light-weight version ?
DSchneider thinks that it may be possible to reuse a wiki like the present one to implement at least some features
of the original concept:
• There should be a short introductory articles for a given topic (e.g. "instructional design model".)
Cognitive flexibility hypertext 59

• Such an article should point to small examples, both abstract and concrete (cases). E.g. to illustrate what we
mean by instructional design model we should point to various different models, but also show concrete designs.
• Each model and each design case should point to various learning and instructional theory that intervene.
• Each example should have links to related examples.
Such a design is probably not effective for most learners, since a typical learner lacks to initiative to dig around until
he manages to build up sufficient applicable knowledge. Therefore, we suggest to combine such an architecture
with some project-oriented learning (e.g. design a course) or problem-based learning (e.g. design a course for a
given topic and public) design or at least writing-to-learn (e.g. contrast design X with design Y) activity.
Conclusion
It is again important to point out that “ Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts Provide Building Blocks For Flexible,
Situation-Sensitive Knowledge Assembly, Not Final Products Of Knowledge” as one of the afterword subtitles in the
on-line version of Spiro et al., 1996) points out. In this sense, cognitive flexibility hypertexts are exploratory
environments that will enhance constructivist thinking, i.e. it provides building blocks for knowledge for knowledge
construction. Single cases (or their features) can not be transferred as such to new situations, but require selective
assembly of subsets of representational perspectives met in particular situation.
That stance lets the author conclude that “ the extent of knowledge prespecification found in CFHs is limited to
rough guideposts or starting points for thinking about the domain, with an emphasis on their flexibility rather than
rigidity of structuration and use.” or by referring to Wittgenstein “ meaning is partially determined by rough
patterns of family resemblance and then filled out by interactions of those patterns with details of their specific
contexts of use (Wittgenstein, 1953). It is for the learner to construct understandings that grasp these patterns of
family resemblance and context-dependency; CFHs assist in this learner-based constructive activity.”
This approach is "middle road" between rigid rigid prestructuration and rigid prescription of routines for knowledge
use, and discovery learning in a totally unstructured environment at the other extreme. In addition, as in most
modern instructional designs, teacher/systems control is meant to fade out as the learner progresses.
A very general statement that DSchneider likes in the Spiro et al. (1996) paper is that “ instruction must be as
complicated as is necessary to achieve the established goals of learning, given the constraints imposed by the
features of the knowledge domain that is the subject of learning.”. In support of this statement the authors cite
previous research showing that initial simplifications of complex subject areas can impede the later acquisition of
more complex understandings (Feltovich, Spiro, & Coulson, 1989; Spiro et al., 1989).

Links
General links

• Web-Based Learning Framework on Mapping Instructional Strategies to Web Features [1] by Nada Dabbagh.
[2]
• Cognitive Flexibility Theory: Implications for Teaching and Teacher Education by Stephanie R. Boger-Mehall
Examples
(more are needed)
• Graddy, Duane B. Cognitive Flexibility Theory as a Pedagogy for Web-Based Course Design, Teaching Online in
[3]
Higher Education Online Conference 2001, HTML

References
• Godshalk, Veronica M., Douglas M. Harvey, Leslie Moller (2004). The Role of Learning Tasks on Attitude Change
Using Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext Systems, Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13 (4) 507-526. [4] (Access
restricted).
• Coulson, R.L., P.J. Feltovich and R.J. Spiro. "Cognitive Flexibility in Medicine: An Application to the Recognition
and Understanding of Hypertension." Advances in Health Sciences Education, 1997, 2, pp. 141-61.
Cognitive flexibility hypertext 60

• Feltovich, P.J., Spiro, R.J., & Coulson, R.L., (1989). The nature of conceptual understanding in biomedicine: The
deep structure of complex ideas and the development of misconceptions. In D. Evans & V. Patel (Eds.), Cognitive
science in medicine: Biomedical modeling. Cambridge, MA: MIT (Bradford) Press.
• Graddy, Duane B. Cognitive Flexibility Theory as a Pedagogy for Web-Based Course Design, Teaching Online in
Higher Education Online Conference 2001, HTML [3]

• Harvey, D., Jonassen, D., & Clariana, R. (2000). Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext and the Role of the Learning
Task. In Kommers, P., & Richards, G. (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia,
Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2000 (pp. 423-428). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. HTML/PDF [5] (Access
restricted).
• Jacobson, M and A. Archodidou. (2000). "The Design of Hypermedia Tools for Learning: Fostering Conceptual
Change and Transfer of Complex Scientific." The Journal of Learning Sciences, 2000,9, pp.149-199.
• Jacobson, M. J., & Spiro, R. J. (1995). Hypertext learning environments, cognitive flexibility, and the transfer of
complex knowledge: An empirical investigation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 12(4). DOI
[6]
10.2190/4T1B-HBP0-3F7E-J4PN
• Jacobson, M. J., & Spiro, R. J. (1993). Hypertext learning environments, cognitive flexibility, and the transfer of
[7]
complex knowledge: An empirical investigation. Technical Report 573, Center for the Study of Reading, PDF
(This paper is preprint of the above).
• Jacobson, M.J., Maouri, C., Mishra, P., & Kolar, C. (1996). Learning with Hypertext Learning Environments:
Theory, Design, and Research. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 5 (3/4), 239-281.
• Jacobson, M.J., & Spiro, R.J. (1995). Hypertext Learning Environments, Cognitive Flexibility, and the transfer of
complex knowledge: an empirical investigation, ???
• Jonassen, D., D. Dyer, K. Peters, T. Robinson, D. Harvey, M. King, and P. Loughner. "Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext
on the Web: Engaging Learners in Meaning Making," B. Khan, Web-Based Instruction. Englewood, Cliffs, N.J.:
Educational Technology Publishing, 1997.
• Spiro, R.J, Feltovich, P.J., Coulson, R.L., & Anderson, D.K. (1989). Multiple analogies for complex concepts:
Antidotes for analogy-induced misconception in advanced knowledge acquisition. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony
(Eds.), Similarity and analogical reasoning (498-531). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
• Spiro, R. J. & Jehng, J. C. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext: Theory and technology for the nonlinear and
multidimensional traversal of complex subject matter. In D. Nix & R. Spiro (Eds.), Cognition, education, and
multimedia: Exploring ideas in high technology (pp. 163-205). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., Jacobson, M. J., & Coulson, R. L. (1992). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and
hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. In T. M.
Duffy & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the technology of instruction: A conversation (pp. 57-76).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawerence Erlbaum Associates.
• Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., Jacobson, M. J., & Coulson, R. L. (1996). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and
hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. I Simpósio
Investigação e Desenvolvimento de Software Educativo. An earlier version of this chapter originally appeared in
two parts in the journal Educational Technology (1991, 11 (5), 24-33 and 1991, 11 (7), 22-26). The two original
papers were reprinted in T. Duffy & D. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction
(pp.121-128), 1992; Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum. HTML reprint [8]
Cognitive flexibility hypertext 61

Cognitive flexibility theory

Draf

Definition
• “ Spiro, et al. (1992) offer a constructivist theory of learning and instruction that emphasizes the need to
treat complex, ill-structured knowledge domains differently from simple, well-structured domains.
Examples of ill-structured domains such as history, medicine, law, literary interpretation, and teacher
education are prime targets for flexible instruction, in part because learners must apply what they have
learned to novel and unique situations.” (quoted from Boger-Mehall)
• “ Cognitive flexibility theory suggests that learners grasp the nature of complexity more readily by being
presented with multiple representations of the same information in different contexts. By seeing multiple
representations of the same phenomenon learners develop the mental scaffolding necessary for
considering novel applications within the knowledge domain. [.... ] Cognitive flexibility hypertext fosters the
development of knowledge-transfer skills by confronting the learner with multiple representations of case-
events. Various thematic elements can criss-cross numerous cases that seem quite dissimilar in an overt
[3]
context but add to the learner\u2019s cognitive development. ” (Graddy retrieved 19:20, 16 June 2006
(MEST))

Cognitive Flexibility theory and education

According to Godshalk et al (2004: 510), Cognitive Flexibility Theory “ maintains that instruction in complex, ill-
structured domains must allow the learner to "crisscross" the domain knowledge by comparing and contrasting
information gained from different perspectives and themes pertinent to the domain. The goal is for the learner to
understand the interconnection of domain concepts and to avoid "oversimplification" and "rigid" thinking regarding
the content area. In other words, learners must be flexible in their understanding of a topic to apply important
concepts.”
According to Spiro (1992): Any effective approach to instruction must simultaneously consider several highly
intertwined topics, such as:
• the constructive nature of understanding;
• the complex and ill-structured features of many, if not most, knowledge domains;
• patterns of learning failure;
 62
Cognitive flexibility theory

• a theory of learning that addresses known patterns of learning failure.

Cognitive Flexibility Theory and Educational Technology

• One answer is Hypertext, because "The remedy for learning deficiencies related to domain complexity and
irregularity requires the inculcation of learning processes that afford greater cognitive flexibility: this includes the
ability to represent knowledge from different conceptual and case perspectives and then, when the knowledge
must later be used, the ability to construct from those different conceptual and case representations a
knowledge ensemble tailored to the needs of the understanding or problem-solving situation at hand." (Spiro
1992)
• Further down Spiro (1992) argue that "The computer is ideally suited, by virtue of the flexibility it can provide,
for fostering cognitive flexibility. In particular, multidimensional and nonlinear hypertext systems, if appropriately
designed to take into account all of the considerations discussed above, have the power to convey ill-structured
aspects of knowledge domains and to promote features of cognitive flexibility in ways that traditional learning
environments (textbooks, lectures, computer-based drill) could not (although such traditional media can be very
successful in other contexts or for other purposes). We refer to the principled use of flexible features inherent in
computers to produce nonlinear learning environments as Random Access Instruction (Spiro & Jehng, 1990)."
• “ In summary: Ill-structured aspects of knowledge pose problems for advanced knowledge acquisition that are
remedied by the principles of Cognitive Flexibility Theory. This cognitive theory of learning is systematically
applied to an instructional theory, Random Access Instruction, which in turn guides the design of nonlinear
computer learning environments we refer to as Cognitive flexibility hypertexts.” (Spiro, 1992) Therefore: see
Cognitive flexibility hypertexts but also case-based learning.

Links
• http://tip.psychology. org/spiro.html

References
• Graddy, Duane B. Cognitive Flexibility Theory as a Pedagogy for Web-Based Course Design, http://www. ipfw.
edu/ as/ tohe/2001/Papers/graddy/graddy. htm
• Boger-Mehall, Stephanie R. Cognitive Flexibility Theory: Implications for Teaching and Teacher Education, http:/ /
www.kdassem. dk/didaktik/l4-16. htm
Godshalk, Veronica M., Douglas M. Harvey, Leslie Moller (2004). The Role of Learning Tasks on Attitude Change
Using Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext Systems, Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13 (4) 507-526. LEA restricted access
[4]

• Spiro, R. J. & Jehng, J. C. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext: Theory and technology for the nonlinear and
multidimensional traversal of complex subject matter. In D. Nix & R. Spiro (Eds.), Cognition, education, and
multimedia: Exploring ideas in high technology (pp. 163-205). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., Jacobson, M. J., & Coulson, R. L. (1992). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and
hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. In T. M.
Duffy & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the technology of instruction: A conversation (pp. 57-76).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawerence Erlbaum Associates. HTML reprint [8]
• Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., Jacobson, M. J., & Coulson, R. L. (1991). Knowledge representation, content
specification, and the development of skill in situation-specific knowledge assembly: Some constructvist issues
as they relate to cognitive flexibility theory and hypertext. Educational Technology,31 (9), 22-25.
Cognitive load 63

Cognitive load
Draf

Definition
Cognitive load theory (CLT) is both theory of cognition and learning and a instructional design model. It's main
contributor is J. Sweller.
• “ Cognitive load theory describes how the architecture of cognition has specific implications for the design of
instruction. The theory has broad applications in the design of instructional materials, providing a general
framework and conceptual toolkit for instructional designers to minimize and control the conditions that create
[1]
unwanted cognitive load in learning materials. ” (Wikipedia )
• “ CLT is concerned with the design of instructional methods that efficiently use people's limited cognitive
processing capacity to apply acquired knowledge and skills to new situations (i.e., transfer). CLT is based on a
cognitive architecture that consists of a limited working memory with partly independent processing units for
visual and auditory information, which interacts with an unlimited long-term memory.” Pass et al. 2003:
Abstract.
• “ Cognitive load theory can inform the design of web-based instruction. The basic premise of cognitive load
theory is that the focus of an instructional module must be the instruction itself. Information that is adjunct to
the instruction must be designed to minimize cognitive load and enhance working memory. Because the mental
resources of working memory can be overloaded, any information that ignores cognitive load may interfere with
the process of acquiring knowledge and skills. Instruction that effectively presents the learning to our working
memory has an impact on our ability to store knowledge and skills in our long-term memory. Everything that we
"know" is held in our long-term memory ” (Feinberg & Murphy 2000:Abstract).
Graham Cooper, one of Swellers co-workers, present CLT as follows:
In recent years there has been an increased focus on the role of education and training, and on the effectiveness
and efficiency of various instructional design strategies. Some of the most important breakthroughs in this regard
have come from the discipline of Cognitive Science, which deals with the mental processes of learning, memory
and problem solving. [Editor Note: Cognitive Psychology. Cognitive Science is usually defined a "the interdisciplinary
study of mind and intelligence, embracing philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence, neuroscience, linguistics,
[2]
and anthropology" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ]
Cognitive load theory (e.g. Sweller, 1988; 1994) is an instructional theory generated by this field of research. It
describes learning structures in terms of an information processing system involving long term memory, which
effectively stores all of our knowledge and skills on a more-or-less permanent basis and working memory, which
performs the intellectual tasks associated with consciousness. Information may only be stored in long term memory
after first being attended to, and processed by, working memory. Working memory, however, is extremely limited in
both capacity and duration. These limitations will, under some conditions, impede learning
The fundamental tenet of cognitive load theory is that the quality of instructional design will be raised if greater
consideration is given to the role and limitations, of working memory.

(Cooper, 1998; Source [3])

John Sweller's work is based on an information processing model of cognition, and in particular the limitations of
working memory. In addition,“ key learning activities are schema acquisition and automation of their usage. After
enough training, acquired schemata are stored in long-term memory. They allow high cognitive performance with a
very limited working memory” (Heeb 2001: 3). Now when learning concerns multiple interacting elements of
information, they have to be learned at the same time and that is a challenge for educators !
Sweller differentiates between intrinsic, germane, and extraneous cognitive load.
Cognitive load 64
• Intrinsic load is related to the difficulty of concepts, i.e. integral complexity of an idea or set of concepts
(learning contents). For example, in programming, learning to program "Hello" with PhP is much easier than
doing it with Java.
• Extraneous load (irrelevant) is due to the design of the instructional materials. In inefficient instructional designs
it adds unnecessary load. For example, an audio-visual presentation format usually has lower extraneous load
than a visual plus text format, because in the former case, working memory has less information to process.
• Germane load (relevant) relates to the degree of effort involved in the processing, construction and automation
of schemas. Germane load is sometimes associated with motivation and interest. Intrinsic load is unchangeable,
whereas the instructional designer can manipulate extraneous and germane load.

Sweller's principles and guidelines for instructional designers

Cognitive load theory suggests preventing students from using a means-ends strategy and encouraging them to
attend to problem states and their associated moves should reduce extraneous cognitive load and so facilitate
schema acquisition. In general, instructional techniques should attempt to reduce extraneous cognitive load
associated with constructing a representation because this facilitates learning.
According to Rebetez (2006:12-13) Sweller, based on his cognitive load theory, describes a series of effects and
guidelines to create learning materials:
1. Goal free effect: novice learners with a specific learning goal (like a precise question to answer) focus on the
goal and pay no attention to other information. This is detrimental to learning.
2. Worked examples effect: using known and resolved examples diminish cognitive load and improves
comprehension.
3. Problem completion effect: the worked out example should be followed by a similar but unresolved problem
to maximize motivation.
4. Modality effect: two messages on similar elements should be provided through different sensory modalities.
Research suggest that more memory capacity is available when dual modalities were used, however it may
lead to a split-attention effect and excessive animated multimedia may lead to a general overload.
5. Split-attention effect: occurs when learners have to process and integrate multiple and separated sources of
information. For instance, a geometrical sketch is better understood when textual information is spatially
integrated rather than separated . This effect is very similar to Mayer spatial and temporal contiguity principles
(see multimedia presentation
6. Redundancy effect: when the same information is presented more than once the multiple processing is
negative for comprehension since it increases external cognitive load. If novices can benefit from partially
redundant information (integrated text and picture for example), expert's performances can be impaired .
These six first effects try to minimize extraneous cognitive load (to reduce the number of cognitive processes
involved that are unnecessary for learning).
7. Element interactivity effect: interactivity with the material increases negative effects such as split-attention
and redundancy effects.
8. Isolated interacting elements effect: with complex models containing multiple interacting elements it is
advisable to begin with presenting every element separately.
9. Imagination effect: mentally simulating the functioning and interaction of elements allow experts to obtain
better results.
10. Expertise reversal effect: with experts, several effects are inversed. In this case, classical design rules are
advisable instead of those based on cognitive load.
11. Guidance fading effect: as expertise is obtained, learners should be less guided in their exercises.

Limitations of the Cognitive Load Theory

• Many of these ideas are mostly inspired by theories of cognitive processes published in the 70s or 80s. Miller's
finding of a limit to the amount of information that can be maintained in short-term memory in 1956 (Short
Term Memory @ Wikipedia [4]), Baddeley and Hitch early model of working memory in 1974 (Baddeley's model
Cognitive load 65
[5]
of working memory @ wikipedia ) and Paivio's ideas of a dual-coding storage hypothesis in the early 1970s
[6]
(Dual-coding theory @ wikipedia ), models of attention by Deutsc, & Deutsch (1963) or Kahneman (1974)
[7]
(Attention @ wikipedia ).
• More modern views or more recent findings on working memory and attention are not always taken into
account in the most recent versions of the Cognitive Load Theory.
• The recommendations are given in the form of guideline and strong empirical evidence is not always provided.
• This theory has constraints about how memory works at his chore. But the defenders of this theory sometime
make very naive or ill-informed statements about what has been learned about memory in the field of Cognitive
Psychology. For instance, Dr Cooper states that "Working memory is the part of our mind that provides our
consciousness" well, this is a quite original proposal.

Other Strategies to diminish cognitive load

Cognitive tools
• Computer-supported authoring tool could scaffold and facilitate cognitive processes by alleviating the cognitive
load.
Collaborative learning
• In collaboration the persons can share cognitive load by dividing it up into smaller portions. Each of them will be
mainly treated by one of the persons.
Metacognitive tools
• Appropriate selection of processing strategies can diminish cognitive load.
On the other hand, the difficulty with metacognitive processes is that they enter into competition with lower
cognitive process for resources (especially working memory). Metacognition involves an increased cognitive load.
Supporting cognitive and metacognitive processes with tools may benefit the metacognitive layer (which often
comes after other attention mechanisms).
These strategies go somewhat beyound the debate on cognitive load in the sense that some instructional design
models do not try to minimize intrinsic and germane cognitive load. E.g. some project-oriented learning designs
even require that learners are exposed to authentic cognitive load situations and that they learn how to handle this
by acquiring appropriate learning strategies. This being said, a designer always should take into account cognitive
load and make sure that it is not unnecessarily high.

Tools
• The NASA-TLX measures task load (Hart & Staveland, 1988)

Links
• Cognitive Load Theory (J. Sweller) [8]

• Improving Traditional Instruction [9]. (This is a short, very good introduction).

[10]
• Research into Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional at UNSW by G. Cooper (Good Introduction)

References
• Back, Jonathan and Charles Oppenheim (2001), A model of cognitive load for IR: implications for user relevance
[11]
feedback interaction, Information Research, Vol. 6 No. 2, January 2001. HTML
• Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive load theory and the format of instruction. Cognition and Instruction,
8, 293-332.
• Cooper, G., 1998, Research into Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design at UNSW, University of New
South Wales, Australia, [12]
Cognitive load 66
• Cooper, G. "Cognitive Load Theory as an Aid for Instructional Design." Australian Journal of Educational
Technology. 6:108-113, 1990.

• Chiperfield, Brian, Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design, HTML [13] (Nice example)
• Feinberg, S. and Murphy, M. 2000. Applying cognitive load theory to the design of web-based instruction. In
Proceedings of IEEE Professional Communication Society international Professional Communication Conference
and Proceedings of the 18th Annual ACM international Conference on Computer Documentation: Technology &
Teamwork (Cambridge, Massachusetts, September 24 - 27, 2000). ACM Special Interest Group for Design of
[14]
Communications. IEEE Educational Activities Department, Piscataway, NJ, 353-36 Abstract / PDF (Access
restricted).
• Hart, S. G. & Staveland, L. E. (1988). Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of empirical and
theoretical research. In P. A. Hancock and N. Meshkati (Eds.), Human Mental Workload (pp. 139-183). Elsevier
Science Publishers B. V. (North Holland).
• Raufaste, E., Terrier, P., Grabisch M., Lang, J. & Prade, H. (2001). Etude expérimentale de l'applicabilité de
modèles d'agrégation flous à l'étude de la charge mentale. In Journées d'études en Psychologie Ergonomique
(pp. 171-176), EPIQUE 2001, Nantes, 29-30 octobre 2001. PDF [15]
• Mayer Richard E. & Roxana Moreno (2003). Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning,
Educational Psychologist 2003 38:1, 43-52
• Pass, Fred; Juhani E. Tuovinen, Huib Tabbers, Pascal W. M. Van Gerven, Cognitive Load Measurement as a Means
to Advance Cognitive Load Theory, Educational Psychologist 2003 38:1, 63-71 Abstract/PDF [16] (Access restricted)
• Heeb, Hanspeter (2001), Roboworld Overcoming the Problem of Cognitive Load in Object-Oriented
Programming by Microworlds, Mémoire DESS en Sciences et Technologies de l'Apprentisssage et de la
Formation, TECFa, Université de Genève. Zip file [17]

• Pass, Fred; Alexander Renkl and John Sweller (2003). Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design: Recent
Developments, Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 1-4.
• Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving : Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257-285.
• Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty and instructional design. Learning and Instruction, 4 ,
295-312.
• Sweller, J. (2003). Evolution of human cognitive architecture. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and
motivation (Vol. 43, pp. 215-266). New-York: Academic Press.
• Sweller, J., Chandler, P., Tierney, J., & Cooper, M. (1990). Cognitive load as a factor in the structuring of technical
material. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 119, 176-192.
• Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design.
Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296.

Collaborative Face to Face Educational Environment

Draf
“CoFFEE is a suite of applications to support collaborative problem-solving discussions in the classroom. Its main
components are a series of tools for collaboration, shared work, individual work and communication. Around these
core tools, several other components make it possible to plan, run or participate in a CoFFEE lesson (or session).”
(Coffee-soft.org [1], retrieved 11:22, 12 January 2009 (UTC).)
[2]
CoFFEE is the main technology produced in the EU LEAD project. The software itself is {{citation|complemented
by pedagogical scenarii - customisable lesson plans that are written by the projects researchers. These scenarii offer
Cognitive load 67
a good starting point for teachers who want to start using CoFFEE. They include both files that teachers can plug
into CoFFEE to run a lesson plan, as well as a written step-by-step lesson plan instructing the teacher on all the
relevant aspects of running a CoFFEE supported classroom activity. ([3], retrieved 11:22, 12 January 2009 (UTC))
See also: the french version (better for now).

Architecture of the CoFFEE system

CoFFEE lessons are called Sessions. A session can be a short part of a whole lesson or span several lessons over a
period of several weeks. Such a session is composed of a number of distinct Steps, each with different tools or tool
combinations. During the lesson, the teacher can navigate from step to step. A Step may contain a single CoFFEE
tool, or a combination of up to 5 different tools.

Coffee system diagram, reproduced from

[1]
coffee-soft.org ithout special permission
 68
Collaborative Face to Face Educational Environment

Learner Tools
From the "Coffee discusser" tool the learner can access the various learning tools:
• Threaded discussion tool with several extra features, e.g. manage several topics at the same time
• Graphical discussion tool (with grid and time organisation)
• Co-Writer tool
• Positionometer
• Presence and learner groups tool
• Repository
• Chat tool
• Quick messaging tool
• Private note tool. Each other tool also can be configured for private use only.
Additional tools are available as plugins, e.g.
• Streaming tool
• IE Explorer tool
• Document browser tool

Teacher Controller tool

The Controller tool (Session Player):
• can manage steps and monitor what students do (except private tools)
• organise sessions and group formation

Lesson planner/editor/designer tools

Notice: Depending on the publication and version, these tools maybe arranged differently
• The Lesson Planner can import templates for reuse without changing its structure, e.g. the teacher can
adjuste subject matter and groups..
• The Session Editor allows for advanced configuration of components and to create templates • The
Class editor: Define students and passwords, can also assign students to groups

The replayer tool

The Replayer (available as "Tatiana") can replay all the details of a sessions. It's both an evaluation and a research
tool.

Modelling and Formats

Scenarios
A pedagogical scenario in CoFFEE is defined as a session that includes set of steps (phases). Each step is defined by
an activity - either a classroom activity or a (several) groups activity - usually involving several interactions and
supporting tools. Therefore a scenario is sequence of activities that engage learners in tasks using tools.
In "groups" mode, it is possible to assign different tasks and tools to various groups. Products are only available to
group members until the activity ends. After that, the artifacts of all groups are revealed to everybody.
A session can be part of a lesson or extend over a longer period. The activities sequence is assembled, beforehand,
as a Session defined as a sequence of steps, through the Session Editor/Designer component.
Sessions can be extended during runtime and latecomer users also can be managed.
Templates
 69
Collaborative Face to Face Educational Environment

A template is a combination of tools and steps that are designed to support an activity type (e.g brainstorming,
planning or problem solving) within a particular setting (small groups, whole-class, a particular age-group).
Technically, a template consists of a session file, a description file (in rtf format) and a template information file
(xml), which can all be created in the Lesson Planner's Session Editor.
Tailorability
CoFFEE allows a teacher to (1) use an existing Session, (2) modify an existing Session, (3) create a Session from an
existing template, (4) or finally create a Session from scratch. See tailorability

Software
• CoFFEE is freely available under an Eclipse licence [4]. • Coffee-soft.org [5] (downloads for Win/Mac/Unix)
• It has been implemented as Eclipse extension.

Links
• Lead2Learning [6] Research web site
• Coffee-soft.org [5] Product web site (downloads and support)
[7]
• Resources

Bibliography
• Belgiorno, F., De Chiara, R., Manno, I., Overdijk, M., Scarano, V. & van Diggelen, W. (2008). Face to face
cooperation with CoFFEE. Paper at the European Conference on Technology-Enhanced Learning Conference
(ECTEL2008), Maastricht, The Netherlands.
• De Chiara, R., Di Matteo, A., Manno, I., Scarano, V. (2007), CoFFEE: Cooperative Face2Face Educational
Environment, in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Collaborative Computing: Networking,
Applications and Worksharing (CollaborateCom 2007), New York, USA, November 12-15, 2007. PDF [8]
• Grieco, R., Malandrino, D., Palmieri, G., Scarano, V. (2007), Face2Face social bookmarking with
recommendations: WebQuests in the classrooms, in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on
Collaborative Computing: Networking, Applications and Worksharing (CollaborateCom 2007), New York, USA,
[9]
November 12-15, 2007. PDF

• Ligorio, M.B., Tateo, L., Manno, I., De Chiara R. and Iannaccone, A. (2007), COFFEE: a software to blend face-to-
face and written communication in collaborative problem solving-based scenarios, in Summer School
"Building Knowledge for deep Understanding" at the institute for knowledge innovation and technology, Toronto,
[10]
Canada, August 7-10, 2007. PDF

• Ligorio,M. B.; J. Andriessen, M. Baker, N. Knoller, L.Tateo (2009). Talking over the computer. Pedagogical scenarios
[11]
to blend computer and face to face interaction. ISBN 978-88-6381-019-6 (see also: home page of the book ,
abstracts and e-version)

Acknowledgement: This article or part of this article has been written during a collaboration with the EducTice [7]
[8]
group of INRP , which attributed a visiting grant to DKS in january 2009.
Community of inquiry model
 70

Community of inquiry model

Draf

Definition
The community of inquiry model is an instructional design model for e-learning developed by Randy Garrison,
Terry Anderson et al (University of Calgary). Its purpose is to provide a framework for the use of CMC in supporting
an educational experience.
See also: social presence, community of practice, knowledge-building community model, community of learning,
virtual community, social software

The model
“ "A critical community of learners, from an educational perspective, is composed of teachers and students
transacting with the specific purposes of facilitating, constructing, and validating understanding, and of developing
capabilities that will lead to further learning. Such a community encourages cognitive independence and social
interdependence simultaneously."” (Garrison & Anderson, 2003:23)
The community of inquiry model defines a good e-learning environment through three major components. On the
[1]
communities of inquiry web site (retrieved 15:45, 6 July 2006 (MEST)) these are defined as follows:
1. Cognitive presence is the extent to which the participants in any particular configuration of a community of
inquiry are able to construct meaning through sustained communication. (COI/Cognitive Presence [2])
2. Social presence is the ability of learners to project their personal characteristics into the community of inquiry,
[1]
thereby presenting themselves as 'real people.' (COI/Social presence )
Community of inquiry model

tools via interviews and surveys (Rourke & Anderson, 2002). This work has been extended and quantified by a
number of researchers (Tu, 2002; Stacey, 2002) demonstrating amongst other findings that social presence is
correlated with student satisfaction and higher scores on learning outcomes (Richardson & Swan, 2003). -
Anderson, (2005:2) [5], retrieved october 25 2007.
Stephen Downes made a suggestion to extend "presence" by
"network". “ The COI exists within the larger context of the
educational semantic web. I also envisioned the larger Net with
all of its social, teaching and cognitive stimulation and support
as being outside - but directly linking in to the three presences.
Visualized as the whole the model immersed in the flow of the
Net. Stephen's additions make that more clear and explicitly site
the encompassing effect of the Net on learning and living these
days.” (Virtual Canuck [6], retrieved 15:45, 6 July 2006 (MEST).)

1 . Teaching presence is defined as the design, facilitation, and direction of cognitive and social processes for the
The community
purpose of Inquiry
of realizing model. Copyright
personally meaningful and educational worthwhile learning outcomes. (COI/Teaching
2007R. Garrison,
[4] T. Anderson, W. Archer and L.
presence) )
Rourke et al., University of Calgary, reprinted
with permission
The relationship andby Terry Anderson
function of these components is explained in this picture

Note the pivotal role of social presence in not only setting the educational climate but also in supporting discourse and
creating the educational experience. We defined social presence as "the ability of learners to project themselves socially
and affectively into a community of inquiry" (Rourke, Anderson, Archer, & Garrison, 1999). We spent some time
developing tools to measure social presence in asynchronous text conferencing systems and validating these
 71
Software
• Portalware that is read/write
• Not Learning management systems, but for example C3MS, Wikis, Mashups like syndicated Personal learning
environments or platforms like ELGG.

Links
[1]
• Communities of inquiry This site documents the work completed during a Canadian Social Sciences and
Humanities research funded project entitled "A Study of the Characteristics and Qualities of Text-Based
Computer Conferencing for Educational Purposes.

References
• Anderson, Terry (2005). Distance learning - social software's killer ap ?, 17th Biennial Conference of the Open
[5]
and Distance Learning Association of Australia, 9-11 november 2005. PDF
• Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer
[7]
conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2-3), 87-105 PDF
• Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (????). Critical Thinking and Computer Conferencing:A Model and Tool
to Assess Cognitive Presence. American Journal of Distance Education. PDF [8]
• Garrison, D. Randy; Terry Anderson, and Walter Archer (2001). Critical Thinking, Cognitive Presence, and
Computer Conferencing in Distance Education, American Journal of Distance Education, 15(1). PDF Reprint [9]
• Garrison, Randy & Terry Anderson, (2003). E-Learning in the 21st Century: A Framework for Research and
Practice, 2003, p. 23.
• Rourke, L. & Anderson, T. (2002). Exploring social presence in computer conferencing. Journal of Interactive
[10]
Learning Research, 13(3), 259-275. PDF

• Richardson, J.C. & Swan, K. (2003). Examining social presence in online courses in relation to students' perceived
[11]
learning and satisfaction. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 7 (1), pp.68-88. HTML
• Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Archer, W. & Garrison, D.R. (1999). Assessing social presence in asynchronous, text-
[12]
based computer conferences. Journal of Distance Education, 14 (3), pp.51-70. PDF
• Stacey, E. (2002). Social presence online: Networking learners at a distance, education and information
technologies. Education and Information Technologies, 7 (4), pp.287-294.
• Tu, C.H. (2002). The measurement of social presence in an online learning environment. International Journal on
E-Learning, 1 (2), pp.34-45. pdf [13]
Component display theory

Component display theory

Draf

Definition
Component display theory (CDT) addresses the issue of learner control and the separation of instructional strategy
from instructional content.
 72
“ Component Display Theory was an attempt to identify the components from which instructional strategies could
be constructed. CDT describes instructional strategy in terms of strategy components: primary presentation forms
(PPFs), secondary presentation forms (SPFs), and interdisplay relationships (IDRs). CDT identifies strategy
prescriptions for different kinds of learning outcomes. Each of these prescriptions identified a best case
combination of PPFs, SPFs, and IDRs for a particular kind of learning outcome. CDT was analysis oriented,
emphasizing the components of instructional strategies for different kinds of instructional goals.” (Merril)

History
This instructional design model was developped through the Time-shared Interactive Computer Controlled
Information Telelvision (TICCIT) project in the seventies.
CDT had strong influence on other instructional theories, such as Reigeluth's elaboration theory and Merril's later
Instructional transaction theory (ITT)

References
• Merrill, M.D, Instructional Transaction Theory (ITT): Instructional Design Based on Knowledge Objects,
[1]
Instructional Technology Forum (1997). HTML
• Merrill, M.D. (1983). Component display theory. In C. Reigeluth (ed.), Instructional design theories and models.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
• Merrill, M. D. (1994). Instructional Design Theory. in M. David Merrill, David G. Twitchell (Ed.). Educational
Technology Publications
• Component Display Theory. In A. Kovalchick & K. Dawson (Eds.) Educational Technology: An Encyclopedia. Santa
[2]
Barbara: ABC-CLIO. PDF retrieved 12:09, 4 July 2006 (MEST).
• Wiley David A. (2000). Learning object design and sequencing theory, PDF dissertation, Brigham Young
University, PDF [3]
Computer simulation 73

Computer simulation
Draf

Definition
“Computer simulation is defined as having the following two key features: There is a computer model of a real or
theoretical system that contains information on how the system behaves. Experimentation can take place, i.e.
changing the input to the model affects the output. As a numerical model of a system, presented for a learner to
manipulate and explore, simulations can provide a rich learning experience for the student. They can be a powerful
resource for teaching: providing access to environments which may otherwise be too dangerous, or impractical due
to size or time constraints; and facilitating visualisation of dynamic or complex behaviour.” (Thomas and Milligan,
2004 [1])
See also simulation (list of other types)

Simulation in education
Simulations can be considered a variant of cognitive tools, i.e. they allow students to test hypothesis and more
generally "what-if" scenarios. In addition, they can enable learners to ground cognitive understanding of their
action in a situation. (Thomas and Milligan, 2004; Laurillard, 1993). In that respect simulations are compatible with
a constructivist view of education.
Most authors seem to agree that use of simulations needs to be pedagogically scaffolded. “Research shows that the
educational benefits of simulations are not automatically gained and that care must be taken in many aspects of
simulation design and presentation. It is not sufficient to provide learners with simulations and expect them to
engage with the subject matter and build their own understanding by exploring, devising and testing hypotheses.”
(Thomas and Milligan, 2004: 2). The principal caveat of simulations is that students rather engage with the interface
than with the underlying model (Davis, 2002). This is also called video gaming effect.
Various methods can be used, e.g.:
• the simulation itself can provide feedback and guidance in the form of hints
• Human experts (teachers, coaches, guides), peers or electronic help can provide assistance using the system.
• Simulation activities can be strongly scaffolded, e.g. by providing built-in mechanisms for hypothesis formulation
(e.g. as in guided discovery learning simulation)
• Simulation activities can be coached by humans

The inquiry learning perspective

“Inquiry learning is defined as "an approach to learning that involves a process of exploring the natural or material
world, and that leads to asking questions, making discoveries, and rigorously testing those discoveries in the search
for new understanding" (National Science Foundation, 2000). This means that students adopt a scientific approach
and make their own discoveries; they generate knowledge by activating and restructuring knowledge schemata
(Mayer, 2004)). Inquiry learning environments also ask students to take initiative in the learning process and can be
offered in a naturally collaborative setting with realistic material.” (De Jong, 2006).
[2]
According to the What do we know about computer simulations , common characteristics of educational
computer simulations are:
• Model Based: Simulations are based on a model. This means that the calculations and rules operating the
simulation are programmed. These calculations and rules are collectively called "the model", and it determines
the behavior of the simulation depending on user actions.
Computer simulation 74

• Interactive: Learners work interactively with a simulation's model to input information and then observe how
the variables in the simulation change, based on this output.
• Interface driven: The value changes to the influenced variables and the observed value changes in the output
are found in the simulation's interface.
• Scaffolded: Simulations designed for education should have supports or scaffolds to assist students in making
the learning experience effective. Step by step directions, or small assignments which break the task down to
help students, while they work with a simulation, are examples.

Software
[3]
• SimQuest (Note there is also a commercial SimQuest system for BioMedical Simulation)

• JeLSIM [4] - Java eLearning SIMulations.Jelsim Builder is a tool for the rapid production of interactive simulations
(Jelsims).
• NetLogo and AgentSheets are programmable micorworlds allowing all sorts of agent/cells simulations
• some multi-purpose cognitive/classroom tools like Freestyler may have embedded simulations tools.

Links
(needs additions !)

Introductions and Overviews

[5]
• Computer simulation (Wikipedia)

Indexes
• ???

Associations
• The Society For Modeling and Simulation International [6]
[7]
• Simulation Resources

• EUROSIM, the Federation of European Simulation Societies [8]

[9]
• The ACM Special Interest Group on Simulation

• Simulation Interoperability Standards Organization [10]

[11]
• (US) National Educational Computing Association

References
Tutorials
• Kaleidoscope Network of Excellence for Technology Enhanced Learning (2007). What do we know about
computer simulations ?, PDF [2] (based on a Dutch brochure written by Ton de Jong and Wouter van Joolingen).
Academic
• Davies, C., H., J. (2002). "Student engagement with simulations." Computers and Education 39: 271-282.
• De Jong, Ton (2006) Computer Simulations: Technological Advances in Inquiry Learning, Science 28 April 2006
312: 532-533 DOI: 10.1126/science.1127750 [12]
Computer simulation 75

• De Jong, T. (2006b). Scaffolds for computer simulation based scientific discovery learning. In J. Elen & R. E.
Clark (Eds.), Dealing with complexity in learning environments (pp. 107-128). London: Elsevier Science
Publishers.
• de Jong, Ton; van Joolingen, Wouter R. (1998). Scientific Discovery Learning with Computer Simulations of
Conceptual Domains, Review of Educational Research, Vol. 68, pp. 179-201.
• Gijlers, H. (2005). Confrontation and co-construction; exploring and supporting collaborative scientific discovery
learning with computer simulations. University of Twente, Enschede.
• David Guralnick, Christine Levy, Putting the Education into Educational Simulations: Pedagogical Structures,
Guidance and Feedback, International Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning (iJAC), Vol 2, No 1 (2009)
[13]
Abstract/PDF (Open access journal).
• Hickey, D. T., & Zuiker, S. (2003). A new perspective for evaluating innovative science learning environments.
Science Education, 87, 539-563.
• Jackson, S., Stratford, S., Krajcik, J., & Soloway, E. (1996). Making dynamic modeling accessible to pre-college
science students. Interactive Learning Environments, 4, 233-257.
• Ketelhut, D. J., Dede, C., Clarke, J., & Soloway, E. (1996). A multiuser virtual environment for building higher
order inquiry skills in science. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.
• Lee, J. (1999). "Effectiveness of computer-based instructional simulation: a meta analysis." International Journal
of Instructional Media 26(1): 71-85
• Laurillard, D. (1993). Rethinking University Education: a framework for effective use of educational technology,
Routledge.
• Mayer, R. E. (2004), Should there be a three strikes rule against pure discovery? The case for guided methods of
instruction. Am. Psych. 59 (14).
• National Science Foundation, in Foundations: Inquiry: Thoughts, Views, and Strategies for the K-5 Classroom
(NSF, Arlington, VA, 2000), vol. 2, pp. 1-5 HTML [14].
• Parush, A., Hamm, H. & Shtub, A. (2002). "Learning histories in simulation-based teaching: the effects on self
learning and transfer." Computers and Education 39: 319-332.
• Reigeluth, C. & Schwartz, E. (1989). "An instructional theory for the design of computer-based simulation."
Journal of Computer-Based Instruction 16(1): 1-10.
• Swaak, J. (1998). What-if: Discovery simulations and assessment of intuitive knowledge. Unpublished PhD,
University of Twente, Enschede.
• Swaak, J., Van Joolingen, W. R., & De Jong, T. (1998). Supporting simulation-based learning; the effects of model
progression and assignments on definitional and intuitive knowledge. Learning and Instructions, 8, 235-253.
• Thomas, R.C. and Milligan, C.D. (2004). Putting Teachers in the Loop: Tools for Creating and Customising
Simulations. Journal of Interactive Media in Education (Designing and Developing for the Disciplines Special
[15]
Issue), 2004 (15). ISSN:1365-893X http://www-jime. open. ac.uk/ 2004/ 15
• Van Joolingen, W. R., & De Jong, T. (1991). Characteristics of simulations for instructional settings. Education &
Computing, 6, 241-262.
• Van Joolingen, W. R., & De Jong, T. (2003). Simquest: Authoring educational simulations. In T. Murray, S. Blessing
& S. Ainsworth (Eds.), Authoring tools for advanced technology educational software: Toward cost-effective
production of adaptive, interactive, and intelligent educational software (pp. 1-31). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic
Publishers.
• Van Joolingen, W. R., De Jong, T., Lazonder, A. W., Savelsbergh, E. R., & Manlove, S. (2005). Co-lab: Research and
development of an online learning environment for collaborative scientic discovery learning. Computers in
Human Behavior, 21, 671-688.
Computer simulation 76

• Van Joolingen, W.R. and King, S. and Jong de, T. (1997) The SimQuest authoring system for simulation-based
discovery learning. In: B. du Boulay & R. Mizoguchi (Eds.), Artificial intelligence and education: Knowledge and
media in learning systems. IOS Press, Amsterdam, pp. 79-86. PDF [16]
• White, B., & Frederiksen, J. (1998). Inquiry, modeling, and metacognition: Making science accessible to all
students. Cognition and Instruction, 16, 3-118.

Constructivist emotionally-oriented model

Draf

Definition
• The Constructivist emotionally-oriented model (CEO) is a "model of web-based learning which emphasizes
safety, challenge, and new thinking, and offers several strategies to enhance the emotional experience of
learners."
• The CEO instructional design model of web-based education emphasizes safety, challenge and new thinking
and includes several strategies to enhance the emotional experience of learners.
• Emotions have been neglected in education and online education, in favor of a heavy emphasis on
cognition and rationality. (MacFadden, 2005: Abstract).
See also: Astleitner's FEASP model and the emotion article.

The Model
The table below, summarizing the CEO model is copyright by Robert MacFadden, Marilyn A. Herie, Sarah Maiter
and Gary Dumbrill (2003) and reproduced here with permission by Robert MacFadden. (Retrieved 19:27, 1 June
2006 (MEST) from Past & Present Workshops [1]).
Stage Purpose Activity Potential Feelings of Learners

Safety To create a safe learning environment Construct rules to foster free communication and Safety, support & acceptance
that facilitates risk taking and examining ensure safety. Monitoring of communication to
ones ways of thinking ensure compliance and safety

Challenge To provide the opportunity for Introduce exercises and processes that allow Disequilibrium, confusion, anxiety,
participants to critically examine their participants to step outside their existing ways of frustration in a context of safety
knowledge and world views thinking support & acceptance

New To create opportunities for engaging Introduce alternative knowledge and ways of "Ah ha!" moments leading to a new
thinking with new knowledge and gaining new viewing the world equilibrium, satisfaction, exhilaration
ways of viewing the world
 77
Constructivist emotionally-oriented model

Links
[2]
• Thinking and Feeling: Building a Constructivist, Emotionally-Oriented Model for Online Education •
[3]
Robert MAcFadden's Home page

References
• MacFadden, R.J. Dumbrill, G., Maiter, S. (2000). Web-based education in a graduate faculty of Social Work:
Crossing the new frontier. New Technology in the Human Services. Vol. 13, No.2.
• MacFadden, R. J. (2005). Souls on Ice: Incorporating emotion in web-based education. In R. J. MacFadden, B.
Moore, M. Herie, & D. Schoech, (Eds.), Web-based education in the human services: Models, methods, and best
practices. (pp. 79-98). NY, London, Victoria: The Haworth Press.
• MacFadden, R. J., Maiter, S., & Dumbrill, G. D. (2002). High tech and high touch: the human face of online
education. Journal of Technology in Human Services, 20(3/4), 238-300.
• MacFadden, R.J., Herie, M., Maiter, S., Dumbrill, G. (2005b). Achieving high touch in high tech: A constructivist,
emotionally-oriented model of web-based instruction. Journal of Teaching in Social Work 25 (1/2) 21-44. DOI
10.1300/J067v25n01_02 , ISSN 0884-1233
• MacFadden, R.J., Herie, M., Maiter, S., Dumbrill, G. (2005c). Achieving high touch in high tech: A constructivist,
emotionally-oriented model of web-based instruction. In Beaulaurier, R., Haffey, M. Technology in Social Work
Education, New York: Haworth Press (same as above)

Cybergogy
Cybergogy is an instructional design model created by Wang et al.
Minjuan Wang revised this entry thoroughly on Nov. 30, 2009

Summary
The application of educational technology has created a new teaching and learning concept – Cybergogy. One of
the central elements of cybergogy is the intent to combine fundamentals of both pedagogy and andragogy to arrive
at a new approach to learning (Carrier & Moulds, 2003). Cybergogy focuses on helping adults and young people to
learn by facilitating and technologically enabling learner-centered autonomous and collaborative learning in a
virtual environment. At the core of cybergogy is awareness that strategies used for face-to-face learning may not be
the same used in the virtual environment.
Facilitators need to be mindful of Cybergogy. As many studies reveal, learner’s active engagement in the learning
process affects their learning outcomes. In any learning environment, truly engaged learners are behaviorally,
intellectually, and emotionally involved in their learning tasks (Wang & Kang, 2006; Wang, 2007). Cybergogy for
Engaged Learning Model is created by Dr. Minjuan Wang (Educational Technology, San Diego State University), and
Dr. Myunghee Kang(Educational Technology, Ewha Womans University, South Korea). This model is a synthesis of
current thinking, concepts, and theoretical frameworks on the extent and nature of the domains in learner online
engagement. The Cybergogy model is published as a book chapter (Wang & Kang, 2006), a peer-reviewed journal
article (Wang, 2008), and also recognized as an innovative model for instructional design (Wang, 2008).
The Cybergogy for Engaged Learning model, as Wang and Kang (2006) present, has three overlapping/intersecting
domains: cognitive, emotive, and social (see the figure). The authors argue that engaged learning will occur when
the critical factors in each domain are well attended, so as to encourage learners’ cognitive, emotive, and social
 78
presence. This model is created particularly for online settings that involve more generative and constructive
learning Cybergogy

activities. For the online learning experience to be successful, students must be furnished with prior knowledge,
motivated to learn, and positively engaged in the learning process. In addition, Wang and Kang suggest, students
must also be comfortable with the learning environment and feel a strong sense of community and social
commitment. The Cybergogy for Engaged Learning model could be used to conduct needs assessment and to lay
out course design and facilitation techniques. Instructors could use this model to profile each student’s cognitive,
emotive and social attributes and then effectively engage learners by addressing individual’s learning needs and
attributes (Wang & Kang, 2006). The authors identify methods that instructors can use to detect learners’
emotional cues and cultivate their positive feelings; to increase learners’ self-confidence and arouse their curiosity
through course design and e-facilitation; to conduct online communication and build a supportive learning
environment. Therefore, the term “Cybergogy” becomes a descriptive label for the strategies for creating engaged
learning online.
The Cybergogy model values affective learning as highly as cognitive
learning, and sees the two as interwoven. The authors (2006) argue
that current educational systems must value the learner over the
curriculum, and must tolerate learning outcomes that may be less
predictable but highly worthwhile.
The Cybergogy for Engaged Learning model also provides a framework
for generating meaningful and engaging learning experiences for
distance students with diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds.
Engagement is positively correlated with motivation, which may be
prompted in different ways for culturally different students. There are
four motivational conditions that the instructor and the learners Cybergogy for engaged learning (Wang et al.)

collaboratively create. First, cultivating learners’ competence about

being effective in learning valuable things; second, creating a respectful and connected learning atmosphere; third,
helping learners develop favorable attitudes toward the learning experience through personal relevance and
choice; and fourth, creating challenging and thoughtful learning experiences that are consistent with learners’
perspectives and values.

Cybergogy Model for Engaged Learning reflects the systemic approach to online learning. The key features of this
systemic view include: a) putting the right people, elements and resources in place to succeed; b) evaluating results
through learning outcomes; and c) providing feedback and taking action to maintain alignment with established
educational and societal goals. Factors in the cognitive, emotive, and social domains are identified as critical
elements in a learning environment when used as input in the system described. These input elements together
transform the learning system into cognitive, emotive, and social presence, and they finally generate engaged
learning as a whole. As a consequence, learners will not only have the opportunity to accomplish their learning
goals, but also will be actively involved in the learning process.
Since its creation, this model has been validated and tested in a handful of systematic studies (e.g., Kang et al.,
2009; Wang, Shen, & Novak, 2008; Shen, Wang, & Pan, 2008; Wang, Novak, & Pacino, 2009; Shen et al., 2009;
Scopes, 2009; Cronin, McMahon & Waldron, 2009).
Cybergogy

Literature
• Carrier, S. I., & Moulds, L. D. (2003). Pedagogy, andragogy, and cybergogy: exploring best-practice paradigm for
online teaching and learning. Sloan-C 9th International Conference on Asynchronous Learning Networks (ALN),
Orlando, USA PPT [1]
• Cronin, J., McMahon, J.P. & Waldron, M. (2009). Critical survey of information technology use in higher
education -- blended classrooms. In C. R. Payne (Ed.). Information technology and constructivism in higher
 79
education: progressive learning frameworks, (pp.203-215). Hershey and New York: Information Science
Reference.
• Wang, M. J. & Kang, J. (2006). Cybergogy of engaged learning through information and communication
technology: A framework for creating learner engagement. In D. Hung & M. S. Khine (Eds.), Engaged learning
with emerging technologies (pp. 225-253). New York: Springer Publishing.
• Wang, M. J. (2007). Designing online courses that effectively engage learners from diverse cultural backgrounds.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(2), 294-311.
• Wang, M. J. (2008). Cybergogy for engaged learning. Journal of Open and Distance Education in China, 14(2), 14-
22.
• Kang, M., Jung, J., Park, M. S., & Park, H. J. (2009). Impact of learning presence on learner interaction and
outcome in web-based project learning. Proceedings of the 9th international conference on Computer supported
collaborative learning, 2, 62-64.
• Wang, M. J., Shen, R. M., & Novak, D. (2008). Assessing the effectiveness of mobile learning in large
hybrid/blended learning classrooms. In J. Fong, R. Kwan, & F. L. Wang (Eds.): Lecture Notes in Computer
Science: Theoretical Computer Science and General Issues, 5169, (pp. 304-315). Berlin: Springer Publishing.
• Shen, R. M., Wang, M. J., & Pan, X.Y. (2008). Increasing interactivity in blended classrooms through a cutting-edge
mobile learning system. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(6), 1073-1086.
• Shen, R. M., Wang, M. J., Gao, W. P., Novak, D., & Tang, L. (2009). Mobile Learning in a large blended computer
science classroom: System function, pedagogies, and their impact on learning. IEEE Transactions on Education,
52(4),538-546.
• Scopes, L.J.M. (2009) Learning archetypes as tools of Cybergogy for a 3D educational landscape: a structure for
eTeaching in Second Life. University of Southampton, School of Education, Masters Thesis, 103pp. Retrieved
Nov. 30, 2009 from http:/ /eprints. soton.ac.uk/66169/
DialogPlus Toolkit 80

DialogPlus Toolkit
Draf

Definition
The DialogPLUS Toolkit was a tool made for guiding and supporting teachers as they create, modify, and share
learning activities and resources. DialogPLUS is an online browser-based application (as of 2010 it is still open) and
was sponsored by the British JISC/NSF funded DialogPlus project. See also the Learning activity reference model, a
larger related JISC project from this period.
[1]
DialogPLUS has been superceded by other projects, in particular the Open University Learning Design Initiative .
One of the products under active development is the CompendiumLD learning design software and the Cloudworks
[2]
, “a place to share, find and discuss learning and teaching ideas and experiences.”
See also: Conole and Fill learning taxonomy (a visualization of ingredients)

Purpose
This tool is partly inspired by IMS Learning Design and somewhat related toolkits like LAMS and MOT.
According to Conole and Fill (2005: 1), “ despite the plethora of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
tools and resources available, practitioners are still not making effective use of e-learning to enrich the student
experience”. The DialogPLUS learning design toolkit should guide practitioners through the process of creating
pedagogically informed learning activities which make effective use of appropriate tools and resources.
The learning design toolkit described can be used for three main purposes:
1. As step-by-step guidance to help practitioners make theoretically informed decisions about the development of
learning activities and choice of appropriate tools and resources to undertake them.
2. As a database of existing learning activities and examples of good practice which can then be adapted and
reused for different purposes.
3. As a mechanism for abstracting good practice and metamodels for e-learning
Conole and Fill (2005: 7-8)

The tool
We firstly will describe a few concepts used in the modelling framework and then shortly describe the system.

Concepts
At the heart of this instructional design method are nuggets, i.e. learning activities or pedagogical scenarios.
Nuggets embody both learning activities and resources. Nuggets are activity-based learning objects. “ Nuggets
range in size (from a single file, to a mini-website), formats (word documents, powerpoint slides, html, flash etc),
media (text, images, animations) and educational styles (learning material, assessments, activities, resources).”
([3]), retrieved 11:37, 23 November 2006 (MET)).
The software uses a nugget taxonomy as a language to to specify the nugget and its components. Below we
reproduce some concept maps produced by the authors that illustrate a few selections a teacher/designer has to
make when he designs a "nugget". These concept maps probably do not reflect the current state of the system, but
DialogPlus Toolkit 81

they give an idea of the kind of design decisions that are being modeled. Also, please note that we don't show all
expanded "nodes" of the model.

The learning activity

The notion of a learning activity (LA) is at the heart of the "nugget" and the tool and it is composed of three
elements:
• The context of the activity: e.g. subject, level of difficulty, intended learning outcomes and the environment
within which the activity takes place.
• The learning and teaching approaches: including theories and models.
• The learning tasks: This includes type of task, techniques used, associated tools and resources, interaction and
roles of those involved and learner assessment.

Learning Activity - Top Level, copyright Conole

and Fill (2005), reproduced with permission by
K.Fill and G.Conole

Learning and teaching approaches

The tool supports a variety of instructional design models. DSchneider thinks that it definitely fits a modern activity-
based instructional design perspective, e.g. as an alternative to more traditional lesson planners and more in the
spirit of more powerful tools like MOT+, but being much easier to learn.
With the tool, the teacher can explicitly state a given pedagogical approach, but the design itself is then defined
through tasks.

Tasks
A task is firstly defined by a description, a length, a type, a technique and interaction. A task then assigns roles and
includes resources, tools and assessment.

Tasks in DialogPLUS, copyright Fill et al. (2004)

[4
reproduced with permission by K.Fill and
G.Conole

Task types
DialogPlus Toolkit 82

Task types in DialogPLUS, copyright Fill et al.

[4
(2004) reproduced with permission by K.Fill
and G.Conole

Task techniques
Task techniques include brainstorming, exercise, field work, role play, reflection and syndicates. The authors “
identified almost thirty techniques to be stored in the toolkit such that advice can be offered to practitioners.
Interactions required are likely to be individual, one to many, student to student, student to tutor, group or class
base”. Task resources
Available resources and tools are based on the Laurillard conversational framework five principal media forms
(Narrative, Communicative, Adaptive, Productive, and Interactive) (Laurillard, 2002, p.90).

Tasks in DialogPLUS, copyright Fill et al. (2004)

[4
reproduced with permission by K.Fill and
G.Conole

Assessment types
Not surprisingly, there is a large palette of assessment types and techniques.
DialogPlus Toolkit 83

Tasks in DialogPLUS, copyright Fill et al. (2004)

[4
reproduced with permission by K.Fill and
G.Conole

The learning taxonomy in one table

One major outcome of this project and that will stay is just the taxonomy itself. It can be used for various purposes,
e.g. in teacher training or as a tool that allows a designer/teacher to think about pedagogical approaches, tasks,
tools, resources, support and outcomes in a learning design perspective.
The table below was presented by Conole (2010:Appendix) in a draf for discussion version of a State of the Art
report on training teachers, blended learning and elearning [5]
Context Learning outcome, subject, discipline, level, learner characteristics, pre-requisites, time to complete

Pedagogy Tasks and supporting assets and outputs

Approaches Techniques Tasks Tools Resources Support Outputs

DialogPlus Toolkit 84

Action research Buzz words Analyse List Bibliographic software Annotated Buddying Artefact
Active learning Crosswords Apply Argue Listen Blogs bibliography Coach Assignment
Case study Drill and practice Brainstorm Manipulate CAA tools Content in blogs Diagnostic test Book report
Collaborative Exercise Calculate Model CD/DVD Content in wikis Explanation Concept
Conceptual Experiment Classify Negotiate Chat Course information Facilitation map

Constructivist Fishbowl Compare Observe Concordancer Course reading Formative Dissertation

Order materials Feedback Essay
Dialogic Game Create Database
Organise Discussion forum Induction Paper
Enquiry-led Ice breaker Criticise Digital audio
Practice content
Experiment Journaling Critique Digital video Instructions Performance
Predict FAQs
Field trip Pair dialogues Debate Discussion board Intervention Portfolio
Prepare Interactive CD ROM
Goal-based Panel discussion Decide Electronic library Monitoring Presentation
Present MCQ
scenario Peer exchange Define Email Orientation Product
Produce Previous cohort session
Problem-based Puzzles Demonstrate Graphic package Report
Question resources
Procedural Peer Review
Question/answer Describe Instant messaging Schedule/course
React collaboration
Project-based Rounds Design iPOD/MP3 player calendar
Read Peer reflection
Reflective Scavenger hunt Differentiate Image software Peer-generated
Recite Scaffolding
practitioner resource
Snowball Discover Refine Memory stick
Resource-based Set up
Peer-recommended
Structured Discuss Reflect Mind map
Role play sites Surgery
debate Draw Report Modelling NVIVO
Vicarious learning Tutorial Subject-based web
Evaluate Research Online assessment
sites
Web search Experience Resolve Podcast
Template
Explain Review Project manager
Research journal
Explore Search Search engine articles
Gather Select Simulation software Grey literature
Generalise Simulate Spreadsheet
Solve
Hypothesize Statistical software
Specify
Identify Text image audio or
State video viewer
Illustrate
Video conferencing
VLE/LMS

Infer Summarise Virtual worlds

Interpret Synthesise Voice over IP
Interview Test Voting system
Investigate Translate Wikis
Judge View Word processor
Justify Vote
Write

The tool
[6]
The tool is available as on-line Web application . External users may create an account (checked on 20:24, 22
November 2006 (MET)).
(needs some description here - DSchneider)
DialogPlus can export to IMS Learning Design
[7]
DialogPlus is also integrated with ConceptVISTA , a ontology creation and visualization tool that stores ontologies
in the Web Ontology Language (OWL)
DialogPlus Toolkit 85

Current status
As of Nov 2006, the DialogPlus toolkit is being further evaluated, together with LAMS, as tools for teacher
[8]
development as learning activity designers in the JISC funded EDIT4L project, part of the Design for Learning
programme.
As of April 2010, the project is mostly dead, although the web site is still up and running. Replacement can be found
[9]
through the Open University Learning Design Initiative (OULDI). E.g. you may have a look at CompendiumLD (if
your read french, see also our Tutoriel CompendiumLD. The OULDI approach is much less "molecular", i.e. focuses
[2]
on community building and exchange of ideas and patterns through the Cloudworks website (a kind of multi-user
blog). "Clouds" are entries (posts of various natures + comments" and "Cloudscapes" are categories. In principle,
people should contribute CompendiumLD designs there. Since a first stable version only came out on May 2010,
there are only very few so far.

DialogPlus vs. IMS Learning Design

[10]
Bailey et al. (2006). Panning for Gold explains that there are many structurals similarities between DialogPlus
and IMS Learning Design and this is why DialogPlus can export to IMS LD.
Here is a figure (reproduced without permission for the moment) from this paper that summarizes the situation:

Bailey et al. comparison between DialogPlus and

IMS LD

Discussion

Comments by DSchneider / 2006

General
• Given the complex scenario descriptions the tool can handle, it's fairly easy to understand how to use it (globally
speaking). Overally speaking, I have a good impression and this tool certainly could be used in teacher
education. The nugget definition
• Nugget aims can not be re-edited
• The generic nugget module window provides a useful overview, but it doesn't make sense to use a separate
column to display various nugget categories. Even with my 3500 px two 20 + 24 screens...
Task definitions
• The task can't be described. Not sure that it is enough to describe with various taxonomy elements.
• It is not practical to have to enter the same resource or tool several times. One ought to be able to link various
tasks to one single resource or tool. E.g. a same wiki can be use to look up definitions, to find further readings, to
compose a project page, to add/modify definitions, to discuss. A similar remark concerns function. One tool can
DialogPlus Toolkit 86

have more than one function. Of course media have affordances, but a tool is instrument because of way it is
being used.
• Resources and tools can not be edited.
IMS LD export
• Export to IMS LD works, but the result can't be loaded into the Reload LD Player (there is a missing identifier
attribute in the manifest, learnobjectid is defined twice, ...). I will try to fix the manifest by hand later.
ConceptVISTA
• I didn't understand really how the 2 are integrated (but didn't really try so far)

Comments by DSchneider / 2010

I finally never used this website for myself and also think that it's not suitable for normal teachers, since they don't
like to plan in top down fashion. However, I still feel that DialogPlus would be a really valuable tool for teacher
education. Also, in that respect, the Interface could be made "web 2.0" kind of easy-to-use, but this would need
some funding. As I also said above, the learning taxonomy itself is a great output of this project and will stay
around.
[5]
According to Conole (2010), State of the Art report on training teachers, blended learning and elearning (draft for
discussion version), “the linear nature of the design of the toolkit does not align with real teacher-design practice,
[11]
which is messy, iterative and intuitive.”. In a message posted to cloudworks , Graínne Conole explains that
“Visualusation has become central to my thinking both in terms of how adapted mindmapping tools like the
CompendiumLD tool we have created can be used, but also conceptual 'views' to help thinking about design from
differnt perspectives”.

Update 2014
As of March 2014, most links seem to be dead, including the DialogPlus web site. A fairly typical situation in
Educational Technology:
• Funding allow to create a prototype
• After funding, researchers try to maintain or even improve
• After some years, there are other priorities, the site often will be hacked and/or spammed and then killed ....

Links
DialogPLUS On-line Application
[6]
• DialogPlus Nugget Developer Guidance Toolkit (dead link)

• The DialogPLUS Toolkit (DPT) User Guide [12] (dead link)

Project websites and related

• DialogPlus Home Page [13] (dead link) (http:/ /www.dialogplus. org/dead link)
[8]
• EDIT4L , Evaluation of Design and Implementation Tools for Learning (dead link)
[14]
• JISC Design for learning . A larger British project (2006 - 2088) for projects in developing, implementing and
evaluating tools and systems that support design for learning.
[15]
• ConceptVISTA
Other
DialogPlus Toolkit 87

• Fill, K., Bailey, C., Conole, G. & Davis, H. (2004). "Supporting teachers: the development and evaluation of a
[16]
learning design toolkit." ALT-C 2004, Exeter, UK. Abstract (and PPT)

References
• Bailey, C., Zalfan, M. T, Davis, H. C., Fill, K., & Conole, G. (2006). Panning for Gold: Designing Pedagogically
inspired Learning Nuggets. Educational Technology & Society, 9 (1), 113-122. PDF Reprint [10].
• Conole, Gráinne and Karen Fill (2005). A learning design toolkit to create pedagogically effective learning
activities. Journal of Interactive Media in Education (Advances in Learning Design. Special Issue, eds. Colin
Tattersall, Rob Koper), 2005/08. ISSN:1365-893X Abstract [17] (PDF/HTML open access)
• Conole, G. & Fill, K. "Designing a Learning Activity Toolkit." Ed-Media 2004 Poster, Lugano, Switzerland PPT
[18]

• Conole.G. (2010), State of the Art report on training teachers, blended learning and elearning (draft for
discussion version), The Open University HTML [5], retrieved May 2010.
• Laurillard, D. (2002). Rethinking University Teaching. A conversational framework for the effective use of learning
technologies. London: Routledge ISBN 0415256798 .
Other publications to sort out ...
• Conole, G. (2002). 'Systematising Learning and Research Information', Journal of Interactive Media in Education,
7. Abstract [19] (HTML/PDF).
• Conole, G. (2004). 'Report on the effectiveness of tools for e-learning', report for the JISC commissioned
Research Study on the Effectiveness of Resources, Tools and Support Services used by Practitioners in Designing
and Delivering E-Learning Activities. [cited] [cited]
• Conole, G. and Dyke, M. (2004). 'What are the affordances of Information and Communication Technologies',
ALT-J, 12.2,113-124.
• Conole, G., Dyke, M., Oliver, M. and Seale, J. (2004). 'Mapping pedagogy and tools for effective learning design',
Computers and Education, 43 (1-2), 17-33
• Conole, G. and Oliver, M. (2002). 'Embedding Theory into Learning Technology Practice with Toolkits, Journal of
Interactive Media in Education, Special issue on learning technology theory', Open University, 2002(8), http:/ /
jime. open.ac.uk/.

Direct instruction
Draf

Definition
Direct instruction (DI) is a popular instructional design model for classroom teaching initially developped in the 60's
by Siegfried Engelmann. It grew out of the work of Siegfried Englemann and Carl Bereiter with disadvantaged
children (Bereiter & Engelmann, 1966)
This method is somewhat related to mastery learning, but it is more explicit regarding curriculum design and
effective planned instructional delivery (lesson planning). Some call this method "teacher proof" under the
condition that he really is willing to learn a teaching script developped by professional instructional designers.
DialogPlus Toolkit 88

Direct instruction is available as commercial instructional programs that includes materials and teacher training /
in-classroom coaching.

Features
We identified the following salient features of direct instruction:
• Scripted Lesson Plans. Such lesson plans relieve the teacher from time-consuming preparation tasks. These are
explicitly tested examples and sequences made by professional instructional designers.
• Signal-based teachers. Teachers send frequently signals to learners to which they should respond.
• Skill focused: Skills are taught in sequence until students have them automated.
• Appropriate pacing: teacher-directed instruction followed by small collective or individual learning/repeating
activities. Pacing of different teaching methods is rather fast, but children must have space to respond.
• Frequent probing/testing and assessments with a appropriate corrective feedback / differential praise.
• Direct instruction is not just drill & practise. Learners can engage in more complex tasks during certain activities.
Kenny (1980) lists the following features:
1. goals are clear to the students
2. time allocated for instruction is sufficient and continuous
3. content covered is extensive
4. students' performance is monitored
5. questions are at a low cognitive level produce many correct #sponses
6. feedback to students is immediate and academically orientated
7. the teacher controls the instructional goals
8. the teacher chooses material appropriate for the student's #vel
9. the teacher paces the teaching
10. interaction is structured but not authoritarian
Direct instruction 89

Instructional design models

There are many descriptions of direct instruction:
According to Huitt (1996), direct instruction can be summarized as follows.
1. More teacher-directed instruction (> 50%) and less seatwork (< 50%).
2. Active presentation of information (could be by teacher, computer, another student).
1. Gain students' attention
2. Providing motivational clues
3. Use advance organizers
4. Expose essential content
5. Pretesting/prompting of relevant knowledge 3. Clear organization of presentation. This includes:
1. component relationships
2. sequential relationships
3. relevance relationships
4. transitional relationships
4. Step-by-step progression from subtopic to subtopic (based on task analysis).
5. Use many examples, visual prompts, and demonstrations (to mediate between concrete and abstract concepts).
6. Constant assessment of student understanding (before, during and after the lesson).
7. Alter pace of instruction based on assessment of student understanding (you're teaching students, not content).
8. Effective use of time and maintaining students' attention (appropriate use of classroom management
techniques).
Koslov et al. (1999) identify the following typical phases of a lesson (see also Gagne's nine events of instruction.
1. Attention and Focus: Short wake-up
2. Orientation or Preparation: Teacher presents goal of the lesson demonstrates how the lesson builds on prior
work.
3. Model: Teacher demonstrates concepts, propositions, strategies and/or operations. This can include repetitions,
variations with different examples in order to help generalization. Teacher also can ask short questions and
accept focused questions from learners.
4. Lead: Teacher organized some guided practice. Firstly all together (choral responding) and then more
individually. If necessary, he goes back to model.
5. Test: Students have to practise individually (written).
6. Feedback: Students are corrected (using positive rewards)
7. Error correction: Persistent errors are identified and if necessary teacher has to start over with model/lead/test.
8. Additional material: Learners are engaged with different materials where the same strategies have to be applied
to a common feature (more generalization)
• Problem solving and strategy discrimination skills are introduced in future lessons (once students master a
certain vocabulary of basic strategies).
More generally, there is probably a wide consensus in the instructional design community that the structure of
programme sequences should lead to shifts from overt to covert problem solving, from simple contexts to complex
contexts that include irrelevant stimuli, from immediate to delayed feedback, from teacher-oriented presentation
to the learner as chief form of information, etc. (Kenny, 1980).
More recent models like 4C/ID, Elaboration theory or Instructional transaction theory aim at integrating part-task
and whole task practise.
Direct instruction today seems to be most popular in special education where this model actually came from in the
beginning.

Variants
Direct instruction 90

• A lot of lesson planning models, e.g. the Madeline Hunter method

• General instructional design models like Nine events of instruction
• Instructional systems design methods usually favor some kind of direct instruction approach.

Links
Direct instructions sites

• Zig Engelmann and Direct Instruction [1] (includes many papers and other materials)
Commercial programs

• Association for Direct Instruction [2]

[3]
• National Institute for Direct Instruction

• Direct Instruction Resources [4]

Summaries
• Huitt, W. (1996). Summary of principles of direct instruction. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA:
Valdosta State University. Retrieved 19:28, 22 May 2006 (MEST), from HTML [5]
[6]
• Teaching Methods - Direct instruction
[7]
• Wikipedia direct instruction (good overview)

• Some Basic Lesson Presentation Elements [8] (presents the Madeline Hunter Method).
[9]
• What Direct Instruction Is and Is Not

• An Overview of Direct Instruction [10]

Other

• Project Follow Through [11]

References
• Bereiter, C., & Engelmann, S. (1966). Teaching disadvantaged children in the preschool. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
• Bereiter, Carl (1981), A Constructive Look at Follow Through Results, Interchange, Vol. 12, Winter, 1981 HTML
[12]
Reprint

• Bereiter,Carl, Kurland,Midian, (19981) Response to House, Interchange, 12, 1, 3/1/1981, Pages 27-30, DOI
[13]
10.1007/BF01807394 . (Access restricted).
• Bereiter Carl and Midian Kurland, (1981). Response to House, Interchange, Volume 12, Number 1 / March, 1981,
• Burns Alvin C., (2006) Teaching experientially with the Madeline Hunter Method: An application in a marketing
[14]
research course, Simulation & Gaming, Vol. 37, No. 2, 284-294, DOI: 10.1177/1046878106287954 Abstract
PDF (Access restricted)
• Engelmann, Siegfried and Douglas Carnine (2011) Could John Stuart Mill Have Saved Our Schools?, Attainment
Company. ISBN 1578617456
[15]
• Kozloff, Martin A., Louis LaNunziata & ames Cowardin (1999), Direct Instruction In Education, HTML ,
retrieved, 17:17, 15 September 2006 (MEST).
Direct instruction 91

• Jalongo,Mary Renck, (1999). On Behalf of Children: Direct Instruction: When the Tree Falls, Early Childhood
[16]
Education Journal, 26, 3, 3/1/1999, Pages 139-141, DOI 10.1023/A:1022978200117 (Access restricted).

• Kenny, Dianna T. (1980). Direct instruction: An overview of theory and practice, Special, 15 12-17. PDF [17]
• Martha Abele Mac Iver, Elizabeth Kemper (2002). Guest Editors' Introduction: Research on Direct Instruction in
Reading, Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), Vol. 7, No. 2: pages 107-116. (Access
restricted)
• Martha Abele Mac Iver, Elizabeth Kemper (2002), Guest Editors' Introduction, Direct Instruction Reading
Programs: Examining Effectiveness For At-Risk Students in Urban Settings, Journal of Education for Students
Placed At Risk (JESPAR), 7 (2). [18] (open access).
• Rosenshine, B. (1976) Classroom instruction. In N.L. Gage (Ed.) The Psychology Of Teaching Methods., (75th NSSE
Yearbook) Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Schweinhart, Lawrence J., David P. Weikart, Mary B. Larner. 1986. Consequences of three preschool curriculum
models through age 15. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 1, 1, 15-45.
• Stebbins, L. B., St Pierre, R. G., Proper, E. C., Anderson, R. B., & Cerva, T. R. (1977). Education as experimentation:
A planned variation model (Vol IV-A). Cambridge, MA: Abt Associates.

Discovery learning
Draf

Definition
Discovery learning refers to various instructional design models that engages students in learning through
discovery. Usually the pedagogical aims are threefold: (1) Promote "deep" learning, (2) Promote meta-cognitive
skills (develop problem-solving skills, creativity, etc.), (3) Promote student engagement.
According to van Joolingen (1999:385): “ Discovery learning is a type of learning where learners construct their own
knowledge by experimenting with a domain, and inferring rules from the results of these experiments. The basic
idea of this kind of learning is that because learners can design their own experiments in the domain and infer the
rules of the domain themselves they are actually constructing their knowledge. Because of these constructive
activities, it is assumed they will understand the domain at a higher level than when the necessary information is
just presented by a teacher or an expository learning environment.”
According to Borthick & Jones (2000:181): “ In discovery learning, participants learn to recognize a problem,
characterize what a solution would look like, search for relevant information, develop a solution strategy, and
execute the chosen strategy. In collaborative discovery learning, participants, immersed in a community of practice,
solve problems together.”
[1]
According to Judith Conway's Educational Technology's Effect on Models of Instruction : “ Jerome Bruner was
influential in defining Discovery Learning. It uses Cognitive psychology as a base. Discovery learning is "an approach
to instruction through which students interact with their environment-by exploring and manipulating objects,
wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments" (Ormrod, 1995, p. 442) The idea is that
students are more likely to remember concepts they discover on their own. Teachers have found that discovery
learning is most successful when students have prerequisite knowledge and undergo some structured experiences.”
(Roblyer, Edwards, and Havriluk, 1997, p 68).
Discovery Learning provides students with opportunities to develop hypotheses to answer questions and can
contribute to the development of a lifelong love of learning. Students propose issues or problems, gather data and
Direct instruction 92

observations to develop hypotheses, confirm or refine their hypotheses, and explain or prove their problems. Apple
[2]
Teaching Methods, Discovery Learning
Discovery learning is based on this "Aha!" method. [3]
Discovery learning 93

Theory and models of discovery learning

Discovery learning can be traced back to authors like Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Dewey. In particular Dewey's
emphasis on "experience" is in vogue again.
Modern discovery learning approaches relate to constructivist theory and therefore Bruner is considered a father of
[4]
discovery learning by many authors. E.g. in the Encyclopedia of Educational technology one can find the
following quote from Bruner “"Emphasis on discovery in learning has precisely the effect on the learner of leading
him to be a constructionist, to organize what he is encountering in a manner not only designed to discover
regularity and relatedness, but also to avoid the kind of information drift that fails to keep account of the uses to
which information might have to be put." ”(Bruner, 1962).
Another strong influence for some kinds of discovery learning (see microworlds is Seymour Papert's
[3]
constructionism. Donald Clark in his discovery learning page puts the following statement: “ "You can't teach
people everything they need to know. The best you can do is position them where they can find what they need to
know when they need to know it." - Seymour Papert”
Discovery learning is also strongly tied to problem solving (or learning how to solve problems under a more meta-
cognitive perspective): “"Learning theorists characterize learning to solve problems as discovery learning, in which
participants learn to recognize a problem, characterize what a solution would look like, search for relevant
information, develop a solution strategy, and execute the chosen strategy."” (Borthick & Jones, 2000:181)
Some authors point out that discovery learning may increase content relevance and student engagement (actually
an argument that can be made for all sorts of project-oriented learning.
Discovery learning, like most constructivist instructional design models is not easy to implement, since learners
need to possess a number of cognitive skills and be intrinsically motivated to learn. van Joolingen (1999:386) makes
the following point:
In research on scientific discovery learning, it has been found that in order for discovery of learning to be
successful, learners need to posses a number of discovery skills (De Jong & Van Joolingen, in press), including
hypothesis generation, experiment design, prediction, and data analysis. In addition, regulative skills like planning
and monitoring are needed for successful discovery learning (Njoo & De Jong, 1993). Apart from being supportive
for learning about the domain at hand, these skills are usually also seen as a learning goal in itself, as they are
needed in a complex information society. Lack of these skills can result in ineffective discovery behavior, like
designing inconclusive experiments, confirmation bias and drawing incorrect conclusions from data. In its turn,
ineffective discovery behavior does not contribute to creating new knowledge in the mind of the learner.
Therefore one must try to support discovery learning processes, however with the risk of disrupting the very nature
process that should engage the learner in autonomous knowledge construction.
Of course, there is a lot of disruption of this "pure model". A lot of research has pointed to out that "unguided
instruction" can fail to meet precise instructional goals. Therefore, in practice, most current forms of discovery
learning are guided in various ways.

Models of discovery learning

we should add a sort of common blueprint here maybe
• Collaborative discovery learning
• Discovery learning with microworlds
• Experiental learning (to some extent)
• Guided discovery learning
• Incidental learning
• Learning by exploring (exploratory learning)
• Simulation-based learning
• Case-based learning
• Problem-based learning
Discovery learning 94

• inquiry-based learning

Technology
• Cognitive tools
• Simulations
• Hypertext
• Microworlds
• A simple combination of webpages (read/write) and forums or alternatively a Wiki

Advantages and disavantages of discovery learning

Advantages
The discovery learning literature often claims the following advantages:
• Supports active engagement of the learner in the learning process
• Fosters curiosity
• Enables the development of life long learning skills
• Personalizes the learning experience
• Highly motivating as it allows individuals the opportunity to experiment and discover something for themselves
• Builds on learner's prior knowledge and understanding
• Develops a sense of independence and autonomy
• Make them responsible for their own mistakes and results
• Learning as most adults learn on the job and in real life situations
• A reason to record their procedure and discoveries - such as not repeating mistakes, a way to analyze what
happened, and a way to record a victorious discovery
• Develops problem solving and creative skills
• Finds new and interesting avenues of information and learning - such as gravy made with too much cornstarch
can become a molding medium
These sorts of arguments can be regrouped in two broad categories
• Development of meta cognitive skills (including some higher level cognitive strategies) useful in lifelong learning.
• Motivation

Disadvantages
Most researchers would argue that pure discovery learning as a general and global teaching strategy for beginning
and intermediary learners doesn't work. The debate on how much guiding is needed is somewhat open. See
Kirschner et al. (2006) for a good overview (or Mayer, 2004; Feldon) and also Merrill's first principles of instruction
model that does promote unguided problem-based learning at the final stages of an instructional design.
Typical criticisms are:
• (Sometimes huge) cognitive overload, potential to confuse the learner if no initial framework is available, etc.
• Measurable performance (compared to hard-core instructional designs) is worse for most learning situations.
• Creations of misconceptions ("knowing less after instruction")
• Weak students have a tendency to "fly under the radar" (Aleven et al. 2003) and teacher's fail to detect
situations needing strong remediation or scaffolding.
• Some studies admit that strong students can benefit from weak treatments and others conclude that there is no
difference, but more importantly they also conclude that weak students benefit strongly from strong treatments.
Discovery learning 95

DSchneider thinks that despite very strong arguments (Kirschner et al., 2006) in disfavor of even guided discovery
learning models like problem-based learning, the debate is still open. Most really serious studies concerned high-
school science teaching. Now, science is very hard and indeed puts a very heavy load on short-term memory. In
addition, in order to solve even moderatly complex problems a person must engage many schemas. If nothing is
available in long term memory, the learner is stuck.
As an example, DSchneider (from his own experience) doesn't believe that object-oriented programming could be
taught by a discovery approach. Making web pages on the other hand could. Students can incrementally work on
their own projet and integrate independent concepts like HTML, CSS, Ergonomics, Style, Color etc. on their own
pace. A project-oriented approach to web page making probably also would be less effective than a strategy like
direct instruction. On the positive side, students engaged in discovery with some scaffolding and monitoring
provided by the teacher will learn to find resources, to read technical texts found on the Internet, to adapt a
solution to their skill level (learn something about the economics), to decompose a problem, etc. I.e. they learn
some skill that are probably transferrable to similar autonmous learning situation (e.g. learning SVG on their own).

Planning a Discovery Learning Experience

(paste by Stek, from http:/ /members. aol.com/kitecd2/artcl_disclearn. htm#PLANNING)
• select an activity. To begin pick an activity that is relatively short so that follow-up attempts are easier to predict
and plan for. Select a subject with which you are personally familiar and comfortable. Also in the beginning it is
often best to choose an activity that does not have just one correct answer. Role-playing, creating sculptures,
observing characteristics of objects, or searching for or classifying similar items all work well.
• gather materials. Remember to have enough materials for each learner to repeat the activity at least once.
• stay focused. Avoid learning tangents that may be interesting but will keep the learner from finishing the
project, unless they are truly of great curiosity and value. Instead take notes concerning the new interest to
follow-up on once the initial activity is completed.
• use caution. While the idea of discovery learning is for the instructor to step back and observe allowing the child
to work independently, be sure that safety is observed. Activities such as cooking and cutting should always be
supervised by an adult and experimenting with magnets is nice unless an important video or cassette tape is
ruined.
• plan extra time. Understand that children working on their own will most likely take longer than they would with
an adult moving them from step to step. Also be sure to plan time for repeated activities in case there is a failure
or other reason to repeat the activity.
• record process and results. Include in the activity a requirement for older children to record their procedure and
results. For young children guide, assist, or model record keeping.
• discuss and review. After and activity is completed and before it is repeated a second time (if needed), discuss
the activity and its outcome with the child. Use the records which were kept to assist during this step. Once the
activity has been analyzed, record any observations or mistakes.
• try again. Have the child repeat the activity if necessary. Encourage her to take into account what was done and
the discussion that occurred. Allow her to use any records that were kept to assist her in successfully completing
the activity. Give assistance and guidance as necessary.
• plan for more discovery learning activities. Think over how this activity worked for the child. As you plan more
discovery activities take the answers to these questions into consideration. What went well? What could have
gone better? How can any problem areas be corrected or alleviated?

Examples
• See http:/ /copland. udel. edu/ ~jconway/EDST666.htm#dislrn (to be inserted in simulations.)
Discovery learning 96

Links
• http:/ /copland. udel. edu/ ~jconway/EDST666.htm#dislrn
[2]
• Apple Teaching Methods, Discovery Learning
• http:/ /www.nwlink. com/~donclark/ hrd/ history/ discovery. html
[5]
• Alternative modes to delivery, Discovery Learning

References
• Aleven, V., Stahl, E., Schworm, S., Fischer, F., & Wallace, R. (2003). Help Seeking and Help Design in Interactive
Learning Environments. Review of Educational Research, 73(7), 277-320.
• Borthick, A. Faye & Donald R. Jones (2000). The Motivation for Collaborative Discovery Learning Online and Its
Application in an Information Systems Assurance Course, Issues in Accounting Education, 15 (2). [6].
• This article presents a case study in detail
• Bruner, J.S. (1967). On knowing: Essays for the left hand. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
• Davidson, N. The Small-Group Discovery Method in Secondary- and College-Level Mathematics, In N. Davidson
(cd.) Cooperative Learning in Mathematics: A Handbook for Teachers. Addison-Wesley (Menlo Park, Ca.). 1990.
• Dunbar, K. 1993. Concept discovery in a scientific domain. Cognitive Science 17: 397-434.
• Feldon, David F. Perspectives on Learner-Centeredness: A Critical Review of Definitions and Practice, University
of Southern California Center for Learning, PDF [7], retrieved, 17:17, 15 September 2006 (MEST).
• Jong, T. de, & Joolingen, W.R. van (1998). Scientific discovery learning with computer simulations of conceptual
domains. Review of Educational Research, 68, 179-202.
• Joolingen, Wouter van (1999), Cognitive tools for discovery learning, International Journal of Artificial
Intelligence in Education, 10, 385-397 [8]
• Joyce, B., M. Weil, and B. Showers. (1992) Models of Teaching. Allyn and Bacon (Boston, Ma).
• Kirschner, P., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (in press). Why Unguided Learning Does Not Work: An Analysis of the
Failure of Discovery Learning, Problem-Based Learning, Experiential Learning and Inquiry-Based Learning.
Educational Psychologist.PDF Preprint [9]
• Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006) Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An
analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching.
Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86 PDF [10]

• http:/ /members. aol. com/kitecd2/artcl_disclearn. htm

• http:/ /www.csd.uwa. edu. au/altmodes/ to_delivery/ discovery_learning. html
• Klahr, D., & Dunbar, K. (1988). Dual space search during scientific reasoning. Cognitive Science, 12, 1-48.
• Mayer, R. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? American Psychologist,
59(1):14-19 [Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning PDF] (Access restricted).
• Njoo, M., & Jong, T. de (1993). Exploratory learning with a computer simulation for control theory: Learning
processes and instructional support. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30, 821-844.
• Tobias, S, (1991). An examination of some issues in the constructivist-ISD controversy from an eclectic
perspective. Educational Technology, 31 (9), 41-43.
Discovery learning 97

Dukes simulation and gaming model for sociology

teaching

Definition
The 'Dukes simulation and gaming model for sociology teaching is an instructional design model in the field of
simulation and gaming.
DSchneider believes that it refers to non-computerized role-playing games.
[1]
It has been published as such on the old Simluation and gaming Journal web site in 1997. Since Prof. Duke is now
retired and difficult to contact and this web site may disappear any day we took the liberty to reproduce the entire
model here with some minor changes.

The model: Suggestions For Running Simulations/Games In The Classroom

(A synthesis of ideas from Garry Shirts, Richard D. Duke, Cathy S. Greenblat)

Preparation
1. Read the director's manual.
2. Do a trial run (use friends, relatives, etc.).
3. In minimum terms, being prepared means:
• Know what physical arrangements are needed;
• Know the sequence of events;
• Know what to say to get things started;
• Know the artifacts and how and when to use them;
• Know how you want to debrief the activity (especially questions you want to ask).
 98
Dukes simulation and gaming model for sociology teaching

Directions
Do not give too many directions at the start:
1. Explain the main objective of the exercise.
2. Explain enough of the game to get them started.
3. Answer more complicated questions as they arise.
4. Walk through the first round if it cannot be explained simply.
5. Use handouts or wall charts if the rules and sequences are lengthy.

Assistants
1. Use assistants for routine operations
2. Discourage nonparticipant observers. Use those who do not want to play as assistants.
3. Assistants can pass out routine items, so your time is free to monitor the game, answer questions, and keep
things moving.

Assigning participants to groups/roles:

1. Your strategy should appear to be random rather than selective.
2. Assignment of two or more persons to one role will increase interaction, and it will cushion against the effects of
players leaving early or nonperformance.

Simulation speed and stop

1. Keep the simulation moving
• It is better to go too fast than too slow.
• All decisions called for in the game should be somewhat rushed.
2. The game should be stopped at the peak of interest. Do not let it start to drag.

The game rules are like natural laws

1. They should not be broken by the participants.
2. Do not allow cheating.
3. However, "person laws" (or those which emerge between participants) can be violated if the parties feel so
inclined.

The debriefing
Should proceed from simple descriptive questions about what happened (giving participants a chance to vent their
feelings) to questions dealing with explanation, analysis, and finally to generalizations about the referent system
that the game mirrors.
1. What happened?
2. Why does it happen in most plays of the game?
3. How does what happened compare with real world?
4. What would happen if . . .?
Dukes simulation and gaming model for sociology teaching
 99
Links
[1]
Simulation and Gaming and the Teaching of Sociology 6th edition, 1997. Compiled by Richard L. Dukes Colorado
University, Colorado Springs.

E-moderation five-stage model

Draf
(needs some tuning)

Definition
• Gilly Salmon's 5-stage model of e-moderating describes to design an course that strongly uses computer-
mediated communication, in particular forums
• A description of a five-stage model of teaching and learning online (Gilly, 2002:X).

The five stages - Overview

1. Access & Motivation. Exploring the technology and motivation building are key issues. The e-moderator helps
meeting people and learn the environment.
2. Socialisation. Building on the first stage, this stage focuses on social processes and 'community building'.
Moderator does bridge building.
3. Information Exchange. Information is exchanged and co-operative tasks can be achieved. Interaction happens
with contents, other participants and the e-moderator that assists exploration activities.
4. Knowledge Construction. Knowledge development and discussion activities become important. Participants start
recognizing the value of text-based asynchronous interaction and take control of knowledge construction.
5. Development. Participants become responsible for their own learning and that of their group. Ideas are applied
to individual contexts. This stage is characterised by reflection and assessment.
The 5-stage model is also at the core of Salmon's e-tivity frameworks for enhancing active and participative online
learning by individuals and groups.

Comments
Salmon's books are easy reading and are suitable for beginners:
• She provides a lot of examples.
• She works with simple technology (e.g. forums and email).
• There are practical "how-to" sections (recipees).
Globally speaking, her own books do a very good job for her stages 1-3. They also are a must read for practitionners
of content-oriented e-learning. I don't think that her approach goes far enough to support deeper project-oriented
teaching. What I miss most are scenarios to build tangible knowledge or projects that are reified on-line .. a price to
pay for using only simple communication tools (no Wikis, no C3MS, etc.)
11:03, 11 April 2006 (MEST)--DSchneider
E-moderation five-stage model
 100
Links
[1]
• E-tivities book companion site

• E-moderation book companion site [2]

References
• Salmon, Gilly (2003) E-moderating: The Key to Teaching and Learning Online (2nd edition), London: Taylor &
Francis. ISBN 0415335442.

• See also the review at elearning-reviews.org [3].

• Salmon, Gilly (2002), "E-tivities. The Key to Active Online Learning", London: Tayler & Francis. ISBN
0749436867

• See also the review at elearning.surf.nl [4]

E-tivity

Definition
[1]
The term E-tivity was coined by G. Salmon of Open University (England). It means "task online"; it is a framework
to learn something in a dynamic and interactive way. This activity is based on intense interaction and reflective
dialogue between a number of participants, such as learners / students and teachers, who work in a computer-
mediated environment. E-tivities are text-based and led by an e-moderator (usually a teacher).
See also: E-moderation five-stage model (also by G. Salmon) and more general entries like activity, pedagogical
scenario, learning activity and pedagogic strategy.

Structure
All e-tivities "are designed to engage online students in meaningful work that captures their imagination and
challenges them to grow" (Salmon, 2002). All the participants cooperate in order to get used to computers and, in
particular, the Internet. They follow a basic structure: Spark: a small piece of information, a sort of "input".
Task: the moderator asks participants to do an activity online. In doing the activity, participants have to complete a
task and try to solve a problem by themselves.
Timeline: the moderator, who orchestrates the whole process, gives participants a deadline to do the activity. This
timeline is useful to organize work and make sure that all participants will complete it by the same time. The
timeline should give participants a little time to complete the "respond" part before the assignment of the
following e-tivity.
Respond: participants are invited to read other participants' e-tivities and comment on them whenever they have
something interesting to add or disagree with some observation; constructive criticism is a key aspect of online
activities. This last part plays an important part in the overall process for it fosters collaboration between
participants. It is quite helpful for everyone as it gives each of the participants the possibility to improve their work
method quality.
E-tivity
 101
Examples of e-tivities
There are some examples of e-tivities below, each related to one stage in Gilly Salmon's five-step process. (see also
Learning technologies [2])
E-tivity 1 (related to Stage 1- Access & Motivation)
Purpose - to be able to access the VLE Asynchronous Discussion tool
Task - to post an initial message introducing yourself to others
Interaction - the e-tutor checks that students can access and provide feedback for motivation.
E-tivity 2 (related to Stage 2 - Online Socialisation)
Purpose - to introduce yourself to others in your group
Task - to post a message introducing a topic of the student's choice via the Conference Room tool
Interaction - contributions from others in the group within a 'threaded' discussion. Participation and
summary by e-tutor.
E-tivity 3 (related to Stage 4 - Knowledge Construction)
Purpose - to analyse your preferred methods of learning and to consider alternative processes or models
Task - to post thoughts on a particular piece of reading on learning methods
Interaction - others members of the group provide their own interpretations and thoughts. E-tutor moderate
and summarise.

E-tivities in the context of foreign language teaching

In my opinion (Maria Chiara) the use of e-tivities is an innovative teaching method which has three important
consequences:
• it renders English classes more dynamic and, therefore, more stimulating;
• it gives students the possibility to get used to the computer, in particular to social softwares;
• it fosters team work and collaboration between students and between students and their teachers. What really
counts is not only the single work of one student, but above all the way he/she interacts with the other
[3]
members of the group. The final "output" is like a jigsaw puzzle made up of the "material and human
contributions" given by the group as a whole.
By clicking on the following links you can look at a few examples of e-tivities

• Bloggingenglish [4]
• e-master [5]
• assessment components [6]

References
• Salmon, Gilly (2002), "E-tivities. The Key to Active Online Learning", London: Tayler & Francis. ISBN
0749436867
[4]
• See also the review at elearning.surf.nl
• Have a look at http://www. umuc. edu/ distance/ odell/ cvu/ brownbag/ salmon/ ppt/ sld011. htm
• Salmon, Gilly (2003) E-moderating: The Key to Teaching and Learning Online (2nd edition), London: Taylor &
Francis. ISBN 0415335442.

• See also the review at elearning-reviews.org [3].

 102
E2ML

E2ML
Draf

Definition
E2ML is an educational modeling language for describing instructional design issues such as learning goals, roles,
actions, and resources.
An E2ML blueprint consists of three sets of documents. Each of them provides support for specific design tasks. The
three sets are:
1. Goal Definition, i.e., a declaration of the educational goals. This is composed by two documents: the goal
statement and the goal mapping.
2. Action Diagrams, i.e., the description of the single learning and support activities designed for the instruction.
3. Overview Diagrams, i.e., two different overviews of the whole design, the dependencies diagram and the
activity flow.
(Botturi, 2006)

Goal definitions and mappings

The goal (learning outcome) statement table is an orderly summary of the goals of the instruction. It includes
several columns:
• Tag: an identifier
• Statement: A short verbal definition of the learning outcome
• Target: Who is concerned (e.g. all students)
• Stakeholder: Who is interested (e.g. the head of a company) • Approach: Pedagogical strategy
• Importance: A numeric score.
These goals then can visualized “by mapping them on a visual grid or representation, such as Merrill’s Content-
Performance Matrix (1983), the revised Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001), or the QUAIL model
(Botturi, 2003 a; Botturi, 2004 a).” (Botturi, 2006).

Dependencies diagram
According to Botturi (2006), learning activities are represented by boxes and then should be related with arrwos:
The relationships supported by E2ML are:
1. Learning prerequisite: the first action provides a learning outcome that is the prerequisite for the second action
(e.g., a lecture provides concepts for the following analysis work);
2. Product: an activity produces some artefact that is required as input for a second one (e.g., a group-work activity
produces a presentation which is shown during the following class discussion). Products can be name as arrow
label (e.g., *mind-map");
3. Aggregation: an activity can be a sub-activity of another activity. Finally actions can be grouped into trails or or
logical groups of actions, e.g., all lectures, or all the actions that form a specific activity in a course, etc.
The dependencies described here are not learning sequences, but they allow to identify cross-unit connections and
dependencies.
 103
E2ML

Activity flow
“The activity flow is a visualization of the instruction calendar and provides an overview of educational activities
during the course time span. It is similar to a flowchart diagram that represents each learner’s path through the
instruction. Actions are sequenced or ordered into more parallel branches. Each action can take place at a defined
moment in time (e.g., on a particular date/time) or be allocated for free execution within a defined timeframe.
Splits (branches) can be added to the action flow as advanced elements, indicating conditions, options, multiple
selections, parallel activities or non-sequenced actions (or any-order actions, i.e., branches in the activity path
where a number of activities should be completed in any order)” (Botturi, 2006).

Action diagrams
Action (activity) diagrams “provide a synthetic yet detailed description of the very bricks of the instruction: teaching
and learning activities.”. These are the most complex construct in Botturi's design language.

Links
[1]
• Luca Botturi's publications on Scientifc Commons

Bibliography
• Botturi, L. (2003 a). E2ML - A Modeling Language for Technology-dependent Educational Environments.
EDMEDIA 2003, Honolulu, Hawaii
• Botturi, L. (2004). Visual Languages for Instructional Design: an Evaluation of the Perception of E2ML, PDF
Preprint [2]
[3]
• Botturi, L. (2006). E2ML: a visual instructional design language. PDF Preprint
• Botturi, L. (2006b). E2ML: A visual language for the design of instruction.Educational Technology, Research and
Development 54(3) 265-293.
[4]
• Botturi, L. and K. Belfer (2006). Pedagogical patterns for online learning. ELEARN 2003. PDF Reprint •
Botturi, Luca (2007). E2ML, A tool for sketching instructional design, in Botturi, L., Stubbs, T. (eds.) (2007).
Handbook of Visual Langauges in Instructional Design: Theories and Pratices. Hershey, PA: Idea Group

Acknowledgement: This article or part of this article has been written during a collaboration with the EducTice [7]
[8]
group of INRP , which attributed a visiting grant to DKS in january 2009.
Educational design language 104

Educational design language

Draf

Definition
An educational design language is a notation system for creating educational designs, e.g. courses, modules, or
scenarios.
An educational design language is “ a tool that designers use to communicate designs, plans, and intentions to each
other and to the users of their artifacts” (Botturi, 2006: 268). “Notational systems, used in mature fields of study,
are closely related to design languages. The future of a technological field depends on the ability to communicate
ideas and changes with others in the field. Instructional technology is one field that can benefit from a notation
system enabling designers to duplicate, execute, and communicate their ideas” (Waters & Gibbons 2004: 57).
See also: educational modeling language, design pattern and pedagogical vocabulary. These entries partly look at
the same issue under a different perspective.

History
Daniel K. Schneider doesn't know much about the history of educational design languages. I have the impression
that their emergence is tied to computer-based training (Bork, 1984) and in particular drill and practice programs
where flow-charts were used to define educational sequences.
Implicit design languages also were defined by authoring environments and that culminated in systems like (the
now dead) Authorware that supported a visual design/programming environment. There exists also a link to
instructional design methods, in particular Instructional systems design methods like ADDIE where at some point
designers create scripts and/or flowcharts.
An earlier formal design language, i.e. educational modeling language was defined by Eckel (1998). : “The
immediate aim of Instruction Language is a clear-cut written representation of preconceived instruction. Clear-cut
implies that the instructional script written on the basis of Instruction Language, from now on referred to as
instructogram, is uniequivocal as well as fully readable, criticizable and improvable. This is possible since instruction
is very simple in its core [...] Instruction Language is based on the understanding of instruction as a mere alternative
sequence of teaching and learning activities” (Eckel, 1993:XV).
His book defines a written notation, but also used flow diagrams. E.g. he defines the flow of Minimum Instruction
with the following kind of diagram:
The rest of his model concerns management of different kinds of answers, i.e. R:right, W:wrong, P:Partially right,
I:Inadmissible, V:Vague, U:Unexpected, N:Neutral. Flow of instruction must deal with all kinds of possible answers.
IMS Simple Sequencing (IMS SS) can be considered as being in that tradition, but we are not aware if there exist
attempts to use a visual design language to define simple sequencing modules. Despite that fact that IMS SS is part
of SCORM 2004 profile, we didn't find any authoring tools...
More recent trends (since the early 2000's) are much more oriented towards a model based on a "play" (theatre)
metaphor. IMS Learning Design (IMS LD) is today's most popular formal language in research and it is based on
Koper's Educational Modelling Language (EML) informally published in the early 1990s. Several visual design
languages create within research projects compile into IMS LD. Other design languages either do not rely on a
formal language or adopt another formal representation. A joint information model of EML-like approaches was
proposed in a workshop document [1] (Koper, 2002)
Educational design language 105

Proposed joint information model for educational

modeling languages, (Koper, 2002).

This UML diagram basically states that educational modeling means defining activities where persons playing a role
produce outcomes using resources. Some of these resources are environments (tools). The activity can be divided
into objectives, prerequisites, sub-activities (the activity structure). Support, learning, other and outcome are kinds
of activities.
Such diagrams are are specifications, but not design languages that are usable by end users. They represents the
formal foundations on which design languages could be built. Also at this level of specification, it remains open
if/how design languages "à la Eckel" or very specialized formalisms such a quizzing languages like IMS QTI could be
integrated within an activity defined in a "EML"-like framework.
Most current educational design languages adopt some kind of "activity flow" approach. Designs for educational
sequences then can be defined with several notations, for example:
• Some kind of visual flow chart (e.g. a UML activity diagram or similar), e.g. the formal coUML design language.
• Logical descriptions with a specialized concept mapping language, e.g. the formal MOTPlus editor for IMS LD or
the informal CompendiumLD editor.
• Forms-based editors where sub-activities are described as lists (e.g. the ReCourse editor for IMS LD
• Sequences of tools use, i.e. activities are described by configuring how the tool should be used at some point),
e.g. LAMS or CoFFEE.
In practice, design languages are rarely used. Several factors could explain this: Tools are difficult to use and at the
same time there is a lack of training opportunities, in particular in teacher schools. Most tools are badly maintained
and difficult to find. Tools that can exectute designs barely exist or again, they hardly work. Finally, industrial
designs are simple (both in industry and academia) and more complex designs are put in place informally by
individual teachers.

Types of design languages

Botturi, Derntl,Boot & Figl (2006) propose a classification system to describe educational design languages. See also
Developing design documents (3D) model.
• Stratification: flat or layered. Is there unique representation or are there several "tools" to describe various
objects like in coUML ?
• Formalization: between formal or informal. E.g. UML and XML-based vocabularies are both formal languages.
• Elaboration: conceptual, specification or implementation. These levels are based on the UML model (Fowler,
2003): the conceptual level allows to gain a global view of a design and its rationale, the specification includes all
the details, and the implementation level includes includes sufficient precision to create executive code. E.g.
CompendiumLD is a concept map editor, coUML can be considered a set of specification languages, the LAMS
editor produces directly executable code.
• Perspective: singular or multiple. Is there a same view or different views to describe a design? E2ML for instance
allows to model both structural and temporal relations between activities.
• Notation system: none, textual, visual. If there is a notation system, it can be either visual (e.g. like in the
informal CompendiumLD editor or a formal UML-derived language) or textual like the typical XML-based
educational modeling languages like IMS Learning Design.
Educational design language 106

A list of systems for educational design

This list lists systems for educational design through more or less "natural" categories. We don't include just design
languages or design tools, but all kinds of systems that in one way or another support pedagogical design.

IMS Learning Design and basic editors

IMS Learning Design is a formal language (UML and XML) that is standardized. Designers are not really expected to
directly use this language, it's rather expected that they use a high-level editor that then can export to IMS LD. In
the same way the e-learning content editors don't need to understand SCORM 1.2.
• IMS Learning Design (IMS LD, the formal language) • Reload Editor A low-level and difficult to IMS LD
editor.
• ASK Learning Designer Toolkit (ASK-LDT) (developed and maintained by Research Unit on Advanced Learning
[2]
Technologies and Services for Education and Learning (ASK)
• ReCourse editor, a live project in Feb 2009. Mostly a forms-based LD editor with some visual components. Easier
to use than Reload.
• GRAIL [3] (Gradient RTE for Adaptive LD in .LRN) is a LD player package for the .LRN LMS. (del Cid et al., 2007).

Design tools that can export to IMS-LD or another executable formalism

There exist several variants. This category includes both visual design tools and form-based editors. Some of them
can export to IMS LD. Some are general purpose and some like Collage are specialized. Some tools are operational,
some just research systems.
• DialogPlus Toolkit a forms-based scenario definition editor that can export to IMS-LD
• MOTPlus formal concept map editor (used within the MISA instructional design method.)
• Collaborative learning flow patterns and the Collage editor)
• EduWeaver Course, lesson, model design tool that can produce SCORM 1.2 compliant code.

Visual design/modelling languages

Some designers use one or several UML languages like UML activity diagrams. Other extend the UML framework
and others use their own notational system. Most of these systems are only used by a very small population. Except
for the UML tools which are popular in computer science, these languages are all very recent. Usually, they don't
produce executable code.
• BPMN (Business process modeling notation) and BPEL (Business Process Execution Language, used in Model-
Driven Learning Design)
• UML (in particular UML class diagrams and UML activity diagrams)
• E2ML Visual scenario design language
• coUML Visual scenario and content design language
• PALO Visual scenario design language
• poEML Visual collaborative scenario design language
• MoCoLaDe Visual scenario design language, LD compatible
• SCY-SE Visual scenario design language

Visual design languages

Same as above, but easier to use, since not formal. Doesn't produce executable code.
• CompendiumLD. A concept map editor for learning design. Compendium LD maps also could be given to
learners.
• Table éditor (does it have a name?). See Sobreira and Tchounikine (2014).
Educational design language 107

Formalisms and tools different from IMS LD

Attempts to enlarge or to modify the IMS-LD framework. These projects include their own meta-model (i.e. their
representation of what a pedagogical scenario is) plus a toolkit for design and execution. Most are still very much
under development.
• fr:Learning design language (LDL)
• fr:Modèle conceptuel ISIS

Design and execution systems in production

This category includes operational online authoring and execution systems that support learning design. LAMS has
a visual design editor, CeLS a forms-based interface.
• LAMS (see also LAMS) (système d'édition/exécution learning design)
• CeLS

CSCL research
The Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) community also started to work modelling what they called
scripts and to develop notational systems, e.g. see Kobbe et al. (2007) or Dillenbourg & Tchounikine (2007).
• See CSCL script) for the concept
• CPM (a UML profile and system somewhere in between CSCL and learning design) - dead project ?
• Collage A macro-script configuration tool (based on the idea of flow patterns) - was distributed at some point
• Cool Modes A system that includes several visual design tools for learners (and teachers). There exist also other
microworld systems that include visual design languages. - live project, tools are available
• S-COL (Wecker, 2010) - probably never distributed ?
• XSS framework (Streng, 2011) - probably was never distributed
2
• T (Sobreira & Tchounikine, 2012). According to the authors (p. 586), 25 CSCL macro-scripts collected from the
literature could be represented. - not distributed ?

Traditional sequencing
IMS Simple sequencing is a formalism that supports mastery learning. It is included in the SCORM 2004 profile
(version 3 and later), but it is very difficult to find an LMS and design tools that support this standard.
• IMS Simple Sequencing (IMS SS, XSD schema)
• Reload Editor. The latest version can edit IMS SS, but it's not simple.

Systems that focus on the semantics of contents

These formalisms and associated tools allow to create pedagogical documents with semantic structure (and
therefore markup).
• Learning Material Markup Language (schema and editing/export tool to HTML/SCORM 1.2)
• eLML (schema, editing and export to HTML/SCORM 1.2)

Light-weight systems
These systems are often included under "teacher tools", i.e. tools that allow a teacher to prepare lessons without
too much insisting on detailed scenario design.
• OASIF (modèle et éditer de scénarios)
• lesson planning tools like Phoebe pedagogic planner or London Lesson Planner.
• General purpose "story-boarding" tools like Celtx
Educational design language 108

• Filling in forms, and optionally using Design pattern repositories. I.e. the design tool is a form the user has to fill
in. A simpler and generic version of the DialogPlus approach. The form can be paper (see the learning activity
reference model

Alternatives and anti-models

• Pédagogie de l'activité (Taurisson). This is a model that uses cognitive paper tools to drive learner activities.
• Many variants of inquiry-based learning, like the knowledge-building community model insist on a necessary
dynamic planning of project-oriented teaching. They may make strong use of tools (e.g. knowledge forum, but
the scenarios are emergent from the investigation.

Visual multimedia authoring languages

• Authorware (a now dead visual authoring tool that was very popular in the
1990' There exist other products, e.g. hypercard revival systems.

Microworld design languages

Most of these microworlds are considered to be an expressive digital medium for the learners themselves.
Nevertheless, the teacher also can create pedagogical designs like simulations or CSCL scenarios for use by learners.
Or he can use these as demonstration tool. He also can create half-baked models that are then given to the learners
for further work. Some examples are:
• AgentSheets
• BioLogica
• ToonTalk
• Squeak-based systems

Repositories
Web sites to share designs and scenarios. There exist several types. Some tools just point to an associated learning
object repository. Sometimes the tool integrates direct access to the repository. Here are some examples
• Cloudworks is repository for designs (in simple verbal form)
[4]
• Systems like LAMS point to a community page where registered users can upload and download executable
and editable LAMS packages.
• Systems like CeLS include the repository in the interface.

Non-educational languages
• BPMN, the business process Modeling Notation. As of 2010, the current version is the BPMN 1.2 design
language and can be translated to BPEL. BPMN 2, under preparation, is both a design and an execution language
and partial implementations exist.
• SCUFL, an e-science format (see Taverna workbench)

Evaluation schemes
Since most design languages and systems are recent as of 2009, evaluation criteria and methods may yet be open
to debate. Most evaluation schemes are designer-oriented, i.e. proposed by people who invent design languages
and implement design systems.
Botturi (2005:335) proposed an issues- and elements-based evaluation framework for instructional design
languages:
“
Educational design language 109

1. Issues are critical aspects that should be considered in the definition of the experimental setting. They are:
context sensitivity, eclectic benefits, course quality, and time. 2. Elements are indications for the identification of
key variables in the study. They are: impact on sub-activities, communication events, institutional changes, and
expressive power.”
LeJeune et al. (2009) summarize the following vital issues and challenges:
• Comprehensibility: how can EMLs be made usable for educational practitioners ? (Pernin & Lejeune, 2006;
Hernãndez-Leo et al., 2007) ?
• Pedagogical neutrality: how can an EML realize one unified, pedagogical neutral notation for supporting a large
variety of pedagogically sound scenarios (Miao et al, 2005, Miao et al., 2008) ?
• Flexibility: how can EMLs support design of wellsupported, but flexible environments (Dillenbourg, 2002;
Dillenbourg & Tchounikine, 2007) ?
• Interoperability: how can EMLs build on existing learning platforms and contents (Ardito et al., 2006).
To that we would like to add another most important one: To what extent is the system available, operationable,
documented and maintained ?
Finally, we would like to argue that such top-down evaluation schemes should be complemented by idiographic
methods, e.g. repertory grid technique based analysis.

Links
• Digital repository of Research, Technology Development and Valorisation outcomes of the Open Universiteit
Nederland [5]
[6]
• Revue international des technologies en pédagogie universitaire volume 4 - 2007 - numéro 2.
• Pernin J-P., Godinet H. (2006), Actes du colloque Scénariser l'enseignement et l'apprentissage : une nouvelle
compétence pour le praticien ? [7]. INRP, Lyon, avril 2006.

Bibliography
• Ardito, C.; M.F. Costabile, M. De Marsico, R. Lanzilotti, S. Levialdi, R. Roselli, and T. Rossano, (2006). An approach
to usability evaluation of e-learning applications. Universal Access in the Information Society, Springer, vol. 4, no.
3, pp. 270-283.
• Brabazon, T (2002) Digital Hemlock: Internet Education and the Poisoning of Teaching, Sydney: University of New
South Wales Press
• Abdallah, F., Toffolon, C., and Warin, B. 2008. Models Transformation to Implement a Project-Based Collaborative
Learning (PBCL) Scenario: Moodle Case Study. In Proceedings of the 2008 Eighth IEEE international Conference
on Advanced Learning Technologies - Volume 00 (July 01 - 05, 2008). ICALT. IEEE Computer Society, Washington,
DC, 639-643. DOI= http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1109/ ICALT.2008. 174
• Boot Eddy W.; Jon Nelson, Jeroen J.G. van Merriënboer, Andrew S. Gibbons (2007). Stratification, elaboration and
formalisation of design documents: Effects on the production of instructional materials, British Journal of
[8]
Educational Technology 38 (5), 917–933. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2006.00679.x
• Botturi, L. (2005). A Framework for the Evaluation of Visual Languages for Instructional Design: the Case of
E2ML. Journal of Interactive Learning Research. 16 (4), pp. 329-351. Norfolk, VA: AACE. Abstract/PDF [9]
• Botturi, L. (2006). E2ML. A visual language for the design of instruction. Educational Technologies Research &
[10]
Development, 54(3), 265-293. Abstract/PDF (Access restricted)
• Botturi, L. and S. Todd Stubbs (eds.) (2007). Handbook of Visual Languages for Instructional Design: Theories and
Practices, Information Science Reference. ISBN 1599047292, Google books preview [11]
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• Botturi, L., Derntl, M., Boot, E., & Figl, K. (2006). A Classification Framework for Educational Modeling Languages
in Instructional Design. Proceedings of The 6th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning
Technologies, 1216-1220 PDF [12] (also here [13]).
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Hershey, PA: Idea Group. PDF Flyer [14] - Some chapters are free on Scribd for screen reading [15]. The best reader
currently, but fairly expensive - Daniel K. Schneider 14:48, 28 August 2008 (UTC). ISBN 978-1-59904-729-4
• Brady, Aoife; Owen Conlan, Vincent Wade, and Declan Dagger (2008). Personalised Learning Objects, in Nedjl,
Wolfgang; Judy Kay, Pearl Pu, Eelco Herder (eds.) Adaptive Hypermedia and Adaptive Web-Based Systems,
Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Adaptive Hypermedia . Springer. ISBN 3540709843
• Breuker, J., Muntjewerff, A., and Bredewej, B. (1999) "Ontological modeling for designing educational systems" I*
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PALO n Proceedings of the AIED 99 Workshop on Ontologies for Educational Systems, Le Mans, France. IOS
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• Burgos, D., Arnaud, M., Neuhauser, P., Koper, R. IMS Learning Design : la flexibilité pédagogique au service des
besoins de la e-formation. In La Revue de l'EPI. France: L'association Enseignement Public et Informatique [17].
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Available at and http://hdl. handle. net/1820/470 .
• Conole, Gráinne and Karen Fill (2005). A learning design toolkit to create pedagogically effective learning
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& H. Godinet (2006). (Eds.), Colloque Scénariser l'enseignement et l'apprentissage : une nouvelle compétence

pour le praticien ? (pp. 13-18). Lyon : INRP. PDF [19]

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Haake, J. (eds.): Scripting Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning. Cognitive, Computational, and
Educational Perspectives. Springer, New York.
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In P. A. Kirschner (Ed). Three worlds of CSCL. Can we support CSCL, Heerlen, Open Universiteit Nederland, 2002,
pp. 61-91.
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Learning, vol. 23, no. 1, 2007, pp. 1-13.
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Technology Volume 30(3) Fall / automne 2004. HTML , retrieved 17:52, 5 October 2006 (MEST).
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(MEST).
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(Ed.)," The Instructional Use of Learning Objects". Bloomington: Association for Educational Communications
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instructional technology: Essays in honor of M. David Merrill, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah NJ, pp.
111-129.
• Giesbers, B., van Bruggen, J., Hermans, H., Joosten-ten Brinke, D., Burgers, J., Koper, R., & Latour, I. (2007).
Towards a methodology for educational modelling: a case in educational assessment. Educational Technology &
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Society, 10 (1), 237-247. PDF

• Griffiths, D. et Blat, J. (2005). The role of teachers in editing and authoring units of learning using IMS learning
design. Advanced Technology for Learning, 2(4). PDF [25] and PDF [26]

• D. Hernãndez-Leo, A. Harrer, A., J.M. Dodero, J. I. Asensio-Pérez, and D. Burgos (2007). A Framework for the
Conceptualization of Approaches to "Create-by-Reuse" of Learning Design Solutions, Journal of Universal
Computer Science, vol. 13, no. 7, 2007, pp. 991-1001.
• Kobbe, L. Weinberger, A. Dillenbourg, P. Harrer, A. Hämäläinen, R. Hàkkinen, P. Fischer, F. (2007). Specifying
computer-supported collaboration scripts, International Journal Of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning,
2 (2-3) 211-224.
• Koper R. (2001) "Modelling Units of Study from a pedagogical perspective: The pedagogical metamodel behind
EML" Technical Report OUNL June, 2001 http:/ /eml.ou.nl
• Koper, R. (2000) "From change to renewal: Educational technology foundations of electronic learning
environments" Technical Report, Open University of the Nederland (OUNL) http://eml. ou.nl
• Koper, R. (2002) Educational Modelling Language: adding instructional design to existing specifications,
Workshop Standardisierung im eLearning 10./11.4.2002 an der Universität Frankfurt/Main, PDF [1]
• Koper, R. and Manderveld, Jocelyn (2004). Educational modelling language: modelling reusable, interoperable,
rich and personalised units of learnings, British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol 35 No 5 2004, 537-551.
• Koper, R., Rodr¡guez-Artacho, M., Rawlings, A., Lefrere, P., van Rosmalen, P. (2002) "Survey of Educational
Modeling Languages" Technical Report of the CEN/ISSS Learning Technologies Workshop Available On-Line:
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HTML (dead link, it's amazing that the european standardization body can't keep URLs online ...)
• Laforcade, P., Zendagui, B., and Barré, V. 2008. A Domain-Specific-Modeling Approach to Support
Scenarios-Based Instructional Design. In Proceedings of the 3rd European Conference on Technology Enhanced
Learning: Times of Convergence: Technologies Across Learning Contexts (Maastricht, The Netherlands,
September 16 - 19, 2008). P. Dillenbourg and M. Specht, Eds. Lecture Notes In Computer Science, vol. 5192.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 185-196. DOI= http:/ /dx.doi. org/10.1007/978-3-540-87605-2_21

• LittleJohn, Allison (2005), From learning objects to learning design, AsciLite Newsletter. HTML [28]
• Maglajlic S., Maurer H., and Scherbackov N. (1998) "Separating structure and content, authoring Educational
web applications" In Proceedings of the ED-MEDIA & ED-TELECOM 98., pages 880-884, 1998.
• Martel C., Vignollet L., Ferraris C., David J.P., Lejeune A. (2006), Modeling collaborative learning activities on e-
[29]
learning platforms, ICALT 06, (PDF )
• Martel Christian, Laurence Vignollet, Christine Ferraris, Guillaume Durand (2006), LDL: a Language to Model
Collaborative Learning Activities, ED-MEDIA 2006 PDF Preprint [30]
Educational design language 112

• Merrill, M. D. (2001) "The instructional use of learning objects, chapter "Knowledge objects and mental-models"
D. Wiley, Ed. AIT Publishers ISBN: 0-7842-0892-1
• Miao, Y.; K. Hoeksema, H.U. Hoppe, and A. Harrer (2005). CSCL Scripts: Modelling Features and Potential Use.
Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL), Taipei, Taiwan, 2005, pp. 423-432.
• Miao, Y; M. van der Klink, J. Boon, P. Sloep, and R. Koper (2008). Enabling Teachers to Develop Pedagogically
Sound and Technically Executable Learning Designs, Ten-Competence publications, http:/ / hdl. handle. net/ 1820/
1605.
• Nodenot Thierry & Laforcade Pierre CPM: a UML Profile to design Cooperative PBL situations at didactical level,
Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT'06) 0-7695-2632-
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2/06 PDF
• Pantano Rokou, F., Rokou, E., & Rokos, Y. (2004). Modeling Web-based Educational Systems: process Design
Teaching Model. Educational Technology & Society, 7 (1), 42-50. PDF [32]

• Paquette, G. (2006). Introduction à la spécification IML-LD d’une perspective d’ingénierie pédagogique. Récupéré
le 7 septembre 2007 du site IDLD (Déploiement et implantation de la spécification pour les designs
d’apprentissage), http://www. idld.org/Methodology/ tabid/174/Default. aspx
• Parrish, Patrick, E. (2007). Aesthetic principles for instructional design, Educational Technology Research and
Development (ETRD), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/ s11423-007-9060-7.(Abstract/HTML/PDF)
• Pernin, J.-P. et Godinet, H. (2006). Scénariser l’enseignement et l’apprentissage : une nouvelle compétence pour
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le praticien? Actes du colloque Scénario 2006. INRP

• Pernin,J-P. and A. Lejeune, (2006) Learning design: models for computers, for engineers or for teachers,
Workshop Learning Networks for Lifelong Competence Development, Project TEN-Competence, Sofia, Bulgaria,
2006.
• Rawlings, Adrian; Peter van Rosmalen, Rob Koper,Miguel Rodríguez-Artacho, and Paul Lefrere (2002). Report on
Educational Modeling Languages (October 2002) [34] . Probably the best overview
• Reigeluth, C. M. & Nelson, L. M. (1997). A new paradigm of ISD? In R. C. Branch & B. B. Minor (Eds.), Educational
media and technology yearbook (Vol. 22, pp. 24-35). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
• Ritter, S. and Suthers, D. (1997). "Technical Standards for Education" Working Paper, Educational Object Economy
site, The EOE Foundation."
• Robson, R. (2000). "Report on Learning Technology Standards", in J. Bourdeau and R. Heller, Eds., Proceedings of
ED-MEDIA'00, the Association for the Advancement of Computing Education, Charlottesville, Virginia.
• Rodriguez-Artacho, M. (2002) "PALO Language Overview" Technical Report STEED Project (LSI Dept. UNED)
[35]
February, 2002. HTML

• Rodr¡guez-Artacho, M. and M.F. Verdejo (2001) "Creating Constructivist Learning Scenarios Using an Educative
Modelling Language" in Proceedings of the IEEE Frontiers in Education 2001 Conference, Reno NV Oct 2001.
Available on-line at PDF [36]

• Rodríguez-Artacho, M., & Verdejo Maíllo, M. F. (2004). Modeling Educational Content: The Cognitive Approach of
[37]
the PALO Language. In Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 7 (3), 124-137. PDF
• Sampson, D., Karampiperis, P. et Zervas, P. (2005). ASK-LDT: A Web-based learning scenarios authoring
environment based on IMS learning design. Advanced Technology for Learning, 2(4), 207-215.
[38]
• Savard, E. (2007). Scénario 2007, le 2e colloque international sur les scénarios pédagogiques. html (Profetic)
• Péricles Sobreira, Pierre Tchounikine, Table-based representations can be used to offer easy-to-use, flexible, and
adaptable learning scenario editors, Computers & Education, Volume 80, January 2015, Pages 15-27, ISSN 0360-
1315, http:/ /dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu. 2014. 08.002.
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• Streng, S., Stegmann, K., Fischer, F., & Hussmann, H. From Graphical Learning Designs To
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Computer-Supported Collaboration Scripts: A Rapid Development Process, ICTEL 2011. PDF preprint
• Süss, C., Freitag, B and P. Broessler (1999) "LMML: Metamodelling for Web-based Teachware Management" in
Proc. Intl. ER '99 Paris, France LNCS 1727 Springer Verlag http:/ / daisy. fmi. uni-passau. de/ db/ literatur. php3?
key=SFB99 (dead link)
• Teege, Gunnar; Jürgen Koch, Pamela Tröndle, Wolfgang Wörndl, Johann Schlichter (2000). ModuVille:
Komponenten für virtuelle WWW-basierte Lehrveranstaltungen, PIK - Praxis der Informationsverarbeitung und
Kommunikation, pp. 148-155. (this is a TargeTeam/TeachML publication).
• Villiot-Leclercq, E., David, J., and Lejeune, A. 2006. Expressing Learning Scenarios with Computer Independent
Models. In Proceedings of the Sixth IEEE international Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (July 05 -
07, 2006). ICALT. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, DC, 520-522.
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technology: A case study: Educational Technology Research and Development, 52(2), 57-69. PDF (Access
restricted)
• Wecker, C.; K. Stegmann, F. Bernstein, M. J. Huber, G. Kalus, S. Rathmeyer, I. Kollar and F. Fischer, “S-
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Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 5(3), 2010, pp. 321-343.

• Wilson, S. (2001) "Europe Focuses on EML's" Report from CETIS Research Centre, UK. HTML [41]
Acknowledgement: This article or part of this article has been written during a collaboration with the
[7] [8]
EducTice group of INRP , which attributed a visiting grant to DKS in january 2009.
Educational modeling language 114

Educational modeling language

Draf

Definition
A Educational modelling language (or educational modeling language) formally describes educational materials
and/or pedagogical scenario. It is a kind of educational design language that may or may not be executable.
Currently (2008), the most interesting projects are carried out within learning design research.
“Educational modelling refers to the modelling of educational systems or sub-systems, such as instructional design
or assessment. Such a model is a framework that contains important concepts, processes and relations.
Instructional design, for example, is modelled in Educational Modelling Language (EML) [...] Educational modelling
can be seen as the building of an ontology - an interrelated collection of entities and their relationships. Although
educational modelling is a highly specialized field within educational technology, its products may have a wide-
reaching impact through consortia such as IMS and IEEE that foster the development of interoperability
specifications and standards in education.” (Giesbers et al., 2007)
This article provides an overview. You may find other entries in the category Educational modeling languages.
See also educational design language (looking at the same issue in a different way) and also learning object (since
LOs can be modeled with such languages) and the standards page, which provides an overview on various
specifications and languages used in education.

Purposes of modeling languages

Objectives
Dessus and Schneider (2006) identify four kinds of objectives:
• Define pedagogical scenarios
• Exchange learning units (learning objects, scenarios)
• Execute a unit in a platform (see LMS)
• Sketch, design, plan and discuss pedagogical scenarios

What can be modeled ?

In educational technology, we can distinguish three main areas for which formal design languages are being used:
1. Domain knowledge. There are no standards specifically designed for education, but sometimes World-Wide-
Web standards such as OWL can be used.
2. Learning outcomes (knowledge and skills to be learnt)
3. Component aggregation / Sequencing of learning materials (IMS CP, SCORM SCO and IMS Simple
Sequencing). These standards are defined in XML and are executable. I.e. authored content can be run by system
4. Learning activities (Learning design can both be defined in UML and executable XML as in the case of IMS
Learning Design).
Additional areas that can be formally described with design languages and for which standards exist:
1. Architecture of computer systems
2. Repository information (metadata)
3. Semantic elements of a pedagogic „text“
4. Learner information
Educational modeling language 115

What can be modeled in education ?

Some areas are much less explored, e.g. there is no serious and widely used standard for pedagogic text (e.g. a
language like eLML. Also student productions or even educational services and systems rely on no standards or
models. This means in practical terms: (a) only data like IMS Content Packaging are portable, the rest is lost if you
change systems and (b) most systems are not interoperable.

Typology of modeling languages

Modeling languages are developed by different sorts of institutions:
• Real standardization bodies like IEEE
• De facto standardization bodies like IMS or SCORM
• International research networks like Ariadne or Kaleidoscope
• Various research laboratories
Categories that might be used to describe a modeling language:
• Formality: Strictly formal (e.g. an XML grammar) vs. semi-formal (e.g. ideas on how to make use of UML or
verbal description)
• Executability: Modelling only (see educational design languages / execution (or compilation in executable code /
or both
• Status: Formal standard / standard-like / experimental (see standards.
• Scope: Global / specialized / in between (Note: DSchneider doesn't think that there is a single language that has
truly global scope)
• Pedagogic orientation (see pedagogic strategy).
Educational modeling language 116

Representational Frameworks
According to Artacho and Verdejo (2004),
• Learning material is composed by pedagogical and instructional information that can be represented using an
abstract information model and binding in an specification.
• The different elements of the specification are classified /grouped into categories called layers.
• As a formal specification, each element has an associated pedagogical meaning or operational semantics that
require a process of interpretation or compilation by the LMS.
Layer Functionality

Management Layer LMS interoperability

Pedagogical/Instructional Pedagogical information

Activity/Task Layer Activity, community, Roles, resources, tools

Sequencing Layer Scheduling, prerequisites, deadlines, dependences

Structure Layer Navigational model, Table of contents

Content Layer, Learning content, Learning Objects, Ontology-based instructional

RIO, Reusable learning object's, Conceptual Domains, Multimedia Knowledge
Assets

According to Rodriguez-Artacho Authoring Learning Content: Why Learning Objects and why Modelling Languages
[1]
talk in 2004 (retrieved 18:20, 29 May 2007 (MEST)), various specifications exist for different levels, but rarely a
specification covers all these levels.

A view of Learning Content - Miguel Rodriguez-Artacho PPT Slide 2003.

See also how this is implemented in PALO

Educational modeling language 117

Executable "standardized" languages

• IMS Simple Sequencing incarnates typical behaviorist/cognitivist approach (e.g. mastery learning). It is part of
SCORM 2004.
• IMS Learning Design and its ancestor EML (Educational Modelling Language) incarnates a cognitivist main-
stream instructional design model
• IMS Content Packaging implements simple tell or tell-and-ask strategies by default, i.e. the design is menu of
resources.
• IMS Question and Test Interoperability (IMS QTI). describes a data model for the representation of question
(assessmentItem) and test (assessmentTest) data and their corresponding results reports. As of Feb 2009, there
exist several tools and IMS for this standard.
IMS Simple Sequencing, IMS Learning Design organizations as well as IMS Question and Test Interoperability
modules are embedded in IMS Content Packs. In November 2006 we didn't find any production-ready player for
IMS Learning Design or Simple Sequencing. In Feb 2009 we still couldn't find any system that is suitable for the
masses. Commercial products may exist for Simple Sequencing since it's part of the SCORM 2004 version 3/4
profiles, but we were unable to identify any of these.

Design languages
Most educational design languages formally describe a pedagogical design, often with a visual language. Some (e.g.
MISA) can then be compiled into an executable format, e.g. MISA to IMS LD, Level A. Yet others are integrated
within an LMS. Here are a few examples:
• Specialised concept map editors like the diffucult MOTPlus (Paquette et al.) that can export to IMS LD Level A or
the relatively user-friendly CompendiumLD editor
• Visual semi-formal langauges based on UML, (the modeling language for software engineering). It can be used
"as is" e.g. Roku et al. (2004) but there exist extensions like coUML to model several facets of a design or CPM, a
UML Profile to design cooperative PBL situations (Nodenet et Laforcade)
• Other visual languages like E2ML, a high-level design language
As of Feb 2009, most of these languages remain research projects and/or are still under development. MOT is a
mature product (but difficult to understand), Compendium is probably the best choice for a teacher interested in
using such a tool.
Languages that model contents
[2]
• eLML - eLML is an open source XML framework for creating eLessons using XML. It is a "spin-off" from the
GITTA project: GITTA is a Swiss e-Learning project about GIS and it is the abbreviation for Geographic Information
Technology Training Alliance.
[3]
• Learning Material Markup Language (LMML) - LMML - Learning Material Markup Language Framework LMML
based on the PTM - The Passau Teachware Model [4].

Design and executable languages from other domains

Since thing don't move very in fast in education (as of Jan 2011, there is still not good IMS learning design
development and execution environment), we may have to look into technology developed elsewhere.
• Business process modeling, in particular BPMN (for design of educational workflows)
• E-science, e.g. systems like Taverna workbench (for the modeling/automation of data processing)

Research systems with combined intentions

Some are maybe used in production and there are many more, ...
• PALO
Educational modeling language 118

• LDL - Learning Design Language (Martel et al., 2006), an EML-like language adapted to modeling collaborative
activities.
• ISIS model (french)

Older or less known attempts

... not sure if these systems have been used or are still in use - Daniel K. Schneider 18:20, 29 May 2007 (MEST)
[5]
• Hyper-Text Tutorial Markup Language (HTTML), by Brian L. Stuart. An HTML extension to include quizzing plus
lessons structuring.
[6]
• Mentoring Activity and Query-Response Ontology (MAQRO). An RDF ontology for describing query and
response scenarios.
• QuizzIT, by Lucio Cunha Tinoco, Virginia Technical Institute
• QML, by Robert Bamberger, Christopher Shorey and Richard Simpkinsson, Washington State University.
• PML (Procedural Mark-up Language)
[7]
• Tutorial Markup Language (TML/Netquest) by Daniel Brickely, University of Bristol. An interchange format
designed to separate the semantic content of a question from its screen layout or formatting.
[8]
• TArgeted Reuse and GEneration of TEAching Materials (TargeTeam) by Gunnar Teege et al., Technische
Universität München. Based on TeachML, a system for supporting the preparation, use, and reuse of teaching
materials.

Packaging languages
• By definition, packaging languages are not educational modeling languages per se, but can wrap up for
distribution "executable" bricks defined with modeling languages.
• However, IMS Content Packaging for example does include some simple sequencing information.

Tools
See also educational design languages, since design tools of various sorts often can produce executable models.
Please also have a look at the various modelling languages, in particular:
• IMS Learning Design
See also tools that implicitly define modeling languages or that can export to these formats, e.g.
• LMSs,
• in particular more creative systems like LAMS and CeLS implement scenarization through activity planning and
can enact these scenarios.
• the most popular open source system only do IMS Content Packaging or tricky SCORM 1.2 extensions
• Some commercial systems are SCORM 2004 compatible and claim to implement IMS Simple Sequencing (none
tested - Daniel K. Schneider 14:55, 30 January 2007 (MET))
• CSCL tools, e.g.
• CoFFEE
• Collage
• Lesson planning tools (not many go far)
• Pedagogical scenario building tools of various sorts, like EduWeaver, OASIF, MISA/MOT or the Dialog Plus Toolkit
• Educational design languages that come with an visual editor like CompendiumLD
Educational modeling language 119

Discussion
Both general utility and utility of currently popular modeling is of hotly debated. E.g. According to Rodríguez-
Artacho (2004), “ a) Firstly, current specifications do not provide authors of learning material with a pedagogical
authoring layer based on instructional elements, originating -therefore- a tight dependence between the learning
content and the final delivery format, mainly internet-based technology; b) secondly, specifications themselves are
currently isolated representational frameworks, which provide a fragmented view of certain aspects of learning
material; c) Thirdly, there is no room for cognitive approaches or instructional and pedagogical knowledge
representations;”
There are also more principled interrogations, like interrogations about situatedness of teaching (good teachers
decide a lot of things on the fly)
In brief, DSchneider believes (see also Dessus & Schneider, 2006) there are several advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages
• Rationalization, formalization and standardization of design processes
• Information and materials sharing between teachers and content producers
• Reuse on different platforms (no vendor lock-in)
Disadvantages
• Political and ethical problems (fear of industrialization of the school system, recolonization of developing
countries through content domination, dumbing down of teachers)
• Cost (unless production and distribution is large scale, nothing can be gained by investing a lot of time into
formalization)
• Technical (adaptability, lack of good implementations and tools for most standards)
• Pedagogical (tools are not neutral, lack of affordances can kill design goals)
• Teachers create while they teach and this "situated act" can not as easily be transcribed into a formalism as
some instructional designers believe.
• Break downs. Formal computerized systems tend to break down when unplanned events occur. Current
execution environments are not flexible enough to allow for quick and easy run-time modifications.

Links
[9]
• EML , at Learning Networks (Dutch-led consortium)
• Wilson, Scott, Europe focuses on EML [10] Good overview, dated 2001.
[11]
• JISC e-Learning Focus (The British JISC program is one of the key actors in promoting modeling languages and
design for learning).

• e-learning pedagogy programme [12]

[13]
• Innovating e-learning conference 2006 . See in particular the Design for learning: Proceedings of Theme 1
[14]
(PDF).
• Topic: Education Modelling Language (EML) [15], Stephen's Web (collection of postings by Stephen Downes).
Slides for teaching
• You can find a lot of slides on the Internet, in particular for LD, not that much for SCORM.
• I made some for a one day preconference workshop (100 pages PDF. Not top quality, since it was the first time I
gave this topic a try ...) - Daniel K. Schneider.

References
Educational modeling language 120

• Botturi, L., Derntl, M., Boot, E., & Figl, K. (2006). A Classification Framework for Educational Modeling Languages
in Instructional Design. Proceedings of The 6th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning
Technologies, 1216-1220 PDF [12] (also www.ask4research.info/icalt/2006/files/82_Bot.pdf here).
• Botturi, L., Stubbs, T. (eds.) (2007). Handbook of Visual Langauges in Instructional Design: Theories and Pratices.
[14]
Hershey, PA: Idea Group. PDF Flyer . The best reader currently, but fairly expensive - Daniel K. Schneider
14:48, 28 August 2008 (UTC). ISBN 978-1-59904-729-4
• Botturi, L. (2006). E2ML. A visual language for the design of instruction. Educational Technologies Research &
Development, 54(3), 265-293.
• Botturi, L. (2005). A Framework for the Evaluation of Visual Languages for Instructional Design: the Case of
[9]
E2ML. Journal of Interactive Learning Research. 16 (4), pp. 329-351. Norfolk, VA: AACE. Abstract/PDF
• Brabazon, T (2002) Digital Hemlock: Internet Education and the Poisoning of Teaching, Sydney: University of New
South Wales Press
• Breuker, J., Muntjewerff, A., and Bredewej, B. (1999) "Ontological modeling for designing educational systems" I*
[16]
PALO n Proceedings of the AIED 99 Workshop on Ontologies for Educational Systems, Le Mans, France. IOS
Pressp
• Conole, Gráinne and Karen Fill (2005). A learning design toolkit to create pedagogically effective learning
activities. Journal of Interactive Media in Education (Advances in Learning Design. Special Issue, eds. Colin
Tattersall, Rob Koper), 2005/08. ISSN:1365-893X Abstract [17] (PDF/HTML open access)
• Dessus, Philippe et Schneider, Daniel Scénarisation de l'enseignement et contraintes de la situation, In J.-P.
Pernin & H. Godinet (2006). (Eds.), Colloque Scénariser l'enseignement et l'apprentissage : une nouvelle
compétence pour le praticien ? (pp. 13-18). Lyon : INRP. PDF [19]

• Derntl, Michael; Susanne Neumann, Petra Oberhuemer (2009). Report on the Standardized Description of
Instructional Models. ECP 2007 EDU 417007 ICOPER, eContentplus. PDF [16]
[22]
• Friesen, Norm, (2004). The E-learning Standardization Landscape, HTML , retrieved 17:52, 5 October 2006
(MEST).
• Friesen, Norm, (2004). A Gentle Introduction to Technical E-learning Standards, Canadian Journal of Learning and
Technology Volume 30(3) Fall / automne 2004. HTML [21] , retrieved 17:52, 5 October 2006 (MEST).
• Gibbons, A. S., Nelson, J. & Richards, R. (2000). "The nature and origin of instructional objects" In D. A. Wiley
(Ed.)," The Instructional Use of Learning Objects". Bloomington: Association for Educational Communications
and Technology.
• Giesbers, B., van Bruggen, J., Hermans, H., Joosten-ten Brinke, D., Burgers, J., Koper, R., & Latour, I. (2007).
Towards a methodology for educational modelling: a case in educational assessment. Educational Technology &
[24]
Society, 10 (1), 237-247. PDF

• Koper R. (2001) "Modelling Units of Study from a pedagogical perspective: The pedagogical metamodel behind
EML" Technical Report OUNL June, 2001 http:/ /eml.ou.nl
• Koper, R. (2000) "From change to renewal: Educational technology foundations of electronic learning
environments" Technical Report, Open University of the Nederland (OUNL) http://eml. ou.nl
• Koper, R., Rodr¡guez-Artacho, M., Rawlings, A., Lefrere, P., van Rosmalen, P. (2002) "Survey of Educational
Modeling Languages" Technical Report of the CEN/ISSS Learning Technologies Workshop Available On-Line:
HTML [27] (dead link, it's amazing that the european standardization body can't keep URLs online ...)
• Rawlings, Adrian; Peter van Rosmalen, Rob Koper,Miguel Rodríguez-Artacho, and Paul Lefrere (2002). Report on
[17]
Educational Modeling Languages (October 2002) . Probably the best overview
Educational modeling language 121

• Koper, R. Educational Modelling Language: adding instructional design to existing specification, unpublished
[1]
paper (?), PDF

• Koper, R. and Manderveld, Jocelyn (2004). Educational modelling language: modelling reusable, interoperable,
rich and personalised units of learnings, British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol 35 No 5 2004, 537-551.

• LittleJohn, Allison (2005), From learning objects to learning design, AsciLite Newsletter. HTML [28]
• Maglajlic S., Maurer H., and Scherbackov N. (1998) "Separating structure and content, authoring Educational
web applications" In Proceedings of the ED-MEDIA & ED-TELECOM 98., pages 880-884, 1998.
• Martel Christian, Laurence Vignollet, Christine Ferraris, Guillaume Durand (2006), LDL: a Language to Model
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Collaborative Learning Activities, ED-MEDIA 2006 PDF Preprint
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[29]
learning platforms, ICALT 06, (PDF )
• Merrill, M. D. (2001) "The instructional use of learning objects, chapter "Knowledge objects and mental-models"
D. Wiley, Ed. AIT Publishers ISBN: 0-7842-0892-1
• Nodenot Thierry & Laforcade Pierre CPM: a UML Profile to design Cooperative PBL situations at didactical level,
Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT'06) 0-7695-2632-
[31]
2/06 PDF
• Reigeluth, C. M. & Nelson, L. M. (1997). A new paradigm of ISD? In R. C. Branch & B. B. Minor (Eds.), Educational
media and technology yearbook (Vol. 22, pp. 24-35). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
• Ritter, S. and Suthers, D. (1997). "Technical Standards for Education" Working Paper, Educational Object Economy
site, The EOE Foundation."
• Robson, R. (2000). "Report on Learning Technology Standards", in J. Bourdeau and R. Heller, Eds., Proceedings of
ED-MEDIA'00, the Association for the Advancement of Computing Education, Charlottesville, Virginia.
• Pantano Rokou, F., Rokou, E., & Rokos, Y. (2004). Modeling Web-based Educational Systems: process Design
Teaching Model. Educational Technology & Society, 7 (1), 42-50. PDF [32]

• Parrish, Patrick, E. (2007). Aesthetic principles for instructional design, Educational Technology Research and
Development (ETRD), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/ s11423-007-9060-7.(Abstract/HTML/PDF) (Access restricted).
• Rodriguez-Artacho, M. (2002) "PALO Language Overview" Technical Report STEED Project (LSI Dept. UNED)
February, 2002. HTML [35]

• Rodr¡guez-Artacho, M. and M.F. Verdejo (2001) "Creating Constructivist Learning Scenarios Using an Educative
Modelling Language" in Proceedings of the IEEE Frontiers in Education 2001 Conference, Reno NV Oct 2001.
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Available on-line at PDF

• Rodríguez-Artacho, M., & Verdejo Maíllo, M. F. (2004). Modeling Educational Content: The Cognitive Approach of
the PALO Language. In Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 7 (3), 124-137. PDF [37]
• Süss, C., Freitag, B and P. Broessler (1999) "LMML: Metamodelling for Web-based Teachware Management" in
Proc. Intl. ER '99 Paris, France LNCS 1727 Springer Verlag http:/ / daisy. fmi. uni-passau. de/ db/ literatur. php3?
key=SFB99 (dead link)
• Teege, Gunnar; Jürgen Koch, Pamela Tröndle, Wolfgang Wörndl, Johann Schlichter (2000). ModuVille:
Komponenten für virtuelle WWW-basierte Lehrveranstaltungen, PIK - Praxis der Informationsverarbeitung und
Kommunikation, pp. 148-155. (this is a TargeTeam/TeachML publication).
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• Wilson, S. (2001) "Europe Focuses on EML's" Report from CETIS Research Centre, UK. HTML
Acknowledgement: This article or part of this article has been written during a collaboration with the
EducTice [7] group of INRP [8], which attributed a visiting grant to DKS in january 2009.
Educational modeling language 122

Eight-component framework for e-learning

Definition
The Eight component framework for e-learning is global instructional design method designed by Badrul H. Khan.
[1]
According to the framework's webpage (accessed on 12:33, 19 May 2006 (MEST)), Khan's framework for e-
learning has the following purpose:
• Design, development, implementation and evaluation of open, flexible and distributed learning systems require
thoughtful analysis and investigation of how to use the attributes and resources of the Internet and digital
technologies in concert with instructional design principles and issues important to various dimensions of online
learning environments.
• After reflecting on various factors important to open, flexible and distributed learning environments, I developed
A Framework for E-learning. These factors can encompass various online learning issues, including: pedagogical,
technological, interface design, evaluation, management, resource support, ethical and institutional. Various
factors discussed in the eight dimensions of the framework can provide guidance in the design, development,
delivery and evaluation of flexible, open and distance learning environments.

The components
Khan distinguishes the following components (slightly modified and commented by DSchneider):
1. The pedagogical dimension of E-learning refers to teaching and learning. It includes analysis of objectives,
subject matters etc., and pedagogical design including choice of pedagogic strategy.
2. The technological dimension of the E-Learning Framework concerns the technical infrastructure (e.g.
platforms used, standards chosen, hardware).
3. The interface design refers to the overall look and feel of e-learning programs (page and site design,
content design, navigation, and usability testing).
 123
Eight-component framework for e-learning

4. The evaluation for e-learning includes both learner assessment, teacher evaluation and evaluation of the
learning environment.
5. The management of e-learning refers to the maintenance of learning environment and distribution of
information.
6. The resource support dimension of the E-Learning Framework examines the online support and resources
required to foster meaningful learning environments.
7. The ethical considerations of e-learning relate to social and political influence, cultural diversity, bias,
geographical diversity, learner diversity, information accessibility, etiquette, and the legal issues.
8. The institutional dimension is concerned with issues of administrative affairs, academic affairs and student
services related to e-learning.
[1]
For a picture and more details, consult his website (accessed on 12:33, 19 May 2006 (MEST)) and buy one of his
books.
In our opinion this model is quite useful to factor out dimension to consider in a larger project. However there
are some dangers in "flattening" out elements like "interface design" and "resource support". These elements
are strongly tied to the pedagogical dimensions, i.e. interface design is not just about usability but also about
cognitive usability (do learners really learn?), a very hot debate in the academic multimedia research
community. Also see the tutoring article that demonstrates how closely tutoring is associated with
pedagogical design. - DSchneider

Links and references

[1]
• The framework home page
• Badrul H Khan (ed.), Web-Based Training, Educational Technology Publications , ISBN 0-87778-303-9

Elaboration theory
Draf

Definition
Elaboration theory helps users “ select and sequence content in a way that will optimize the attainment of learning
goals” Reigeluth (1999a:426) quoted by Wiley (2000:37)
See also: the 4C/ID model of Merriënboer et al., Merril's first principles of instruction and component display
theory

The model
According to Wilson and Cole (1992), Elaboration Theory's basic strategies can be summarized as follows:
1. Organizing structure: conceptual, procedural, or theoretical
2. Simple-to-complex sequence of lessons
3. Within-lesson squencing:
• For conceptually organized instruction "present the easiest, most familiar organizing concepts first"
• For procedures, "present the steps in order of their performance"
• For theoretically organized instruction, move from the simple to the complex.
4. Summarizers: Content reviews at both lesson and unit levels
 124
5. Synthesizers, e.g. diagrams that help the learner integrate contents elements into a meaninful whole.
6. Analogies: relate the content to learner's prior knowledge.
7. Cognitive strategy activators: cues that can trigger cognitive strategies for appropriate processing of materials.
Elaboration theory

8. Learner control: allow learners to exercise informed control over both content and instructional strategy.
The simplifying conditions method (SCM) is an associated design model and method of elaboration theory. It
integrates initial critiques concerning previous content-structure-based sequencing methods. SCM is based on two
principles: (1) finding the simplest version of the task to teach and that is still representative of the entire task
(epitomizing) and (2) teaching increasingly complex version of the task (elaborating). Elaborated versions are
always slightly more complex, equally or more authentic and equally or slightly less representative of the whole
task.
According to Wiley (2000:38) and based on Reigluth (1999a), SCM can be summarized in the following nine steps:
1. Prepare for the content analysis and instructional design.
2. Identify the simplest version of the task to be taught, paying careful attention to the simplifying conditions (i.e.,
the conditions which make this version of the task simpler than others).
3. Analyze the organizing content for this task. (This is called "organizing content" because different organizational
strategies are presented for procedural, heuristic, and tasks containing a combination of the two).
4. Analyze the supporting or prerequisite content.
5. Decide the size of the individual instructional episodes. "Too big is bad ... Too small is bad" (p. 447). Appropriate
size is situational, and varies depending on delivery constraints (such as time, learner ability, content difficulty,
etc.) Episodes need not be of equal size.
6. Determine within-episode sequencing of the content.
7. Identify the next version (first elaboration) of the task.
8. Analyze organizing content, supporting content, and determine size and within-episode sequencing of content
(steps three - five) for the next version of the task.
9. Cycle back to step seven to identify the remaining versions of the task and design the instruction for each.

References
• Charles M. Reigeluth (1992). Elaborating the elaboration theory, Educational Technology Research and
[1]
Development, Volume 40, Issue 3, Pages 80 - 86, DOI 10.1007/BF02296844, PDF (Access restricted).
• Reigeluth, C. M. (1999a). The elaboration theory: Guidance for scope and sequence decisions. In C. M. Reigeluth
(Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory. (pp. 5-29). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Reigeluth, C. M. (1999b). What is instructional design theory and how is it changing? In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.),
Instructional design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory. (pp. 5-29). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Wiley David A. (2000). Learning object design and sequencing theory, PDF dissertation, Brigham Young
University, PDF [2]

• Wilson, B., & Cole, P. (1992). A critical review of elaboration theory. Educational Technology Research and
Development, 40(3), 63-79. PDF [3] (Access restricted), also HTML [4] (open access)
Engagement theory

Engagement theory
Draf
 125
Definition
• Engagement Theory is a framework for technology-based teaching and learning. “ The fundamental idea
underlying engagement theory is that students must be meaningfully engaged in learning activities through
interaction with others and worthwhile tasks. While in principle, such engagement could occur without the use
of technology, we believe that technology can facilitate engagement in ways which are difficult to achieve
otherwise. So engagement theory is intended to be a conceptual framework for technology-based learning and
teaching.” (Kearsley & Schneiderman, 1999).

The model
Engagement theory is based upon the idea of creating successful collaborative teams that work on ambitious
projects that are meaningful to someone outside the classroom. These three components, summarized by
Relate-Create-Donate, imply that learning activities:
1. occur in a group context (i.e., collaborative teams)
2. are project-based
3. have an outside (authentic) focus (Kearsley & Schneiderman, 1999).
• Relate emphasizes team work (communication, management, planning, social skills)
• Create emphasizes creativity and purpose. Students have to define (or at least identify in terms of a problem
domain) and execute a project in context
• Donate stresses usefulness of the outcome (ideally each project has an outside "customer" that the project is
being conducted for).

References
• Kearsley, G. & Schneiderman, B. (1999). Engagement theory: A framework for technology-based learning and
teaching. Originally at http:/ / home. sprynet. com/ ~gkearsley/ engage. htm. Retrieved 14:42, 11 September 2006
(MEST) from google cache.
• Kearsley, G. (1997). The Virtual Professor: A Personal Case Study. [1]
• Shneiderman, B. (1994) Education by Engagement and Construction: Can Distance Education be Better than
Face-to-Face? [2]
• Shneiderman, B. (1988), Relate-Create-Donate: An educational philosophy for the cyber-generation. Computers
& Education, in press.
• Shneiderman, B., Alavi, M., Norman, K. & Borkowski, E. (Nov 1995). Windows of opportunity in electronic
classrooms, Communications of the ACM, 38(11), 19-24.
• Miliszewska, Iwona and John Horwood. 2006. Engagement theory: a universal paradigm?. In Proceedings of the
37th SIGCSE technical symposium on Computer science education (SIGCSE '06). ACM, New York, NY, USA,
158-162. DOI=10.1145/1121341.1121392 http://doi. acm.org/10.1145/1121341. 1121392
 126
Exploratory learning

Exploratory learning
Draf

Definition
Exploratory learning is based on constructivist theories of learning and teaching.
See discovery learning and maybe inquiry-based learning for more in-depth discussion of exploratory approaches.
According to Rieber (:587) all exploratory learning approaches are based on the following four principles:
• Learners can and should take control of their own learning;
• knowledge is rich and multidimensional;
• learners approach the learning task in very diverse ways; and
• it is possible for learning to feel natural and uncoaxed, that is, it does not have to be forced or contrived.

Tools
There are different kinds of tools for exploratory learning.
• Microworlds
• Hypertexts
• Some forms of games and simulations

References
• Rieber, L. P. (1996) Microworlds, in Jonassen, David, H. (ed.) Handbook of research on educational
communications and technology. Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology.
Second edition. Simon and Schuster, 583-603 ISBN 0-02-864663-0
FEASP

FEASP
Definition
• The F(ear)E(nvy)A(nger)S(ympathy)P(leasure)-approach for designing positive feeling instruction postulates
that the instructional designer has to analyze emotional problems before and during instruction (Astleitner,
2000: 175).
• See also:
• MacFadden's constructivist emotionally-oriented model.
• Further related issues like motivation and motivation-based design models like ARCS.

The FEASP model

According to Astleitner (2000: 175):
There are five basic categories of emotional conditions that the instructional designer must understand and use in
order to produce instruction which is emotionally sound, " Fear" refers to a negative feeling arising from
 127
subjectively judging a situation as threatening or dangerous. "Envy" is a negative feeling resulting from the desire to
get something that is possessed by others or not to lose something that one is possessing. "Anger" refers to a
negative feeling coming from being hindered to reach a desired goal and being forced to an additional action.

"Sympathy" is a positive feeling referring to an experience of feelings and orientations of other people who are in
the need of help. "Pleasure" is a positive feeling based on mastering a situation with a deep devotion to an action.
Accordingly, Fear, envy, and anger should be reduced during instruction, sympathy and pleasure should be
increased.
The following FEASP overview table is copyright by Astleitner, reproduced here with permission and retrieved
16:18, 27 May 2006 (MEST) from http://www. sbg.ac.at/ erz/ feasp/overview. htm by DKS)
This table associates all instructional strategies of the FEASP-approach with examples in traditional and technology-
based instruction.
Instructional strategies Examples from traditional instruction Examples from instructional
technology based instruction

Fear reduction

F1 Ensure success in learning Use well-proven motivational and cognitive Cognitive learning design
instructional strategies

F2 Accept mistakes as opportunities for learning Let student talk about their failures, their Q&A, success statistics
expectations, the reasons for errors, etc.

F3 Induce relaxation Apply muscle relaxation, visual imagery, Trainings via media players
autogenics, or meditation

F4 Be critical, but sustain a positive perspective Train students in critical thinking, but also Cognitive tools (semantic networking)
point out the beauty of things

Envy reduction

E1 Encourage comparison with autobiographical and Show students their individual learning Student progress tracking, using target
criterion reference points instead of social standards history lists

E2 Install consistent and transparent evaluating and Inform students in detail about guidelines for Programmed fact-based evaluation
grading grading and feedback

E3 Inspire a sense of authenticity and openness Install "personal information boards" telling Personal homepages
others who you are

FEASP

E4 Avoid unequal distributed privileges among students Grant all students or no student access to Rule-based granting of privileges
private matters

Anger reduction

A1 Stimulate the control of anger Show students how to reduce anger through Anger buttons
counting backward

A2 Show multiple views of things Demonstrate how one problem can be Linked information
solved through different operations

A3 Let anger be expressed in a Do not accept escaping when interpersonal Anger-help option
constructive way problem solving is necessary

A4 Do not show and accept any form of violence Avoid threatening gestures Non-violent action: motivational
design

Sympathy increase

S1 Intensify relationships Get students to know other students friends Synchronous and asynchronous
and families communication tools
 128
S2 Install sensitive interactions Reduce students` sulking and increase their On-/offline trainings for empathic
directly asking for help communication

S3 Establish cooperative learning structures Use group investigations for cooperation Collaborative learning tools

S4 Implement peer helping programs Let students adopt children in need Social networks within the world-
wide-web

Pleasure increase

P1 Enhance well-being Illustrate students a probabilistic view of the User-friendly interface design
future

P2 Establish open learning opportunities Use self-instructional learning materials Virtual classrooms

P3 Use humor Produce funny comics with students Story/comic/cartoon production

systems

P4 Install play-like activities Use simulation-based instructional games Instructional computer games

Note that the FEASP approach is not a closed theory, but an open research program telling people what to do in
order to improve any kind of instruction in respect to emotional issues.

References
• Astleitner, Hermann, Designing Emotionally Sound Instruction (2000): The FEASP-Approach, Instructional Science
28 (3): 169-198, May 2000 [ http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ openurl. asp?genre=article& id=doi:10. 1023/
A:1003893915778]
• Astleitner, Hermann, Designing Emotionally Sound Instruction: The FEASP-Approach, (open online version,
published in: Instructional Science, 2000, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 169-198 [1]
• Astleitner, Hermann and Detlev Leutner (2000), Designing Instructional Technology from an Emotional
Perspective, RTE, Volume 32, Number 4, Summer 2000.
• J. Keller, Motivational Design of Instruction, in C. Reigeluth (ed.), Instructional Design Theories and Models,
Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey, pp. 383-434, 1983.
Felder design model 129

Felder design model

Draf

Definition
The Felder design model is an instructional design model based on learning style consideration. While some
learning style people argue that pedagogical designs (in particular electronic learning environments) should
accommodate different learning paths, Felder (in the context of class teaching) argues that it is sufficient to
incorporate a variety of teaching modes.
Note: This "Felder design model" is not something that is being "sold" by Felder, but a construct we (DSchneider
16:55, 24 August 2006 (MEST)) have reconstructed from various recommendations by Felder.
See also: teaching style (its alter ego in classroom teaching).

The Felder-Silverman model

According to Felder (1996, 1993, this model classifies students along the following dimensions:
1. What type of information does the student preferentially perceive :
• sensing learners (concrete, practical, oriented toward facts and procedures) or • intuitive learners
(conceptual, innovative, oriented toward theories and meanings);
2. Through which modality is sensory information most effectively perceived:
• visual learners (prefer visual representations of presented material--pictures, diagrams, flow charts) or
• verbal learners (prefer written and spoken explanations);
3. With which organization of information is the student most comfortable ?
• inductive learners (prefer presentations that proceed from the specific to the general) or
• deductive learners (prefer presentations that go from the general to the specific);
4. How does the student prefer to process information ?
• active learners (learn by trying things out, working with others) or • reflective learners (learn by
thinking things through, working alone);
5. How does the student progress toward understanding ?
• sequential learners (linear, orderly, learn in small incremental steps) or
• global learners (holistic, systems thinkers, learn in large leaps).
Note: See the learning style article from which this is copied.

Instructional design considerations

According to Felder (1993) “ Students whose learning styles fall in any of the given categories have the potential to
be excellent scientists. The observant and methodical sensors, for example, make good experimentalists, and the
insightful and imaginative intuitors make good theoreticians. Active learners are adept at administration and team-
oriented project work; reflective learners do well at individual research and design. Sequential learners are often
good analysts, skilled at solving convergent (single-answer) problems; global learners are often good synthesizers,
able to draw material from several disciplines to solve problems that could not have been solved with conventional
single-discipline approaches. Unfortunately---in part because teachers tend to favor their own learning styles, in
part because they instinctively teach the way they were taught in most college classes---the teaching style in most
lecture courses tilts heavily toward the small percentage of college students who are at once intuitive, verbal,
deductive, reflective and sequential.”
Felder design model 130

“ Major transformations in teaching style are not necessary to achieve the desired balance. Of the ten defined
learning style categories, five (intuitive, verbal, deductive, reflective, and sequential) are adequately covered by the
traditional lecture-based teaching approach, and there is considerable overlap in teaching methods that address
the style dimensions short-changed by the traditional method (sensing, visual, inductive, active, and global). The
systematic use of a small number of additional teaching methods in a class may therefore be sufficient to meet the
needs of all of the students” (Feldman, 1993)
Here is summary of Feldmans (1993, 1996) recommendations (copy/paste with minor modifcations. Please read the
originals for details - in particular if you are interested in engineering education):
1. Teach theoretical material by first presenting phenomena and problems that relate to the theory
• Motivation is increased through prior presentation of phenomena that the theory will help explain and of
problems that the theory will be used to solve (sensing, inductive, global).
2. Balance conceptual information (intuitive) with concrete information (sensing).
• Have both descriptions of physical phenomena, results from real and simulated experiments, demonstrations,
and problem-solving algorithms (sensing)---with conceptual information---theories, mathematical models,
and material that emphasizes fundamental understanding (intuitive)---in all courses.
3. Make extensive use of sketches, plots, schematics, vector diagrams, computer graphics, and physical
demonstrations (visual) in addition to oral and written explanations and derivations (verbal) in lectures and
readings.
• E.g on the visual side, show flow charts of the reaction and transport processes that occur in particle
accelerators, test tubes, and biological cells before presenting the relevant theories, and sketch or
demonstrate the experiments used to validate the theories.
4. To illustrate abstract concepts or problem-solving algorithms, use at least some numerical examples (sensing) to
supplement the usual algebraic examples (intuitive).
5. Use physical analogies and demonstrations to illustrate the magnitudes of calculated quantities (sensing, global).
6. Occasionally give some experimental observations before presenting the general principle, and have the
students (preferably working in groups) see how far they can get toward inferring the latter (inductive).
• Give some experimental observations before presenting the general principles and have the students
(preferably working in groups) see how far they can get toward inferring the latter (inductive).
7. Provide class time for students to think about the material being presented (reflective) and for active student
participation (active).
• Occasionally pause during a lecture to allow time for thinking and formulating questions. Assign "one-minute
papers" close to the end of a lecture period, having students write on index cards the most important point
made in the lecture and the single most pressing unanswered question. Assign brief group problem-solving
exercises in class in which the students working in groups of three or four at their seats spend one or several
minutes tackling any of a wide variety of questions and problems.
8. Encourage or mandate cooperation on homework (every style category).
• See collaborative learning
9. Demonstrate the logical flow of individual course topics ( sequential), but also point out connections between
the current material and other relevant material in the same course, in other courses in the same discipline, in
other disciplines, and in everyday experience ( global).

References
[1]
• Felder, R.M. (1996). "Matters of Styles". ASEE Prism, 6(4), 18-23. HTML
• Felder, R.M. and L.K. Silverman. "Learning Styles and Teaching Styles in Engineering Education." Engr. Education,
78 (7), 674-681 (1988).PDF Preprint [2]

• Felder, R.M. (1993). "Reaching the Second Tier: Learning and Teaching Styles in College Science Education," J.
Coll. Sci. Teaching, 23(5), 286--290 (1993). HTML [3]
Felder design model 131

[4]
• Felder, R.M. and Barbara A. Solomon, Learning Styles And Strategies, webpage HTML retrieved 14:35, 24
August 2006 (MEST).
• R.M. Felder and J.E. Spurlin, "Applications, Reliability, and Validity of the Index of Learning Styles," Intl.
Journal of Engineering Education, 21(1), 103-112 (2005). A validation study of the Index of Learning Styles. PDF
Reprint [5]

• R.M. Felder and R. Brent, "Understanding Student Differences." J. Engr. Education, 94(1), 57-72 (2005). An
exploration of differences in student learning styles, approaches to learning (deep, surface, and strategic), and
[6]
levels of intellectual development. PDF

First principles of instruction

Draf

Definition
• First principles of instruction is a attempt by M. David Merrill to identify fundamental invariant principles of
good instructional design, regardless pedagogic strategy. It can be used both as an instructional design model
and as evaluation grid to judge the quality of a pedagogical design
• First principles of instruction is the title of a frequently cited on-line paper in several versions, e.g.
[5]
• Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instructions , Educational Technology Research and Development,
50(3), 43-59.
[1]
• Merrill, M. D. (2010). First Principles of instruction , in C. M. Reigeluth and A. Carr (Eds.). Instructional Design
Theories and Models III. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

The five principles of instruction

Merrill's first and central principle of instruction is task-centered learning. Task centered learning is not problem-
based learning, although it shares some features.
The task / problem
A task is a problem that represents a problem that may be encountered in a real-world situation. Learning
objectives or samples of the types of problems learners will be able to solve at the end of the learning sequence
may also substitute for a problem. A progression through problems of increasing difficulty are used to scaffold the
learning process into manageable tiers of difficulty.
Does the courseware relate to real world problems?
1. ... show learners the task or the problem they will be able to do/solve ?
2. are students engaged at problem or task level not just operation or action levels?
3. ... involve a progression of problems rather than a single problem?
This progressive teaching approach is also related to Merriënboer's 4C/ID model.
The five principles of instruction (Merrill, 2006)
First principles of instruction 132

• The demonstration principle: Learning is promoted when learners observe a demonstration

• The application principle: Learning is promoted when learners apply the new knowledge
• The activation principle: Learning is promoted when learners activate prior knowledge or experience
• The integration principle: Learning is promoted when learners integrate their new knowledge into their
everyday world
• The task-centered principle: Learning is promoted when learners engage in a task-centered instructional
strategy

Phases / Components of Merrill's First Principles

of Instruction

The task (or problem) is center stage. Here is a summary of the four remaining components
1. Activation of relevant previous experience promotes learning by allowing them to build upon what they already
know and giving the instructor information on how to best direct learners. Providing an experience when
learners previous experience is inadequate or lacking to create mental models upon which the new learning can
build. Activities that stimulate useful mental models that are analoguous in structure to the content being taught
can also help learners build appropriate schemas to incorporate the new content. Does the courseware activate
prior knowledge or experience?
1. do learners have to recall, relate, describe, or apply knowledge from past experience (as a foundation for new
knowledge) ?
2. does the same apply to the present courseware ?
3. is there an opportunity to demonstrate previously acquired knowledge or skill ?
2. Demonstration through simulations, visualizations, modelling, etc. that exemplify what is being taught are
favoured. Demonstration includes guiding learners through different representations of the same phenomena
through extensive use of a media, pointing out variations and providing key information. Does the courseware
demonstrate what is to be learned ?
1. Are examples consistent with the content being taught? E.g. examples and non-examples for concepts,
demonstrations for procedures, visualizations for processes, modeling for behavior?
2. Are learner guidance techniques employed? (1) Learners are directed to relevant information?, (2) Multiple
representations are used for the demonstrations?, (3) Multiple demonstrations are explicitly compared?
3. Is media relevant to the content and used to enhance learning?
3. Application requires that learners use their knew knowledge in a problem-solving task, using multiple yet
distinctive types of practice Merrill categorizes as information-about, parts-of, kinds-of, and how-to practice that
should be used depending upon the kind of skill and knowledge identified. The application phase should be
accompanied by feedback and guidance that is gradually withdrawn as the learners' capacities increase and
performance improves.
Can learners practice and apply acquired knowledge or skill?
1. Are the application (practice) and the post test consistent with the stated or implied objectives? (1)
Information-about practice requires learners to recall or recognize information. (2) Parts-of practice requires
the learners to locate, name, and/or describe each part. (3) Kinds-of practice requires learners to identify new
examples of each kind. (4) How-to practice requires learners to do the procedure. (5) What-happens practice
requires learners to predict a consequence of a process given conditions, or to find faulted conditions given
an unexpected consequence.
First principles of instruction 133

2. Does the courseware require learners to use new knowledge or skill to solve a varied sequence of problems
and do learners receive corrective feedback on their performance?
3. In most application or practice activities, are learners able to access context sensitive help or guidance when
having difficulty with the instructional materials? Is this coaching gradually diminished as the instruction
progresses?
4. Integration in effective instruction occurs when learners are given the opportunity to demostrate, adapt, modify
and transform new knowledge to suit the needs of new contexts and situations. Reflection through discussion
and sharing is important to making new knowledge part of a learner's personal store and giving the learner a
sense of progress. Collaborative work and a community of learners can provide a context for this stage.
Are learners encouraged to integrate (transfer) the new knowledge or skill into their everyday life?
1. Is there an opportunity to publicly demonstrate their new knowledge or skill?
2. Is there an opportunity to reflect-on, discuss, and defend new knowledge or skill?
3. Is there an opportunity to create, invent, or explore new and personal ways to use new knowledge or skill?

Implications for educational technology

The task-centered principle
[2]
This section needs to be completed a lot, see First principles of instruction: a synthesis , p 7ff.
Learning is promoted when learners engage in a task-centered instructional strategy 'and' when a progression
through problems of increasing difficulty is used to scaffold the learning process into manageable tiers of difficulty
and whole-tasks are broken down to part-tasks (components)

The Instructional Sequence in Merrill's First

Principles of Instruction

To design the first four phases (activation - demonstration - application - integration), whole tasks have to be broken
down into components and the components have to be analyzed. Then one has to decide what should be taught in
what way.
Merrill suggests to teach individual components with a direct instruction approach (which is more efficient and
often also more effective). Most tasks or problems include five different instructional compontents. Firstly. initial
"telling" should always activate prior knowledge. Demonstration (phase 2) should focus on adequate portayals of
components (but linked to the whole), before the application phase is entered. Here are few hints on how to
tell/demonstrate different sorts of components:
• Information-about
• Tell facts or associations and link them to previous knowledge
• Parts-of
• Tell names and descriptions
• Portrayal: Show location
• kinds-of
• Tell definition
First principles of instruction 134

• Portrayal: Show examples and counter-examples

• how-to
• Tell about steps and sequence
• Portrayal: Illustrate steps for specific cases (work-through examples)
• what-happens
• Tell about the process as a whole, conditions, consequences
• Portrayal: Illustrate specific conditions and consequences for specific cases
In the third (application) phase students have to work on skills related to portayals and then put "things together"
in the forth (integration) phase.
Each increasingly difficult whole task (problem) requires going back and forth from (1) demonstration of the whole
task (2) to component "teaching" and (2) back to integration. Once the whole task is mastered, this procedure is
repeated which the next whole task until the "real world" problem is mastered without much "direct component
teaching".
A few principles for teaching materials and learning activities

Components of Merrill's First Principles of

Instruction

Navigation
• Learners should see how contents are organized
• They should be able go forth and back, correct themselves
Motivation
• Learning environments should be interesting, relevant and achievable
• Real tasks are more motivating than formal objectives, glitz and novelty
• Known content is not motivating, students should be able to skip over
• Performing whole tasks is more motivating then decontextualized actions and operations
• Immediate feed feedback decreases motivation - delayed judgement increases (interesting, this is not like direct
instruction)
Collaboration
• Favor small groups (2-3) to optimize interactions
• Group assigments should be structured around problems (whole tasks), i.e. "real" products or processes
Interaction
• Navigation is not interaction (i.e. it is not cognitive interactivity)
• Interaction means solving real-world problems or tasks
• Key elements are: a context, a challenge, a learner activity and feedback.
See also the pebble in the pond model that outlines a simple instructional design method that can be used to
design a learning environment according to Merrill's principles of instruction. Additionnally there is also the issue of
levels of instructional strategies , i.e. what we get when we do less ...
First principles of instruction 135

Links
• M. David Merrill's home page [3] (old home page [4]). Includes many papers he wrote.
• A New Framework for Teaching in the Cognitive Domain [5] by Molenda, Michael, ERIC Digest.
• [6] Includes a summary of research related to First Principles of Instruction.

References
• Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(3),
[7]
43-59. PDF , retrieved 15:47, 7 November 2011 (CET).
• Merrill, M. D. (in press). First Principles of instruction, in C. M. Reigeluth and A. Carr (Eds.). Instructional Design
[8]
Theories and Models III. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. PDF , retrieved 15:47, 7 November 2011
(CET).
• Merrill, M. D. (In Press). First principles of instruction: a synthesis. In R. A. Reiser and J. V. Dempsey (Eds.) Trends
[9]
and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology. Columbus: Ohio, Merrill Prentice Hall. PDF , retrieved 15:47,
7 November 2011 (CET).
• Merrill, M. D. (2009). Finding e3 (effective, efficient and engaging) Instruction. Educational Technology, 49(3), 15-
26. PDF [10], retrieved 15:47, 7 November 2011 (CET). This paper includes course evaluation forms.
 136
Gerlach and Ely design model

Gerlach and Ely design model

Draf

Definition
Gerlach and Ely is a relatively simple prescriptive design method and model.
[1]
Here is a summary with a figure taken from a Carl Berger course on Educational Software Design and Authoring
[2]

References
• Gerlach, Vernon S. & Donald P. Ely. Teaching & Media: A Systematic Approach. Second edition. (Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1980)
Gerson's e-class

Gerson's e-class
Draf

E-CLASS: A model for distance online course development

 137
Developed by Dr. Steven M. Gerson, English Professor at the Johnson County Community College specifically for
online courses, the e-class model of instruction has 7 distinct phases of instruction and details the aims of each
phase as
Explain
Clarify
Look
Act
Share
Self Evaluate/Submit
Explain
The start of an instructional unit. Should provide an overview that may explain: - what's to be discussed - the
context - a scenario or case to situate the assignment - why a topic is being introduced - the historical perspective
of an assignment E explains why the assignment is being given and what is expected of the learner
Clarify
C should provide details on how an assignment will be approached; which laws or principles will be employed and
what resources will be used.
Look
L should provide the student with examples of similar assignments or problems using simulations and modelling. All
ranges of multimedia can and should be exploited to this effect.
Act
The focus here is to have learners put to practice what has been introduced and detailed in the previous phases.
Exercises and activities should allow learners to participate in the application of what has been learnt.
Share
Gerson admits this to be the most difficult phase in a distance learning environment aggravated by it's
asynchronous nature. Learners should engage in interaction to benefit from the learning that occurs within a
community of learners. Educational technology tools that are available to this end are email, blogs, chats and
forums for reflection, discussions, and collaborative work. The point is to simulate the interaction that takes place in
a classroom environment. Self Evaluate/Submit
This point in the sequence serves to allow learners to evaluate and revise their own work according to feedback
received from peers and the criteria set out and finally submit their assignment.
Gerson's e-class

Examples
eLML (a modified version)

References
Gerson,Steven M.(2000), E-CLASS: Creating a Guide to Online Course Development For Distance Learning Faculty,
Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, Volume III, Number IV, Winter 2000, State University of West
Georgia, Distance & Distributed Education Center <[[1]]> (accessed May 31, 2006)
 138

Hypermodel

Definition
• Hypermodel probably refers to a lot things...
• In educational technology, hypermodel has probably been coined by Robert Tinker and refers to a sort of
pedagogically structured microworld or computer-based manipulative (CBM) and a model-based learning
design.
• The "hypermodel," a new type of learning technology that blends aspects of models, simulations, and
hypermedia. [1]

The instructional design model and the systems architecture

Draf
We should this topic to some other page some day, below just a series of quotes for starters - DSchneider
16:21, 21 July 2006 (MEST)
• “Hypermodels integrate stored information in the form of multimedia materials, experimental data, and text,
with a manipulable model of the subject domain. Just as hypertext enables one to navigate through textual
materials by clicking on individual words and phrases, with hypermodels students navigate through a learning
activity by manipulating a computer-based model. The activity typically presents a more or less open-ended
challenge (e.g., "Breed these organisms as efficiently as possible, trying to get all the offspring to look like this.")
and then leaves the students alone and monitors them (Which organisms do they choose to breed? How do they
react to the outcome?) as they try to accomplish the goal. ” [2].
• “ Hypermodels share some characteristics with CAI (computer assisted instruction) applications, which also
control what the learner sees, evaluate progress, and, if they are "intelligent," can adapt to student responses
and learning styles. The critical difference is that hypermodels have at their core a sophisticated tool that
students can use to learn content through exploration and inquiry; a constructivist educational strategy. In
contrast, CAI software is usually much more directive and "instructivist."” (Tinker: 2001).
• “ Our underlying tools embody a pure constructivist philosophy that permits students to learn through open-
ended exploration. Even though this type of learning is powerful, students can take too much time and miss
important topics and the tool can be difficult to disseminate and confusing for beginners. Pedagogica converts
the tool into a hypermodel that is somewhat instructivist, because the script constrains the tool and guides the
learner to discover specific concepts that a curriculum developer has selected. Done well, students still learn
through their own explorations, but within constrained domains and with guidance that ensures that most
students discover the important concepts.”
Hypermodel
 139

Note: A different picture of this hypemodel architecture is shown in the Pedagogica article. But the principle is the
same. There is a distinction between the model (simulation software) and some kind of pedagogical shell that runs
the software plus additional pedagogical functions.

Examples
• See systems built with Pedagogica (Tinker: 2001).

References
• Hickey, D. T., Kindfield, A. C. H., Horwitz, P., & Christie, M. A. Integrating curriculum, instruction, assessment, and
evaluation in a technology-supported genetics environment. in American Educational Research Journal, 40
(2) 495-538. 2003
• Horwitz, Paul and Robert Tinker (2001), Pedagogica to the Rescue, A short history of hypermodels. @CONCORD:
[3]
Volume 5, No. 1 HTML

• Horwitz, P. (1999). Turning information into knowledge: Hypermodel for science education: Final report
submitted to National Science Foundation Education and Human Resources Directorate (Grant # RED-955343).
Concord, MA: The Concord Consortium.
• Paul Horwitz, Linking Models to Data: Hypermodels for Science Education, [4]
• Tinker, Robert (2001), Perspective, Hypermodels: New Tools for Learning, @CONCORD: Volume 5, No. 1 HTML [5]

• http://www. aare. edu.au/ 01pap/tsu01462.htm

Hypertext 140

Hypertext
Draf

Definition
• A hypertext is a non-linear text that connects various elements (nodes, pages) through links.
• “Hypertext is text with links, or pointers, showing relationships between parts of the information. Hypermedia
extends this concept - information with links - to collections including text, audio, video, photographs, or any
multisensory combination” (Alessi & Trollop, 2001:138).
[1]
• From the Wikipedia : “ In computing, hypertext is a user interface paradigm for displaying documents which,
according to an early definition (Nelson 1970), "branch or perform on request." The most frequently discussed
form of hypertext document contains automated cross-references to other documents called hyperlinks.
Selecting a hyperlink causes the computer to load and display the linked document.”
• Hypertext is not just HTML.
• Hypertext systems allow users to author, edit and follow links between different bodies of text. Hypermedia
systems, are similar to hypertext systems, except that the user can use other forms of media as well.

Hypertext and hypermedia architecture

Semantic and rhetorical link types

Burbules (1998) made a categorization based on rhetorics:
• Metaphor: “ a comparison, an equation, between apparently dissimilar objects, inviting the listener or reader to
see points of similarity between them while also inviting a change in the originally related concepts by "carrying
over" previously unrelated characteristics from one to the other.”
• Metonymy: “ an association not by similarity, but by contiguity, relations in practice”.
• Synecdoche: “ figurations where part of something is used as a shorthand for the thing as a whole or, more
rarely, vice versa. [..]. In the context of Web links, this trope is particularly influential in identifying, or suggesting,
relations of categorical inclusion”
• Hyperbole: exaggeration for the sake of tropic emphasis (or its opposite, understatement for the same effect),
i.e. “ there is a tacit implication with each collection, each archive, each search engine, of a degree of
comprehensiveness beyond its actual scope”
• Antistatis: the "same" word - in a different or contrasting context.
• Identity: identity denies difference and emphasizes equivalence
• Sequence and cause-and-effect: indicate real relations, not simply allusive ones.
• Catechresis: "far-fetched" uses of familiar words in a new context. “ In the context of the Web, catechresis
becomes a trope for the basic working of the link, generally: any two things can be linked, even a raven and a
writing desk, and with that link, instantaneously, a process of semic movement begins”
Harrison's (2002) paper explores the semantic and rhetorical principles underlying link development of web sites
and proposes a systematic, comprehensive classification of link types that could be of use to researchers and Web
production teams:
• Authorizing: Describes an organization's legal, formal policies, contact information, etc. that authenticate the site
and its content.
• Commenting: Provides opinion about the site and/or its content.
Hypertext 141

• Enhancing: Provides more factual information about site content by offering greater detail or painting the
"bigger picture."
• Exemplifying: Provides a specific example of content within a broader category.
• Mode-Changing: Moves users from the reading mode to one that requires a different kind of activity.
• Referencing/Citing: Provides information that "informs" or supplements the site's content.
• Self-Selecting: Allows users to narrow a search by making choices based on their age, sex, geographical location,
life situation, personal interests, and so on ([2], retrieved 18:47, 6 November 2006 (MET))

A technical classification of links

In the history of hypertext we can distinguish "minimal" technology such as HTML and systems that provide a richer
set of link types. E.g. the XLink standard which did/does not have much success with industry defines a whole lot of
linking attributes.
Simple links
• One element on the screen/document (e.g. a word or a button) points to another screen or other element
within the loaded screen/document. After clicking the link, current content is replaced by target content. These
are links that one can find in HTML (web contents).
Complex links
There are many, e.g.:
• Fat (multi-tailed) links: a fat link can open several windows simultaneously with one click of the mouse.
• Multiple-choice links: the user can choose among several options from a menu.
• Labelled links: A user can see what a link is good for (e.g. "example", "theory", "further reading", "reference",
etc.)
• Aggregations: (include various smaller documents into a single text) • Inclusions: A link that expands
contents in place to include other contents.
• Transclusion: A text that is composed as an aggregation of other text. E.g. in a Mediawiki like this on can build
pages out of other pages by using this syntax
• Bilinks: See AboutUs:BiLinks [3]

Hyperlinks
Alessi & Trollop (2001:155) suggest to pay attention to a few factors when creating hyperlinks of various forms,
which we shortly outline here:
Object types of links
• Word links are easy to spot but decrease readability and influence on browsing behavior ()
• Links in pictures and videos may be less easy to spot depending on how they are made Purpose of links
• Clearly, links should be used for a reason. Firstly, there should a general concept about the media type to be
constructed (e.g. see the overview of genres below) and then there should a be a use case analysis (what it will
be used for) in terms of one or several instructional design models.
Density of links
• For reference works, it's in principle a good a idea to include many links (e.g. like in this text)
• However, in education one may limit links in texts that should be read in its entirety, or only show them after
explicit request or some other control function (e.g. learner level). There is actually a lot of research on adaptive
hypertext
Visibility of links
• Links should be clearly visible, however there is a tradeoff with readability.
Hypertext 142

• In general, one should not users require to move the mouse over an object that then will highlight in order to
find available links. A compromise, might be a visibility of links turn on/off button. E.g. in a modern web browser
this is very easy to implement.
Screen Location
• In particular menu links should be placed in standard locations (e.g. on top or to the left) Confirmation
• The authors put several things into this category, e.g.
• Confirmation of link selection (not activation): E.g. display a mouse-over effect. Then the links can for example
offer a preview, or let the user display contents in different locations. (In web browsers, the latter functionality is
the right-click menu, and the further can be implement with Javascript.
Finally, one also may ask confirmation from the user to open or navigate to different sites.
Marking
• Recently selected links can be specially mark (e.g. by default, word links in web browsers change color from blue
to violet)
• One also can implement user trails, i.e. display somewhere a list or the path of visited links. Typically, this is
implemented in shopping applications like amazon (also in this wiki, if you use a login).
Semantic Cueing
• A semantic cue identifies the relation to the link target or at least its kind (e.g. use a color code or little icons that
characterize the links)
• Other options are to use a menu or to display links relationships in a separate window with a concept graph.
Distance
• This is partly same issue as above, partly the problem that in education it's a difficult decision whether you can
rely on external links. E.g. if you teach about hypertext in education, would you trust us to keep this page alive ?
• Typically in web design, one tries to make a distinction between internal and external links (e.g. this is being
done in this wiki). However the question whether we trust other people to keep their links online is a very
difficult one.
Modifiability
• In earlier systems users were able to modify or at least to annotate a hypertext. Also they could add links.
• In more recent hypermedia (including most web pages) this is not usually the case.
• There is a difference between hypermedia that can be changed (e.g. like this wiki), those that can be annotated
and those where the changes are only seen by the user who made those changes (the latter version is the most
[4]
difficult to implement). Annotation systems are successfully used in education, e.g. the Diplo Foundation uses
annotation of online text as primary teaching medium.

Navigation types from a GUI perspective

In a hypertext or hypermedia system, there can be many kinds of navigational devices (most of which are links).
E.g.:
• Simple word or button links
• Menu bars
• Context menus
• Graphics (concept maps, maps, time lines)
• Table of contents, Indexes, Glossaries
• Search

Hypertext and hypermedia in education

This chapter provides an overview of educational uses.
Hypertext 143

A deeper analysis of learning activities with hypermedia and kinds of supported learning types is missing though.

Overview of educational genres

“ Hypertext/hypermedia is a field of study which comes with a number of issues, which we will explore, for
example:what it means to learn in a nonlinear fashion and the related implications for designing online learning and
learning from the current structure of the Web: learner control, navigational problems, cognitive overload, issues of
type of structure and how much structure, and so on. Hypertext has two main features: nonlinearity and
changeability. That is, the user may follow someone else's links, or s/he may design her own.These two different
[5]
purposes have important learning consequences.” (Diane McGrath , retrieved 18:47, 6 November 2006 (MET)).
Hodges and Asnett (1993) cited by [6], retrieved 6 November 2006) identified six groups of educational applications
that were made with ATHENA developed at MIT and one of the earlier hypermedia systems.
1. Virtual Museums
2. Simulations, in particular interactive fiction for language learning
3. Analysis Tools, in particular analysis of films (see e.g. cognitive flexibility hypertext)
4. Editors, e.g. color editors, lesson tools
5. Information management, e.g. meeting tools, calendars, etc.
6. Electronic Books
Alessi and Trollop (2001:142) describe in their textbook 8 hypermedia formats to which we would like to add the
hypermodel.
1. General reference (encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, etc.)
• These are typically sold as commercial products on CD-ROM (E.g. Encarta) but may also be available over the
[7] [8]
Internet (e.g. Britannica ). A well known free one is Wikipedia
• Such systems are useful for reference, e.g. as a resource in project-oriented learning
2. Specific subject matter reference
• Same principle as above but focused on a given domain, e.g. the human body, astronomy, a genre of music.
An example would be Shakespeare's world [9]. There are lots of simple web sites that are made by teachers on
given subjects (see some Learning objects repositories). While technically simple, such resources can be very
efficient in education.
3. Analysis of a domain
• Such systems go beyond presentation and analyze complexities, arguments, provide multiple viewpoints etc.
In other words, they are specifically made for a kind of educational design.
• A typical example would be a cognitive flexibility hypertext like the KANE system
4. Case study
• These are similar to the above, but focus on some very specific objects, e.g. a historical event, a person, a
piece of art. The user will have access to a variety of information (e.g. firstly the entire work, then essays,
photographs, video-clips, etc.). Also available are analysis tools and sophisticated navigation and search tools.
In other words, such a hypertext should provide learners with the opportunity to study an object inside out
and from many angles.
• A typical example are multimedia virtual bodies. Some can be found on the Internet, e.g. BBC Human Body
[10]
and Mind . An other example are sites on literature in the tradition of Intermedia, e.g. George Landow's
[11]
Victorian Web .
5. Construction sets
• These systems allow learners to build their own hypermedia. We distinguish two kinds: (1) Any sort of
multimedia authoring system, (2) Microworlds like AgentSheets, ToonTalk or Squeak Etoys.
6. Edutainment
Hypertext 144

• The programs are both recreational and entertaining. E.g. children can virtually travel to places and gain
points when they pick up some objects. There are hundreds of such programs on the market and most are
sold as
CD/DVDs.
[12]
• An example would be Where is Carmen Sandiego . Note: There are other edutainment categories, e.g. that
fall more into some drills and practice category.
7. Museum
• Museums are virtual exhibits that mimic a real one or not. In both cases exhibits are arranged in some
topological format. Technology can be simple web pages, hypermedia systems on CD, Desktop virtual reality
e.g. made with computer game technology or X3D.
8. Archive
• Digitalization of contents or systematic cataloguing of existing contents. This includes addition of menus,
indexing and so forth
• E.g. all national geographic magazines
9. Hypermodel
• Hypermodels are hybrids between simulations, hypermedia and microworlds, i.e. the user can interact with
models (modify parameters, sometimes build them) and access to information describing a subject domain
(both textbook information and raw facts)
• E.g. systems like BGuILE, BioLogica or WISE
Technically speaking, almost any software today is a hypermedium. However, the question is to know when to call
an application a hypermedia in the proper narrow sense and when it rather should be called a microworld, an
educational game, CBL software, CBT software etc. Daniel K. Schneider thinks that one should in a conceptual
context use the word hypermedia to describe systems that essentially contain:
• lots of information that is linked in various ways
• flexible user-driven navigation
• some tools (but not too many)
We think, that it is important to be able to distinguish various forms of interactive multimedia or educational
technologies in general. Because each format is not "innocent" and does have its constraints regarding educational
use.

Instructionalist designs
In main-stream instructional design, hypertext is usually a component to build learning activities that include strong
sequencing constraints (at least at module level) and MCQ's. Some very general design guidelines for more open
hypertexts usually include:
• clear structure
• navigational transparency
• consistency
See e-learning, mastery learning, etc.

Constructivist designs
Hypertext requires the reader to be an active participant in the evolution of the learning path and therefore are of
interest to various constructivist designs.
• Cognitive flexibility theory that focuses on the nature of learning in complex and ill-structured domains and
builds on top of cognitivist thinking shows interest for hypertext technology.
• Exploratory learning designs
Hypertext 145

• Some microworlds, like BioLogica or WISE all include hypermedia. This technology is also known as Hypermodel
and refers to a type of learning technology that blends aspects of models, simulations, and hypermedia

Constructionist designs
• Students write hypertext (e.g. Lohr et. al, 1995).
• See writing-to-learn

Dumb designs
• Why do we add Hypertext to the Category:Instructional design models ? Because there are people who believe
that one can learn by surfing through hypertext. It's the constructivist "spray and pray" equivalent to the "page
turning" design idea popular with some LMS users ....
• Or in other words, hypertext in good educational designs is usually used not as a pedagogical model, but as a
technology that supports designed learning activities, sometimes as a stand-alone tools, sometimes (as in
modern microworlds) in conjunction with other tools.

Language theoretical models

Tom Boyle (2002) argues that a central concept for educational multimedia design is context, “a construction that
makes selective, holistic sense of the environment of interaction. This construct then guides adaptive action in that
environment, e.g. what type of learning actions to undertake. The central challenge for educational multimedia
designers is to create contexts that promote effective learning.” He then identifies two major challenges arise in the
design of contexts:
1. the structuring of contexts in relationship to each other;
2. the creation of the internal structure of the context.
He calls the structuring of context montage, that in education usually implies the the framing of content along with
associated interactivity. A good examples are certain kinds of Microworlds, e.g. the DOVE system which implements
a kind of virtual field trip in Biology.
Regarding the formal internal structure of context, Boyle (2002) then refers to the concept developed in systemic
linguistics and that argues “that language has evolved to provide communication in context, and the deep structure
of language reflects this fundamental influence. It argues that there are three abstract macro-functions that
underpin the production of all linguistic communication”
According to Boyle (2002), these macro-functions concern:
• the construction of the content of the message - the coherent linking of agents, actions states and objects to
convey a message (called the ideational function);
• the management of the interpersonal roles and relationships in the communication - whether the message is
embedded the form of a statement, question, order etc. (called the interpersonal function);
• the integration of all the other elements to create of a coherent overall communicative 'text', e.g. a coherent
description stretching over several sentences (called the textual function).
Boyle (1997) argues that the creation of multimedia contexts involves the action of three corresponding macro-
functions. In the construction of educational multimedia these involve:
• the content structuring macro-function: the selection and structuring of the learning content in the multimedia
context;
• the interactivity macro-function: designing for user interaction with this content;
• the compositional macro-function: the creation of a coherent overall composition, both within and across
contexts.
These macro functions strongly relate was is called sequencing and that concerns both structuring of contents and
structuring of learner interactions.
Hypertext 146

History
This is a very incomplete time-line:
1. 1945: V. Bush, As We May Think
2. 1965: Ted Nelson invents the word "Hypertext"
[13]
3. 1968: Engelbart demoes "HyperMedia" over the network
[14]
4. 1981: Start of Ted Nelson's Xanadu project which never managed to take off, however there finally was an
available implementation in 1999 (?)
5. 1985 Intermedia was the best known hypertext project to emerge from Brown University, after HES (1967) and
FRESS (1969). It was started by Norman Meyrowitz and became popular in literature criticism and education
through the work of George Landow.
6. 1987 HyperCard, a hypermedia authoring system (but with limited text linking).
[15]
7. 1992 First commercial hypertext system by Eastgate (still sold as Storyspace ). This system was based on
Intermedia.
8. 1989: Tim Berners-Lee builds the first prototype of the WWW and invents HTML, formally as a SGML
application.
9. 1991: Gopher (Menu-based navigation through files and services on the Internet)
10. 1992-1993: The WWW starts spreading
[16]
11. 1992 / 1997 Hytime is a complex SGML application. Hytime is an ISO standard that has rarely been used,
but it had a big influence on the definition of more recent Web Standards like XLink.
12. Early 90' (?) Adaptive hypertexts
13. 1995 Ward Cunningham invented the first Wiki. Wikis are probably the only popular CMSs that are compatible
with the Hypertext concept.
(To do: add more recent developments + exotic hypertexts)

Links

Hypertext examples on the Internet

There are not many good hypertext examples on the Internet. Some exceptions are:
Encyclopedias
[17]
• The Wikipedia
Subject-related websites
[11]
Victorian Web

Concept mapped hypertexts

[18]
• Beat's Biblionetz
(Simple) hypertext books
[10]
• The Theory into Practise DataBase (TIP)
Some social software
• E.g. citation indexes
Some interactive visualizations or 3D models
• E.g. human bodies
PS: For hypermedia, see Learning objects repositories
Hypertext 147

Standards
• Internet resource locators (URLs, URNs)
• HTML / XHTML and associated linking mechanisms (e.g. the "A" tag and the "href" attribute)
• XML Linking standards like XLink [19] and associated mechanisms to point to documents and parts of documents
[20] [21]
(XPointer and XPath )
• Topic Maps, a ISO standard to define maps for information spaces
• Some languages based on RDF, e.g. ontology languages like OWL or social software standards like FOAF.
• HyTime
• Text Encoding Initiative Guidelines

Software and technology

• Some gaming engines
• Wikis
• Web-based solutions (also need a Wikipedia:HTTP Server):
• Wikipedia:HTML clients
• Wikipedia:XML clients that support Wikipedia:XLink
• Wikipedia:SVG clients
• Storyspace [22] (quote: "is widely considered the tool of choice for hypertext writers."
• Interactive fiction engines and MUDs/MOOs
• Multimedia authoring system, such as ToolBook and Authorware or earlier systems like HyperCard
• Some concept maps, e.g. the ones that are used to visualize information spaces in search engines like Kartoo,
wikis, etc.
• Various other diagram software (see visualization).
Other
[23]
• George Paul Landow Professor of English and the History of Art, Brown University (according to DSchneider,
the pioneer for hypertext in higher education).
[5]
• Hypermedia for Educators , retrieved 18:47, 6 November 2006 (MET). A seminar given by Dian McGrath at
college of education, Kansas State University. This page has good links.

• Exemplary Hypertext applications [6] (author ??)

[24]
• ACM Computing Surveys Hypertext and Hypermedia Symposium. A huge index by names and keywords.

References
• Alessi, Stephen. M. & Trollop, Stanley. R., (2001) Multimedia for Learning (3rd Edition), Pearson Allyn & Bacon,
ISBN 0-205-27691-1.
• Boyle Tom (2002). Towards a Theoretical Base for Educational Multimedia Design. Journal of Interactive
[25]
Multimedia in Education, 2002, (2). ISSN:1365-893X HTML [www-jime.open.ac.uk/2002/2]
• Burbules N.C. (1998). "Rhetorics of the Web: Hyperreading and Critical Literacy," In: I. Snyder (editor). Page to
[26]
Screen: Taking Literacy into the Electronic Era. London: Routledge. HTML reprint. Michael Roy made a short
[27]
excerpt of this piece
[28] [29]
• Bush,V. As We May Think HTML , and HTML originally published in Atlantic Monthly, July 1995.
Hypertext 148

• Cicconi, Sergio (1999). ""Hypertextuality"". Mediapolis. Ed. Sam Inkinen. Berlino & New York: De Gruyter.: 21-43.
[30]
HTML
• Charbonneau, Johanne (1999), Typologie des liens hypertextuels dans les journaux électroniques,
Documentation et bibliothèques, 45 (1).
• Chen, P. & McGrath, D. (2003). Knowledge construction and knowledge representation in high school
students'design of hypermedia documentss. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia.
• Conklin, J. Hypertext: An Introduction and Survey, IEEE Computer, vol. 1(9), pp. 17-40, September 1987.
• Cunningham, Patricia, S. Teacher Knowledge, Cognitive Flexibility and Hypertext: Case-Based Learning and
Teacher Education, (on-line) Proceedings of the Second International Technological Directions in Music
Learning Conference, http:/ / music. utsa. edu/ tdml/ conf-II/ II-Cunningham. htmlM. Jacobson, C. Maouri, P.
Mishra, C. Kolar, Learning with Hypertext Learning Environments: Theory, Design and Research, in Journal of
Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 4, 1995, pp. 321-364.
• Dillon, Andrew and Ralph Gabbard, Hypermedia as an Educational Technology: A Review of the Quantitative
Research Literature on Learner Comprehension, Control, and Style, Review of Educational Research, Vol. 68, No.
3. (Autumn, 1998), pp. 322-349. Abstract/HTML/PDF [31]

• Eyman, Douglas Andrew. "Hypertext And/As Collaboration in the Computer-Facilitated Writing Classroom."
[32]
Kairos: A Journal for Teachers of Writing in Webbed Environments 2 no. 2 (Fall 1997). HTML
• Hammond N. (1993) Learning with Hypertext: Problems, Principles and Prospects. In McKnight C., Dillon A. and
Richardson J. (Eds) (1993) Hypertext: A Psychological Perspective. Ellis Horwood.
• Harrison, Claire (2002). Hypertext Links: Whither Thou Goest, and Why, First Monday, volume 7, number 10
[33]
(October 2002), HTML
• M. Jacobson, R. Spiro, Hypertext learning environments, cognitive flexibility, and the transfer of complex
knowledge: an empirical investigation, in Journal of Educational Computing Research, vol. 12, 1995, pp. 301-333.
• Jonassen, D. H. (1989). Hypertext/Hypermedia. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
• D. Jonassen, S. Wang, Acquiring structural knowledge from semantically structured hypertext, in Journal of
Computer-Based-Instruction, 20, 1993, pp. 1-8.
• E. Shin, D. Schallert, W. Savenye, Effects of learner control, advisment, and prior knowledge on young students
learning in a hypertext environment, in Educational Technology Research and Development, vol. 42, 1994, pp.
33-46.
[34]
• Kahney, L. (1999, August 25). Programmer reaches his Xanadu, Wired HTML
• Hodges and Sasnett (1989).
• Hodges and Sasnett (1993). Multimedia Computing: Case Studies from MIT Project Athena. Addison-Wesley.
• Landow, G.P. (1992). Hypertext: The convergence of contemporary critical theory and technology. Baltimore and
London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
• Lohr,Linda, Ross,Steven, Morrison,Gary, (1995), Using a hypertext environment for teaching process writing: An
evaluation study of three student groups, Educational Technology Research and Development, 43, 2, 6/18/1995,
[35]
Pages 33-51, DOI 10.1007/BF02300471 (Access restricted)
• Romiszowski, A. J., & Cheng, E. (1992). “Hypertext’s contribution to computer-mediated communication: in
search of an instructional model.” In M. Giardina (Ed.), Interactive multimedia learning environments. Springer,
Berlin.
• Spiro, R.J., Coulson, R.L., Feltovich, P.J., & Anderson, D. (1988). Cognitive flexibility theory: Advanced knowledge
acquisition in ill-structured domains. In V. Patel (ed.), Proceedings of the 10th Annual Conference of the
Cognitive Science Society. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. [36]
Hypertext 149

• M. Wenger, D. Payne, Comprehension and retention of nonlinear text: considerations of working memory and
material-appropriate processing, in American Journal of Psychology, 109, 1996, pp. 93-130.

Links
[37]
• Hypertext 2.0: An Interview With George Landow

• Martin Ryder's collection of hypertext links [38]

[39]
• ACM Hypertext 2006 conference
[40]
• Vision and Reality of Hypertext and Graphical User Interfaces (Master thesis by Matthias Müller-Prove), as
hypertext.
Inquiry-based learning 150

Inquiry-based learning

Definition
Inquiry-based learning (IBL) is a project-oriented pedagogic strategy based on constructivist and socio-constructivist
theories of learning (Eick & Reed, 2002).
“Inquiry learning is not about memorizing facts - it is about formulation questions and finding appropriate
resolutions to questions and issues. Inquiry can be a complex undertaking and it therefore requires dedicated
instructional design and support to facilitate that students experience the excitement of solving a task or problem
on their own. Carefully designed inquiry learning environments can assist students in the process of transforming
[1]
information and data into useful knowledge” (Computer Supported Inquiry Learning , retrieved 18:31, 28 June
2007 (MEST).
Inquiry-based learning is often described as a cycle or a spiral, which implies formulation of a question,
investigation, creation of a solution or an appropriate response, discussion and reflexion in connexion with results
(Bishop et al., 2004). IBL is a student-centered and student-lead process. The purpose is to engage the student in
active learning, ideally based on their own questions. Learning activities are organized in a cyclic way,
independently of the subject. Each question leads to the creation of new ideas and other questions.
This learning process by exploration of the natural or the constructed/social world leads the learner to questions
and discoveries in the seeking of new understandings. With this pedagogic strategy, children learn science by doing
it (Aubé & David,2003). The main goal is conceptual change.
IBL is a socio-constructivist design because of collaborative work within which the student finds resources, uses
tools and resources produced by inquiry partners. Thus, the student make progress by work-sharing, talking and
building on everyone's work.

Models
There are many models described in the literature. We shall present as an example the cyclic inquiry model
[2] [3]
presented on the inquiry page sponsored by "Chip" Bruce et. al of the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign (UIUC).

Cyclic Inquiry model

The purpose of the UIUC inquiry model is the creation of new ideas and concepts, and their spreading in the
classroom.
The Inquiry cycle is a process which engages students to ask and answer questions on the basis of collected
information and which should lead to the creation of new ideas and concepts. The activity often finishes by the
creation of a document which tries to answer the initial questions.
The cycle of inquiry has 5 global steps: Ask, Investigate, Create, Discuss and Reflect. We will give an example for
each step using the "rainbow" example from Villavicencio (2000) who works on light and colors every year with 4 or
5 years old children.
Inquiry-based learning 151

[4]
from: [ The Inquiry Page ]
During the preparation of the activity, teachers have to think about how many cycles to do, how to end the activity
(at the Ask step): when/how to rephrase questions or answer them and express followup questions.

Ask
Ask begins with student's curiosity about the world, ideally with their own questions. The teacher can stimulate the
curiosity of the student by giving an introduction talk related to concepts that have to be acquired. It's important
that student formulate their own questions because they then can explicitly express concepts related to the
learning subject.
This step focuses on a problem or a question that students begin to define. These questions are redefined again and
again during the cycle. Step's borders are blurred: a step is never completely left when the student begins the next
one.
Rainbow Scenario : The teacher gives some mirrors to the children, so they can play with the sunlight which are
passing trough the classroom's windows. With these manipulations, students can then formulate some questions
about light and colors.

Investigate
Ask naturally leads to Investigate which should exploit initial curiosity and lead to seek and create information.
Students or groups of students collect information, study, collect and exploit resources, experiment, look, interview,
draw,... They already can redefine "the question", make it clearer or take another direction. Investigate is a self-
motivating process totally owned by the active student.
Rainbow Scenario : Once questions have been asked, the teacher gives to the children some prisms which allow to
bend the light and a Round Light Source (RLS), a big cylindrical lamp with four colored windows through a light ray
can pass. Then the children can mix the colors and see the result of their mixed ray light on a screen. They begin to
collect information...

Create
Collected information begins to merge. Student start making links. Here, ability to synthesize meaning is the spark
which creates new knowledge. Student may generate new thoughts, ideas and theories that are not directly
inspired by their own experience. They write them down in some kind of report.
Rainbow Scenario : Some links are created from collected information and children understand that rainbows have
to be created by this kind of phenomenon.

Discuss
At this point, students share their ideas with each other, and ask others about their own experiences and
investigations. Such knowledge-sharing is a community process of construction and they begin to understand the
Inquiry-based learning 152

meaning of their investigation. Comparing notes, discussing conclusions and sharing experiences are some
examples of this active process.
Rainbow Scenario : children often and spontaneously sit around the RLS. They discuss and share their newly
acquired knowledge with the purpose to understand the mix of colors. Then, they are invited to share their findings
with the rest of the class, while the teacher takes notes on the blackboard.

Reflect
This step consists in taking time to look back. Think again about the initial question, the path taken, and the actual
conclusions. Student look back and maybe take some new decisions: "Has a solution been found ?", "did new
questions appear?", "What could they ask now ?",...
Rainbow Scenario : teacher and students take time to look back at the concepts encountered during the earlier
steps of the activity. They try to synthesize and to engage further planning on the basis of their recently acquired
concepts.

Continuation
Once the first cycle is over, students are back the Ask step and they can choose between two options:
1. Ask: a new cycle starts, fed by the new questions or reformulations of earlier ones. The teacher can create
groups to stimulate discussions and interest.
2. Answer: the activity is ending. The teacher has to finish it by broadening: The initial questions with their
responses, the reformulated ones, new ones that appeared during the activity. Making a synthesis is always a
better solution, even if this step is not the purpose of an entire cycle.
Rainbow Scenario : the teacher sets students free to repeat their experiments or to try different things. Some
students try to replicate what their friends have done, others do the same things with or without variants. A new
cycle begins.
The advantage of this model is that it can be applied with lots of student types and lots of matters. Moreover, the
teacher can design the scenario by focusing on a part of the cycle or another. He can use one, few or more cycle.
Most often, a single cycle (formal or not) is not enough and because of that, this model is often drawn in a spiral
shape.

Other models
The model we presented above represents probably the dominant view of inquiry learning. It combines more
radical open-ended socio-constructivist principles (Discovery learning) with a model of guidance. As opposed to
Learning by design, most inquiry-based models do advocate opportunistic (i.e. adaptive) planning by the teacher.
Other models include
• knowledge-building community model (a much more open ended version, geared toward "design mode")
• Scaffolded knowledge integration
• Learning by design
• Computer simulation (The "Dutch school")

Examples cases
[5]
• Le Monde De Darwin (Le monde de Darwin ) : Internet educational environment mostly for 8 to 14 years old
students. The pedagogy is socio-constructivist, with treatment and organization of the information with
collaborative work
[6]
• Cyber 4OS Wiki de l'IBL en cours Lombard, F. (2007). Empowering next generation learners : Wiki supported
[7]
Inquiry Based Learning ? (Paper ) presented at the European practise based and practitioner conference on
learning and instruction Maastricht 14-16 November 2007.
Inquiry-based learning 153

[8]
• P. S. Blackawton et al. [Blackawton bees , December 22, 2010, doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2010.1056.

• See also: 8-Year-Olds Publish Scientific Bee Study [9].

Tools and software

• BGuILE
• WISE
• Microworlds
• Any sort of tool that allows for collaborative writing, e.g. groupware, portals, wikis.
There are also microworlds and computer simulation environments that support inquire learning. A good example
[10] [11]
is represented by the CoReflect /Stochasmos project and tools.

See Also
constructivism, socio-constructivism, Case-based learning, discovery learning, WebQuest, Le Monde De Darwin,
Project-based science model, ...

Links
[2]
• inquiry page
• Computer Supported Inquiry Learning [1] Kaleidoscope and EARLI Special Interest Group (SIG)

Bibliography
• Ackermann, E.K. (2004). Constructing Knowledge and Transforming The World. In Tokoro, M. & Steels, L. (2004).
A Learning Zone Of One's Own. pp17-35. IOS Press
• Aubé, M. & David, R. (2003). Le programme d’adoption du monde de Darwin : une exploitation concrète des TIC
selon une approche socio-constructiviste. In Taurisson, A. & Senteni, A.(2003). Pédagogie.net : L’essor des
communautés d’apprentissage. pp 49-72.
• Barab, S.A., Hay, K.E., Barnett, M., & Keating, T. (2000). Virtual Solar System Project: Building understanding
through model building. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37, 719–756. Abstract [12]
• Bishop, A.P.,Bertram, B.C.,Lunsford, K.J. & al. (2004). Supporting Community Inquiry with Digital Resources.
Journal Of Digital Information, 5 (3).
• Chakroun, M. (2003). Conception et mise en place d'un module pédagogique pour portails communautaires
Postnuke. Insat, Tunis. Mémoire de licence non publié.
• De Jong, T. & Van Joolingen, W.R. (1997). Scientific Discovery Learning with Computer Simulations of Conceptual
Domains. University of Twente, The Netherland
• de Jong, Ton (2006) Computer Simulations: Technological Advances in Inquiry Learning, Science 28 April 2006
312: 532-533 DOI: 10.1126/science.1127750 [12]
• De Jong, T. (2006b). Scaffolds for computer simulation based scientific discovery learning. In J. Elen & R. E. Clark
(Eds.), Dealing with complexity in learning environments (pp. 107-128). London: Elsevier Science Publishers.
• Dewey, J. (1938) Logic: The Theory of Inquiry, New York: Holt.
• Duckworth, E. (1986). Inventing Density. Monography by the North Dakota Study Group on Evaluation, Grand
Forks, ND, 1986.
Internet : www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/classroom/inventingdensity.html
Inquiry-based learning 154

• Drie, J. van, Boxtel, C. van, & Kanselaar, G. (2003). Supporting historical reasoning in CSCL. In: B. Wasson, S.
Ludvigsen, & U. Hoppe (Eds.). Designing for Change in Networked Learning Environments. Dordrecht: Kluwer
Academic Press, pp. 93-103. ISBN 1-4020-1383-3.
• Eick, C.J. & Reed, C.J. (2002). What Makes an Inquiry Oriented Science Teacher? The Influence of Learning
Histories on Student Teacher Role Identity and Practice. Science Teacher Education, 86, pp 401-416.
• Gurtner, J-L. (1996). L'apport de Piaget aux études pédagogiques et didactiques. Actes du colloque international
Jean Piaget, avril 1996, sous la direction de Ahmed Chabchoub. Publications de l'institut Supérieur de l'Education
et de la Formation Continue.
• Hakkarainen, K and Matti Sintonen (2002). The Interrogative Model of Inquiry and Computer- Supported
Collaborative Learning, Science and Education, 11 (1), 25-43. (NOTE: we should cite from this one !)
• Hakkarainen, K, (2003). Emergence of Progressive-Inquiry Culture in Computer-Supported Collaborative
Learning, Science and Education, 6 (2), 199-220.
• Joolingen van, Dr. W.R. and King, S. and Jong de, Prof. dr. T. (1997) The SimQuest authoring system for
simulation-based discovery learning. In: B. du Boulay & R. Mizoguchi (Eds.), Artificial intelligence and education:
Knowledge and media in learning systems. IOS Press, Amsterdam, pp. 79-86. PDF [16]
• Kasl, E & Yorks, L. (2002). Collaborative Inquiry for Adult Learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing
Education, 94, summer 2002.
• Keys, C.W. & Bryan, L.A. (2001). Co-Constructing Inquiry-Based Science with Teachers :
Essential Research for Lasting Reform. Journal Of Research in Science Teaching, 38 (6), pp 631-645.
• Lattion, S.(2005). Développement et implémentation d'un module d'apprentissage par investigation (inquiry-
based learning) au sein d'une plateforme de type PostNuke. Genève, Suisse. Mémoire de diplôme non-publié.
[13]
PDF
• Linn, Marcia C. Elizabeth A. Davis & Philip Bell (2004). (Eds.), Internet Environments for Science Education:
how information technologies can support the learning of science, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, ISBN 0-8058-
4303-5
• Mayer, R. E. (2004), Should there be a three strikes rule against pure discovery? The case for guided methods of
instruction. Am. Psych. 59 (14).
• McKenzie, J. (1999). Scaffolding for Success. From Now On, ,The Educationnal Technology Journal, 9(4).
• National Science Foundation, in Foundations: Inquiry: Thoughts, Views, and Strategies for the K-5 Classroom
[14]
(NSF, Arlington, VA, 2000), vol. 2, pp. 1-5 HTML .
• Nespor, J.(1987). The role of beliefs in the practice of teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 19, pp 317-328.
• Polman, Joseph (2000), Designing Project-based science, Teachers College Press, New York.
• Vermont Elementary Science Project. (1995). Inquiry Based Science: What Does It Look Like? Connect Magazine,
March-April 1995, p. 13. published by Synergy Learning.
Internet: http:/ /www.exploratorium. edu/ IFI/resources/classroom/inquiry_based.html
• Villavicencio, J. (2000). Inquiry in Kindergarten. Connect Magazine, 13 (4), March/April 2000. Synergy Learning
Publication.
• Vosniadou, S., Ioannides, C., Dimitrakopoulou, A. & Papademetriou, E. (2001). Designing learning environments
to promote conceptual change in science. Learning and Instruction ,11, pp 381-419.
• * Waight Noemi, Fouad Abd-El-Khalick, From scientific practice to high school science classrooms: Transfer of
scientific technologies and realizations of authentic inquiry, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 2011, 48, 1.
DOI:10.1002/tea.20393 [14]

• Watson, B. & Kopnicek, R. (1990). Teaching for Conceptual Change : confronting Children Experience. Phi Delta
Kappan, May 1990, pp 680-684.
Inquiry-based learning 155

Instructional design model

Draf

Definitions
• “ Design is more than a process; that process, and resulting product, represent a framework of thinking” (Driscoll
& Carliner, 2005:9)
• Usually, an instructional design model tells how to organize appropriate pedagogical scenarios to achieve
instructional goals. In more abstract terms an instructional design model is a kind of abstract design rule for a
given instructional design approach or a given pedagogic strategy.
• “ Instructional Models are guidelines or sets of strategies on which the approaches to teaching by instructors are
based. Effective instructional models are based on learning theories. Learning Theories describe the ways that
theorists believe people learn new ideas and concepts. Often, they explain the relationship between information
we already know and the new information we are trying to learn.” Learning technology Service, NC State
[1]
University - 18:11, 18 May 2006 (MEST)] This is just a short overview article, see also:
• learning theory for background information,
• instructional design for a definition of the field,
• pedagogic strategy for a different view on almost the same subject
• pedagogical scenario for more concrete teaching models
• instructional design method for design methods, these are also called instructional design models !
• educational technology for introduction to the field of educational technology (not technologies).

Types of design models

This section needs yet to be written
There are probably 2 broad categories:
1. Instructional Systems Design (ISD) Models that are what DSchneider calls instructional design methods, i.e. “
systematic guidelines instructional designers follow in order to create a workshop, a course, a curriculum, an
instructional program, or a training session” (McGriff, 2001). A typical example would be ADDIE.
2. More general guidelines for designing and developing instruction at various levels of granularity. I.e. such models
state what should happen during instruction, e.g. what kinds of activities learners and teachers are involved in.
Typical examples are Gagne's behaviorist/cognitivist nine events of instruction or the socio-constructivist model
for problem-based learning.
This quotation from Elean Qureshi's webpage (2004) shows again this ambiguity between the pursuit of
instructional
(or even educational) strategy and design methodology: “ Models for instructional design provide procedural
Instructional design model 156

frameworks for the systematic production of instruction. They incorporate fundamental elements of the
instructional design process including analysis of the intended audience or determining goals and objectives
(Braxton et al., 1995). An instructional design model gives structure and meaning to an ID problem, enabling the
would-be designers to negotiate their design task with a semblance of conscious understanding. Models help to
visualize the problem, to break it down into discrete, manageable units. A model should be judged by how it
mediates the designer's intention, how well it can share a work load, and how effectively it shifts focus away from
itself toward the object of the design activity (Ryder, 2001). Instructional models prescribe how combinations of
instructional strategy components should be integrated to produce a course of instruction (Braxton et al, 1995).”
You can find some models by looking at the instructional design models category

Typology of different sorts of models

DSchneider belives that the term instructional design model is overloaded with various meanings. He suggests that
we can find at least six kinds (at least for now): 1. Models that describe a pedagogic strategy in detail
• Examples: Nine events of instruction (behaviorist/cognitivist), inquiry-based learning (constructivist)
2. Models that relate to the quality of a design.
• Example: Merrill's First principles of instruction
3. Models that provide a method to create a design: See instructional design method
• Example: Instructional systems design models like ADDIE
• There exist submodels for things like defining goals, analysing a domain of knowledge, evaluation, etc.
4. Complementary models that will enhance a design
• Examples: FEASP (emotion), Self-regulated strategy development model (strategy development), POME (self-
regulation) ,Felder design model (learning styles)
5. Change management related models that specifically address the issue of introducing new pedagogics and
associated instructional design models
• Example activity theory-based expanded learning
6. Models that describe the functions of a learning environment
• The Sandberg learning environment functions
These types can be complementary in certains ways, but not in every way. I.e. a typical instructional systems design
method is probably not appropriate for the design of a open-ended project-based learning design.

Typology of pedagogic strategy models

These models define a pedagogic strategy as a design, i.e. something that you can take and adapt to produce an
interessting pedagogical scenario.
This typology is based on learning types and formal vs. non-formal education.
For the moment, table entries are not very complete, also consult the list of instructional design models.
Learning Type Formal situation Open / informal situation

Learning I-a (information) Lecturing, teleteaching, "page turners", drill and practise, .... On-demand tutorials, handbooks, ....
Instructional design model 157

Learning II-b (concepts) Writing-to-learn, Exploratory concept learning Literature review

Learning II-a (small know Exercising, e-instruction, simulations, .... on-demand e-instruction, self-learning with
how) textbooks,
....
Learning II-b (big know Problem-based learning, Inquiry-based learning, Simulation help desk model, on-demand tutoring, knowledge
how) and gaming,... management,...

Learning III (knowing in Project-based learning, formal learning e-portfolios, .... Communities of practice, Mentoring, ....
action)

List of instructional design models

• see entries of the category " instructional design models"

Bare-bones
Instructional design models and instructional design methods can be very complex. However, there are some
common questions an educator or a course designer should ask:
1. What do the learners have to learn ? This does not just include definition of the subject matter but also the
learning type (in particular the learning level) and a sort of description of what the learner should be able to do
with his new knowledge.
2. Who are the learners ? This includes assessment of their entry skills and maybe learning styles.
3. What is the setting ? How many learners ? How much resources can you spend ? Who is teaching ? Is the design
"industrial" (i.e. a canned product) or can it be dynamically changed ?
4. Given these constraints, what are the appropriate strategies and instructional design models. Do we need a
formal instructional design method ?
5. How should we evaluate the learning ? Are their institutional rules ?
Brent Wilson (1997) asks: “ Is 'content' defined as "What is," "What is presented to the student," or What is
expected to be learned?"”. Most likely, we have to answer at least all these three questions. Once we answered
these questions, we have to figure out how to design teaching and learning activities.
A bare-bone's instructional model is outlined in Alessi and Trollop (2001:7-10) and called process of instruction. It
has four components that usually, but not necessarily, are implemented in this order:
• Presentation of information to learners (e.g. with tutorials or hypermedia)
• Guidance of leaners' first interaction with the material
• Learners practicing the material to enhance fluency and retention (drills, simulations, construction tools, etc.)
• Assessment of learners to determine how well they have learned the material and what they should do next.

Links
needs to be completed
[2]
• The best meta resource regarding serious theory on the Internet is Martin Ryder's Instructional Design Models
• Applying Learning Theories to Online Instructional Design [3]
Instructional design model 158

[4]
• Instructional Design & Learning Theory
• Depover Christian, Bruno De Lièvre, Jean-Jacques Quintin, Filippo Porco et Cédric Floquet. Les modèles
d'enseignement et d'apprentissage [5]
[2]
• Carl Berger's 1996 Education 626: Educational Software Design and Authoring course, University of Michigan.

References
• Alessi, Stephen. M. & Trollop, Stanley. R., (2001) Multimedia for Learning (3rd Edition), Pearson Allyn & Bacon,
ISBN 0-205-27691-1. (This is probably the best overall introductory textbook for all sorts of interactive
multimedia. It includes a lot of learning theory and instructional design theory.)
• Braxton, S., Bronico, K., & Looms, T. (1995). Instructional design methodologies and techniques. (Dead web page
cited by Qureshi)
• Driscoll, M., Carliner, S. (2005) Advanced Web-Based Training : Adapting Real World Strategies in Your Online
Learning, Pfeiffer. ISBN 0787969796
• Gustafson, K., & Branch, R. M. (1997). Instructional design models. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on
Information and Technology.
• Kemp, J.E., Morrison, G.R., & Ross, S.M. (1996). Designing Effective Instruction, 2nd Edition. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
[6]
• McGriff, Steven (2001), Instructional Systems Design Models, Pennsylvania State University, Web Page
accessed on 18:11, 18 May 2006 (MEST).
[7]
• Qureshi, Elena (2004), Instructional Design, University of Windsor, Web Page accessed on 18:31, 18 May 2006
(MEST).
• Orey, Michael (ed.) (2001-present). Emerging Perspectives on Learning, Teaching and Technology HTML [8].
This is an nice open content e-book reader with many excellent articles, including a section on Instructional
Theories and Models
• Wilson, Brent, G. (1997) Reflections on Constructivism and Instructional Design, Preprint for (C. R. Dills and A.
A. Romiszowski (Eds.), Instructional Development Paradigms Englewood Cliffs NJ: Educational Technology
Publications. HTML [9]
 159
Instructional systems design

Instructional systems design

Draf

Definition
• Instructional Systems Design (ISD) Models that are what DSchneider calls instructional design methods, i.e. “
systematic guidelines instructional designers follow in order to create a workshop, a course, a curriculum, an
instructional program, or a training session” (McGriff, 2001). Typically, ISD models adopt a behaviorist/cognitivist
stance.
• In a narrow view: ISD == ADDIE
• Donald Clark states the reasons of ISD:
Simply stated, this process provides a means for sound decision making to determine the who, what, when, where,
why, and how of training. The concept of a system approach to training is based on obtaining an overall view of the
training process. It is characterized by an orderly process for gathering and analyzing collective and individual
performance requirements, and by the ability to respond to identified training needs. The application of a systems
approach to training insures that training programs and the required support materials are continually developed in
an effective and efficient manner to match the variety of needs in an ever rapidly changing environment.

Examples
• You may explore the category design methodologies and maybe instructional design modes to find other
models.
Typical examples for the ISD approache are:
• ADDIE (seems to be the model).
• Reeves multimedia design model
• Systematic Design of Instruction (Dick & Carey Model)
• SAT (System Approach to Training) seems to by a homonym of ISD.

Links
(Note: There should be more links ...)
[1]
• Instructional Design & Development (Entelechy.com). This is a typical and simple "how-to".

References
[2]
• Donald Clark (2000), Introduction to Instructional System Design, web site . Recommended on-line
introductory handbook.
[6]
• McGriff, Steven (2001), Instructional Systems Design Models, Pennsylvania State University, Web Page
accessed on 18:11, 18 May 2006 (MEST).
• Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., & Kemp, J. E. (2001). Designing effective instruction (4rd ed.). New York: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
 160
Instructional time

Instructional time
Draf

Definition
• “ The fact is that instructional time. has the same scientific status as the concept of homeostasis in biology,
reinforcement in psychology, or gravity in physics. That is, like those more admired concepts, instructional time
allows for understanding, prediction, and control, thus making it a concept worthy of a great deal more attention
than it is usually given in education and in educational research” (Berliner, 1990).

Types of instructional time

"When we speak of instructional time we refer to a family of concepts, some of which have not yet achieved the
status of concepts in other, more mature scientific fields" (Berliner, 1990).

We shortly present Berliner's different dimensions (read the original [2] for details):
1. Allocated time, usually defined as the time that the state, district, school, or teacher provides the student for
instruction.
2. Engaged time, usually defined as the time that students appear to be paying attention to materials or
presentations that have instructional goals.
3. Time-on-task, usually defined as engaged time on particular learning tasks. Engagement in particular kinds of
tasks is what is wanted (not just general engagement).
4. Academic learning time (ALT), usually defined as that part of allocated time in a subject-matter area (physical
education, science, or mathematics, for example) in which a student is engaged successfully in the activities or
with the materials to which he or she is exposed, and in which those activities and materials are related to
educational outcomes that are valued.
5. Transition time, usually defined as the noninstructional time before and after some instructional activity.
6. Perseverance, usually defined as the amount of time a student is willing to spend on learning a task or unit of
instruction.
7. Pace, usually defined as the amount of content covered during some time period.

Time to learn
“ Gettinger (1984) reviews a substantial body of research in which measures of time to learn a particular kind of
subject matter and conventional measures of intelligence, have both been used to predict learning. The time to
learn (TTL) measures are usually as good or better predictors than are the intelligence measures. Moreover, the
variance shared by these two measures is not too large, indicating they are different, though related, measures of
aptitude. For school people, however, aptitude measured as simple TTL would yield much more useful information
than aptitude measured as intelligence. ” (Berlinger, 1990)
Therefore, Berlinger claims that “ The transformation of aptitude from a mysterious and hard-to-modify quality of
the individual into an instructional time variable, and an alterable one at that, is an important contribution to our
thinking about students and about schools. The increased understanding of instructional processes through this
insight may itself be worth all the contemporary fuss about the importance of instructional time for our thinking
about schooling.”.
 161
See also the Carroll model of school learning that was very influential for framing the "instructional time" questions
and the mastery learning instructional design model.
Instructional time

The ALT model

Academic learning time (ALT), is defined by Berliner (1990) as that part of allocated time in a subject-matter area
(physical education, science, or mathematics, for example) in which a student is engaged successfully in the
activities or with the materials to which he or she is exposed, and in which those activities and materials are related
to educational outcomes that are valued (Berliner, 1987; Fisher et al., 1980).
This is a complex concept that includes or related to others:
1. allocated time (the upper limit of ALT)
2. time-on-task (engagement in tasks that are related to outcome measures, or, stated differently, time spent in
curriculum that is aligned with the evaluation instruments that are in use);
3. success rate (the percent of engaged time that a student is experiencing a high, rather than low, success
experience in class)
4. degree of alignment of the curriculum with the outcome measure.
Compared to the Carroll model, ALT attempts to provide a time metric for all variables and therefore makes it more
suitable for empirical investigation.

References
• Berliner, D. C. (1987). Simple views of effective teaching and a simple theory of classroom instruction. In D. C.
Berliner & B. Rosenshine (Eds.), Talks to teachers (pp. 93-110). New York: Random House.
• Berliner, David C. (1990), What's All the Fuss About Instructional Time?, preprint, Arizona State University
[2]
HTML , retrieved 17:59, 23 May 2006 (MEST). From The Nature of Time in Schools Theoretical Concepts,
Practitioner Perceptions (1990 ) New York and London: Teachers College Press; Teachers College, Columbia
University.
• Fisher, C. W., Berliner, D. C., Fully, N. N., Marliave, R. S., Cahen, L. S., & Dishaw, M. M. (1980). Teaching behaviors,
academic learning time and student achievement: An overview. In C. Denham & A. Lieberman (Eds.), Time to
learn (pp. 7-32). Washington, DC: National Institute. of Education.
Instructional transaction theory

Instructional transaction theory

Draf

Definition
• Merril's Instructional transaction theory aims to develop instructional algorithms.

The model
The instructional transaction
 162
Merrill et al. propose an activity-based model of instruction that is based on two important concepts: The
instructional transaction and a delivery tool, the transaction shell. See also the more recent IMS Learning Design
educational modeling language.
“ Instructional transactions are instructional algorithms, patterns of learner interactions, usually far more complex
than a single display and a single response, which have been designed to enable the learner to acquire a certain
kind of knowledge or skill. Different kinds of knowledge and skill would require different kinds of transactions. The
necessary set of these instructional transactions are designed and programmed once, like other computer
applications such as spread sheets. They can then be used with different content topics as long as these topics are
of a similar kind of knowledge or skill. ” (Merrill, Li and Jones, 1991).
“ An instructional transaction is a mutual, dynamic, real-time give-and-take between an instructional system and a
student in which there is an exchange of information. It is the complete sequence of presentations and reactions
necessary for the student to acquire a specific type of instructional goal. It requires active mental effort by the
student. Its effectiveness is determined by the match between the nature of the student's interaction and resulting
mental processing with the type of task and subject matter content to be learned.” (Merrill, Li and Jones, 1991).
“ A transaction shell is the structure of a transaction identifying the interactions, parameters, and knowledge
representation needed for a given class or family of transactions. When a transaction shell is instantiated with a
particular subject matter and with particular values for its parameters, it is called a transaction instance. Both a
transaction shell and a transaction instance are pieces of computer code that, when delivered to a student via an
appropriate delivery system, cause a transaction or set of transactions to occur.” (Merrill, Li and Jones, 1991).

References
• Merrill, M.D, Instructional Transaction Theory (ITT) : Instructional Design Based on Knowledge Objects,
Instructional Technology Forum (1997) HTML [1] (part 1) HTML [1] (part 2) HTML [2] (part 3)
• M. David Merrill, Zhongmin Li & Mark K. Jones (1991). Instructional Transaction Theory: An Introduction.
[3]
Educational Technology. 31(6), 7-12. PDF preprint
• M. David Merrill, Zhongmin Li & Mark K. Jones (1992). Instructional Transaction Shells: Responsibilities,
[4]
Methods, and Parameters. Educational Technology, 32(2), 5-27. PDF (preprint)
• M. David Merrill, Mark K. Jones, & Zhongmin Li (1992). Instructional Transaction Theory: Classes of
[5]
Transactions. Educational Technology, 32(6), 12-26. PDF (preprint)
Kemp design model

Kemp design model

Draf

Definition
The Jerold Kemp instructional design method and model defines nine different components of an instructional
design and at the same time adopts a continous implementation/evaluation model.
Kemp adopts a wide view, the oval shape of his model conveys that the design and development process is a
continuous cycle that requires constant planning, design, development and assessment to insure effective
instruction. The model is systemic and nonlinear and seems to encourage designers to work in all areas as
appropriate (Steven McGriff).
 163
The model is particularly useful for developing instructional programs that blend technology, pedagogy and content
to deliver effective, inclusive (reliable) and efficient learning.

The model
[1]
According to Steven McGriff's web page (retrieved 18:37, 19 May 2006 (MEST)), Kemp identies nine key elements
1. Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an instructional program.
2. Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning.
3. Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals and purposes.
4. State instructional objectives for the learner.
5. Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning.
6. Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives.
7. Plan the instructional message and delivery.
8. Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.
9. Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.
[7]
According to Elena Qureshi's web-page on instructional design: “ The Kemp (1994) design model takes a holistic
approach to instructional design. Virtually all factors in the learning environment are taken into consideration
including subject analysis, learner characteristics, learning objectives, teaching activities, resources (computers,
books, etc.), support services and evaluation. The process is iterative and the design is subject to constant revision.
The immediate feel of being iterative and inclusive, and particularly the fact that the central focus is the learner
needs and goals are the strengths of this model. There is also a focus on content analysis, as there would be in any
educational design and a focus on support and service, which is not present in other ID models. Much like the Knirk
and Gustafson design model, Kemp's model is also small scale and can be used for individual lessons.”
Kemp design model
 164
Links
• Elena Qureshi & Larry Morton (2006) http:/ / lts. ncsu. edu/ guides/ instructional_design/ selecting_models2. htm
(Large web page with good comments, good for comparison also), retrieved 17:42, 19 May 2006 (MEST).
• http://www. quasar. ualberta. ca/edit573/modules/ module4. htm
[6]
• Steven McGriff's Instructional Systems Design Models page HTML
• Steven McGriff's Kemp Model Page HTML [1].

References
• Gustafson, K., & Branch, R. M. (1997). Instructional design models. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinhouse on
Information and Technology.
• Kemp, J. (1977) Instructional Design: A plan for unit and course development. Belmont: Fearon-Pitman Pub.
• Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., & Kemp, J. E. (2004). Designing effective instruction (4rd ed.). New York: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
Knirk and Gustafson design model

Knirk and Gustafson design model

Draf

Definition
The Knirk and Gustafons design method and model is prescriptive stage model for instructional designers.

The Model
 165
Knirk and Gustafson (1986) designed three stage process which includes problem determination, design and
development.
1. The problem determination stage includes identification of the problem, definition of the pedagogical goals and
identification of what the learners can do (knowledge, skills, learning styles, affect, etc.)
2. The design stage includes developing objectives and specifying strategies.
3. The development stage includes development of materials, testing and revision.

Links
• http://ed.isu.edu/ isdmodels/ Knirk/Knirk. html
• http://delta. ncsu.edu/teach/instructional_design/
LAMS 166

LAMS
Draf

Definition
Learning Activity Management System (LAMS) is a learning design system for authoring, delivering and monitoring
learning activities, i.e. a learning activity management software supporting pedagogical workflows.
See also:
• The CeLS and DialogPlus Toolkit systems (other LD systems)
• Educational modeling language and IMS Learning Design (general topic)
• LAMS installation and configuration (administrators)

Description
LAMS provides:
• a visual authoring interface to design and create learning sequences from a list of building blocks of individual or
collective activities
• a monitoring tool through which teachers can track students' progress through an activity sequence.
According to a LAMS website, LAMS includes environments for user administration, student run-time delivery of
sequences, teacher run-time monitoring of student sequences and, most importantly, teacher
authoring/adaptation of sequences. LAMS is inspired by, and heavily based on, IMS Learning Design and EML.
Originally, LAMS was not designed to be a reference implementation of either specification - however LAMS is
expected to be IMS Learning Design conformant in the future.
According to Krann (2003), “ The heart of the system is a visual editor that allows educators to choreograph a whole
learning activity around a particular topic. By dragging and dropping acts like synchronous discussion (chat), web
polls, students posting material and structured debates, a series of online lessons can be planned much like a
conventional lesson. The player part of the system then allows a group of students to take part in all these
activities, and presents the right tools at the right time, and divides the group into smaller groups, if that's what the
teacher designed.”

The LAMS 2 environment

Authoring
Basically, an author has to do the following tasks:
1) Assemble a learning sequence with a on-line visual authoring tool.

The LAMS on-line authoring toolkit

LAMS 167

Here is a summary of the authoring steps:

• Drag an activity component from the activities toolkit to the main central panel.
• Connect these with the sequence tools on top (e.g. use the "transition" link").
• Double click on an instance of the tool to edit and configure each tool.
• Preview the sequence.
• Save the sequence.
2) Assign learning sequences to groups (administrator must give him the rights). Otherwise LAMS may be available
through your LMS (e.g. Moodle) and rights will be transparently handled. E.g. A Moodle student of a Moodle course
can use a LAMS activity of this course.

Getting started as an author

Best method is to look at examples.
[1]
• You may download dozens of good scenarios from the public LAMS Sequences repository. Probably it's easier
[4]
to start from the community home page .
• You can through the file menu of the authoring tool simply import these (V2 will also load V2 scenarios).

Members and courses

This part is not obvious if you don't read the documentation.
Learning Areas
• LAMS is organized by "Groups". These are in fact areas where learning/teaching happens. You can consider them
as "courses" for instance.
• Therefore, first thing to do as an administrator is to create groups

MyGroups -> Group Mgmt

Learning Groups
• These are Groups withing LAMS Groups (what I called learning areas)
• Within each "group" the admin must assign roles, at least a teacher who has the right to author and to assign
users to a subgoup.
Note: LAMS 2.1 may be easier, and using it through Moodle is even easier.

Standardization of LDs and services

LAMS and Learning Design

LAMS initially adopted a very similar design rationale, i.e. authoring of scenarios that is based on learning activities.
It particularly support a rich conversational framework à la Laurillard.
Plans are there to become IMS Learning Design compatible (DSchneider didn't look at details yet). LAMS 2.0 exports
to learning design level A. Daniel K. Schneider thinks that this is only true at a very formal level, i.e. the LD export
contains code like this:
LAMS 168

<method>
<play>
<act>
<role-part>
<role-ref ref="Learner" />
<activity-structure-ref ref="A-Sequence" />
</role-part>
</act> ....

<activity-structure xmlns="http://www.imsglobal.org/xsd/imscp_v1p1" structure-type="sequence" identifier="A-sequence">

<title>LAMS Learning design sequence</title> <learning-activity-ref ref="A-lanb11-109" />

.....
<learning-activity xmlns="http://www.imsglobal.org/xsd/imscp_v1p1" identifier="A-lanb11-109">
<title>Noticeboard</title> <environment-ref ref="E-lanb11-
109" />
<complete-activity>
<user-choice />
</complete-activity>
<lams:lams-tool-activity>
<lams:activityID>113</lams:activityID>
<lams:activityUIID>64</lams:activityUIID>
<lams:description>Read noticeboard</lams:description>
<lams:activityTitle>Noticeboard</lams:activityTitle>
<lams:helpURL>http:/ /wiki. lamsfoundation. org/display/ lamsdocs/ lanb11</lams:helpURL> <lams:xCoord>106</lams:xCoord>

This means that the LD interpreter must know about LMS tools which is perfectly legal as far as I can tell (XML itself
and all IMS specifications 'are' extensible. In practice however, this means that a Learning Design made with LAMS
will only run within LAMS. However, this is not a LAMS issue in itself but instead a lack services definitions in the
[2]
IMS Learning Design specification. To over come this limitation LAMS has proposed a Tool Contract .
I don't know if there is some sort of initiative to standardize vocabularies that describe activities with specific kinds
of tools such as the ones that exist in LAMS.

LAMS Tools contracts

[2]
One of the core components of the LAMS V2 architecture is the "Tools Contract". To be written, see this .

Evaluation

Masterman and Lee

Masterman and Lee (2005:4) who ran an evaluation of LAMS 1.x with 34 participants in the UK reported the
following findings:
i) LAMS is capable of supporting a range of pedagogical approaches, in that designers can select those activities
thatmatch their preferred style. However, the lack of support for images and graphics can be a hindrance to the
design of appropriate learning tasks. The adoption of LAMS within an institution would almost certainly entail an
increased workload for teachers, but with time and experience this load could be expected to lessen.
LAMS 169

ii) LAMS appears neither to have compromised learning outcomes in comparison with the existing
learningenvironment nor to have resulted in dramatic improvements in achievement. However, using LAMS to raise
the level of learning outcomes was not a prime consideration for practitioners. Rather, they perceived its benefits
to lie in increasing learners' motivation and in encouraging participation by more reticent students. Feedback
obtained directly or indirectly from learners suggests that some appreciated the independence and freedom to
work at their own pace, while others did not like the linearity of LAMS sequences or wanted more direct feedback
on their progress.
iii) Several participants engaged in some form of reflective activity either while designing a LAMS sequence
orafterwards. However, while they recognised the importance of sharing their practice with others, technical and
cultural barriers need to be overcome.

D. Schneider
• LAMS is the only stable and free e-learning tool that combines pedagogical sequencing with online activities.
• Authoring of sequences is really easy compared to other tools. So far (Nov 2009/2010), LAMS is the only tool
that implements the learning design spirit in a teacher-usable way.
• The documentation is good.
I tested LAMS with a social science methodology sequence and the experience has been rather positive. This
includes student's appreciation. In another class, the same students then had to design small sequences and that
rather went well.
However, LAMS is not very suitable for project-oriented learning designs. I wonder wether one could envision two
LAMS interfaces in the future:
1. LAMS sequencing (the current one)
2. LAMS project (an interface where activities happen around some central tools)
At some point and for some future version of LAMS (e.g. 2.5) we also might discuss the following idea.
As it is, LAMS is a learning design system and based on aplay-act metaphor that you also have in IMS/LD. In
addition, in LAMS there is some stuff that can be found in IMS/SS. While "LD" models in principle allow for "Go to"
programming (level C in IMS-LD), it's not really meant for non-theatical scenarios.
I now just wonder whether one could image a "LAMS project" version to allow for repetitive and cyclic scenarios. To
do so, we need at least another tool I'd call "Teacher announce", i.e. a simple board that tells learners what to do
next and also provide feedback. Could be just a "View on a single forum, technically speaking.
Example: Announce-> Wiki->Announce->Wiki->Announce->Resource + Wiki (create a list) (revise list) (expand list)
Wiki is always the same.
Of course, visually, this should then be presented with different transitions (non-linear numbered arrows, only ONE
node for the Wiki). The learner UI would also be different and look very much like the authoring interface. Steps
that students did not take yet (e.g. announce #4 and beyound) could be hidden. Important also: teachers should be
able to add stuff in real time, e.g. the monitoring interface = authoring interface.
This would take time to implement, BUT for starters one could just parametrize all the tools to get rid of the
complicated sequencing stuff ;) ... a thought I need to expand - Daniel K. Schneider 23:56, 5 March 2010.

Lams sequence examples

[4]
Below we describe two examples found on the the community home page . You can download them yourself in
your own LAMS server.

Writing research paper

• Writing Research Paper sequence and description [3], authored by Hanh Vo.
LAMS 170

Here is a copy of the description (retrieved 16:30, 9 December 2006 (MET)) and a screen dump of the imported
sequence:
The course is designed to teach international students in an
English Center. These students are graduated students whose first
language is not English. They may come from many different
countries and different majors. It is two months language skills
and academic preparation course for studying at university. The
course guides step by step to complete an academic research.
Students are expected to acquire skills for university study like
researching essay topics, writing assignments and reports. It also
aims to help students become an independent and self-directed
leaner. Besides, they also have chance to get knowledge on their
major. In the course, students will do almost all activities online,
but at some stages, teacher will stop and give some helps or
consultations to help them complete their project. Some online
activities require students to work asynchronously like discussion Writing research paper sequence authored by Hanh Vo
at a forum, but sometimes they have to work synchronously such
as chatting with their friends at scheduled online discussion. The course is divided into 5 stages:
• Choosing topic
• Writing research proposal
• Writing literature review
• Writing findings, conclusions
• Completing
At the end of each stage, students have to submit assignments for teacher to know how students' progress. Then
they will get feedback from the teacher at consultation. Consultation is also the time for teacher to correct,
encourage, and give advices to help students sharpen their knowledge, increase motivation and improve at the
next steps. Knowledge will be acquired and increase through the process. At the end of the course, students are
required to have capability to write an academic research by themselves. The end result will be a portfolio of work
that demonstrates students' achievement and progress during the course.
Here is a screendump of the authoring Window. DSchneider imported this LAMS 1.x sequence into LAMS 2.0 and
rearranged the icons into a "serpent" position.
Stolen Generation
[4]
• Stolen Generation , authored by Debbie Evans. Here is the description found in the repository (16:30, 9
December 2006 (MET)) and a screen dump of the sequence imported into our LAMS 2.0 system:
A stage 3 sequence which addresses some of the issues faced by
the Stolen Generation of Australian Indigenous Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islanders during the 20th century.
• Keywords: Stolen Generation, Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islanders, Traditions & Heritage
• Subject:Human Society & Its Environment, Australian History
• Audience: Stage 3-4 (Yrs 5-8)
• Run time: 1-2 weeks
• Delivery Mode: off- and on-line • Resources: Personal
stories, Wikipedia,
• Outline of Activities:
Stolen Generation sequence authored by Debbie Evans

[5] [6]
1. Read number of personal stories about the Stolen generation: Personal stories and Stolen generations .
LAMS 171

2. Students would start the LAMS sequence.The grouping tool breaks the class into 4 groups.
3. The chat helps to consolidate understanding of the content of the personal stories.
4. The share resources takes the students to a wiki about the Stolen Generation.
5. The forum allows open discussion about the details in the wiki, in particular the facts and their opinions
about this policy.
6. A multiple choice quiz further consolidates the facts about the Stolen Generation.
7. An optional Q & A task appears where students can select to answer a question from a different point of
view.
This sequence could be adapted and modified by including a writing task where assessment can be made by
submitting a file.

Links

Installation tips
• See LAMS installation and configuration. You'll find not only technical installation links, but also my installation
notes for LAMS 2.1x on Solaris (yes I managed) - Daniel K. Schneider 19:18, 20 March 2008 (MET)

Manuals and Tutorials

LAMS 1 (obsolete)
[7]
• Getting Started guide
• Teacher's Guide [8]
[9]
• Learner's Guide
• Administration Guide [10]
LAMS 2
Here are the IMHO's most important getting started links:

• LAMS Tutorials [11]. A larger set of animated LAMS presentation tutorials (Winks). For people who feel challenged
with text ;)
• LAMS authoring [12] (for teachers, one of the best places to start for online reading)
[13]
• LAMS 2 Teacher's Guide (75page PDF manual, read this !)

• LAMS learner [14] (important navigation information that should be handed out to learners)

More LAMS links

The LAMS project maintains several websites.
[15]
• LAMS Foundation , includes manuals, downloads, etc.
[16]
• LAMS documentation wiki . Best place to start for designers, teachers and learners

• About LAMS [17]

• Short technical guide to LAMS [18]
• much more, e.g. frequently asked questions ...

• LAMS Community.org [4]. A site for course designers and teachers to share
LAMS 172

• You can download public LAMS Sequences [1]. To understand LAMS authoring it is probably a good idea to import
a few of these and play.
[19]
• Getting Started FAQ
• Using LAMS FAQ [20]

• Presentations about LAMS [21] (For those who prefer to look at PPTs instead of real text). • Support forums
• ... and more, dig around !
[22]
• LAMS International , provides commercial services around LAMS.
• Links for technical people (e.g. those who install servers and program)

• technical community [23]

[24] [25]
• Internationalization web site - LAMS Wiki explanation page for translators
• LAMS Technical Wiki [26] (for people who need to install)
• Bug report server [27] (you may check this before reporting bugs)
• Links to testing servers
[28]
• Translation test server (login restricted to translators)
[29]
• LAMS demo server (for testing you can require a login)
LAMS Conferences (including online papers)

• 3rd International LAMS & Learning Design Conference [30] Sydney 2008
[31]
• 2009 European LAMS & Learning Design Conference 7th July, 2009 Milton Keynes, UK
[32]
• 2010 European LAMS & Learning Design Conference 15th July, 2010 Wolfson College, Oxford, UK

References
• Dalziel, James, Implementing Learning Design: The Learning Activity Management System (LAMS), Macquarie E-
learning Centre of Excellence (MELCOE), PDF [33]

• Dalziel, J. R. (2006, July). Lessons from LAMS for IMS learning design. In Advanced Learning Technologies, 2006.
Sixth International Conference on (pp. 1101-1102). IEEE.
• Dalziel, J. (2008). Learning design: Sharing pedagogical know-how. Opening up education: The collective
advancement of education through open technology, open content, and open knowledge, 375-387.
• Dalziel, J. (2009). Prospects for learning design research and LAMS. Teaching English with Technology, 9(2), i-iv.
• Dalziel, J. (2011). Visualising Learning Design in LAMS: A historical view. Teaching English with Technology, 11, 19-
34.
• Dalziel, J. R. (2007). Imagining and developing a system for reusable learning designs: lessons from LAMS.
International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Life Long Learning, 17(1), 33-42.
• Gibbs, D. & Philip, R. (2005). Engaging with e-learning: Trialling a new Learning Activity Management System
(LAMS) in Australia. Ed-Media Conference, World Conference on Educational Media, Hypermedia &
Telecommunications, 27 June - 2 July 2005, Montreal, Canada.
• Philip, R . & Dalziel , J . (2004). Designing activities for student learning using the Learning Activity Management
System (LAMS). Acquiring and Constructing Knowledge Through Human-Computer Interaction: Creating new
visions for the future of learning. ICCE: International Conference on Computers in Education Conference,
Melbourne, 30 November – 3 December, 2004.
LAMS 173

• Voerman, A. & Philip, R. (2005). Walking together: LAMS, learning and experience for Indigenous students. Ed-
Media Conference. World Conference on Educational Media, Hypermedia & Telecommunications, 27 June 2 July
2005, Montreal, Canada.
• Levy, P., Aiyegbayo, O. and Little, S. (2009), Designing for inquiry-based learning with the Learning Activity
Management System. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25: 238–251. doi:
10.1111/j.1365-2729.2008.00309.x
[34]
• Kraan Wilbert, (2003). Learning Design inspiration, CETIS article, HTML

• David Jennings (2005), Evaluation of Learning Activity Management Systems, HTML [35]
• Liz Masterman, Stuart D. Lee (2005), Evaluation Of The Practitioner Trial Of Lams: Final Report, Learning
[36]
Technologies Group, Oxford University Computing Services HTML
• Laurillard, Diana (2008). Perspectives on learning design – a report on the 3rd International LAMS and Learning
[37]
Design Conference, December 2008, Macquarie University, Sydney, HTML
• Matt Bower (2009),Using LAMS to Facilitate A ‘Pedagogy-First’ Approach to Teaching Learning Design, Teaching
English with Technology – Special Issue on LAMS and Learning Design volume 2, 9 (3), 42-52.[38]
Laurillard conversational framework 174

Laurillard conversational framework

Draf

Definition
Laurillard (1993,2002) claims that there are four main aspects of the teaching-learning process and that different
educational media can be analyzed (and used) in terms of these dimensions.
This framework can be considered both learning theory and a practical framework for designing educational
environments. Higher education, according to Laurrillard is much about acquiring "ways of seeing the world".
Associated pedagogic strategy has to consider different forms of communication and associated mental activities:
Discussion, adaptation, interaction, reflection.
See also guided discovery learning

Design of learning environments

Laurillard's framework includes four important components:
• Teacher's concepts
• Teacher's constructed learning environment
• Student's concepts
• Student's specific actions (related to learning tasks).

Laurillard's Conversational framework

Each (larger) pedagogical scenario should include all four kinds of activities (communication forms) that happend in
8 kinds of "flows" in the model.
(1) Discussion between the teacher and
the learner
• Teachers' and learners' conception should be mututally accessible
• Both should agree on learning objectives
(2) Adaptation of the learners actions and of the teacher's constructed
environment.
• Teacher must adapt objectives with regards to existing conceptions
• Learners must integrate feedback and link it to his own conceptions
(3) Interaction between the learner and the environment defined by
the teacher
• Teacher must "adapt to world", i.e. create an environment adapted to the learning task given to the learner
Laurillard conversational framework 175

• Teacher must focus on support for task and give appropriate feedback to the learner.
(4) Reflection of the learner's performance by both teacher
and learner
• Teacher should support the learner to revise his conceptions and to adapt the task to learning needs
• Learners should reflect with all stages of the learning process (initial concepts, tasks, objectives, feedback, ...)

Media and activities

According to Philipps (1988), “ Laurillard argues that the only use of technology which can meet these aims is the
"multimedia tutorial simulation", characterised in terms of guided discovery learning. Her schema is based on
forming an information rich environment in which the student has control in discovering knowledge, but the
discovery is supported and scaffolded by extra guidance functions (Laurillard, 1993) which provide support and
feedback for subsequent learning. These functions are analogous to the coaching and scaffolding at critical times
proposed in the Situated Cognition Theory.”
Laurillard argues that different media forms have different affordances, i.e. provide a different level of support for
various kinds learning experiences. She identifies five media forms: narrative, interactive, communicative, adaptive
and productive. According to Conole and Fill (2005), “ Narrative media tell or show the learner something (e.g. text,
image). Interactive media respond in a limited way to what the learner does (e.g. search engines, multiple choice
tests, simple models). Communicative media facilitate exchanges between people (e.g. email, discussion forum).
Adaptive media are changed by what the learner does (e.g. some simulations, virtual worlds). Productive media
allow the learner to produce something (e.g. word processor, spreadsheet).” The following table is from Peter
Clinch [1] (2005)
learning experience method/technologies media forms

attending, apprehending print, TV, video, DVD narrative

investigating, exploring library, CD, DVD, Web resources interactive

discussing, debating seminar, online conference communicative

experimenting, laboratory, field trip, simulation adaptive

practising
articulating, expressing essay, product, animation, model productive

Links
[2]
• The Conversational Framework (DEAD LINK 24/07/2014)

• A conversational framework for Instruction [3] (nice chart)

[4]
• Interaction in Frameworks for Course Design - PPT (DEAD LINK 24/07/2014)
[5] [6]
• Diana Laurillard's conversational model Part of a GLOW text on What educational theories apply to web-
based learning? (DEAD LINK 24/07/2014)

References
• Atherton J S (2005) Learning and Teaching: Conversational learning theory; Pask and Laurillard [On-line] UK:
Available: http://www. learningandteaching. info/learning/ pask.htm Accessed: 12 September 2006
• Clinch, Peter (2005), Supporting law teaching: training and teaching, Presentation at UKCLE seminar on teaching
and learning for legal skills trainers, 16 February 2005, HTML [1]
• Gráinne Conole and Karen Fill (2005). A learning design toolkit to create pedagogically effective learning
activities. Journal of Interactive Media in Education (Advances in Learning Design. Special Issue, eds. Colin
Tattersall, Rob Koper), 2005/08. ISSN:1365-893X Abstract [17] (PDF/HTML open access)
Laurillard conversational framework 176

• Crawley, R.M., Evaluating CSCL - Theorists' & Users' Perspectives, JISC Technology Applications Programme
[7]
(JTAP), HTML , retrieved 19:20, 22 November 2006 (MET).
• Laurillard, D. (1992). Learning through collaborative computer simulations. British Journal of Educational
Technology, 23, 164-171.
• Laurillard, D. M. (1993). Rethinking University Teaching: A Framework for the Effective Use of Educational
Technology. Routledge, London.
• Laurillard, D. (2002). Rethinking University Teaching. A conversational framework for the effective use of learning
technologies. London: Routledge ISBN 0415256798 .
• Philipps, Rob, (1998), Models of learning appropriate to educational applications of information technology,
Paper presented at the 1998 Teaching and Learning Forum, held at the University of Western Australia. HTML
[8]
, retrieved, 17:17, 15 September 2006 (MEST).
• Phillips, R. (1997). The Developer's Handbook to Interactive Multimedia - A Practical Guide for Educational
Applications. Kogan Page, London.

Learning by design
Draf

Definition
• Learning by Design(tm) (LBD), a project-based inquiry approach to science learning with roots in case-based
reasoning and problem-based learning.

Objectives
According to Kolodner et al. (2003), the goal of the LBD group “ [...] has been to use what we know about cognition
(see, e.g., Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999) to fashion a educational approach for middle-school science
appropriate to deeply learning science concepts and skills and their applicability, in parallel with learning cognitive,
social, learning, and communication skills. Our intention was that the approach would lay the foundation, in middle
school, for students to be successful thinkers, learners, and decision makers throughout their lives, and especially
to help them begin to learn the science they need to know to thrive in the modern world”.
 177
Learning by design

The model
The LBD model has two major connected components:
1. A design/redesign cycle
2. An investigation cycle
Kolodner, Crismond, Gray, Holbrook & Puntembakar (1998) summarize the essential components of Learning by
Design as follows (paragraph breaks by DKS):
The typical sequence of activities in a Learning-by-Design unit has students encountering a design challenge and
attempting a solution using only prior knowledge -- individually and/or in small groups. In whole-class discussions,
the teacher helps students compare and contrast their ideas, identify what they need to learn to move forward in
addressing the design challenge, choose a learning issue to focus on, and design and/or run a laboratory activity to
examine that issue. This discussion provides an opportunity for the teacher to identify student misunderstandings
and misconceptions and begin the process of supporting those. The teacher might also present demonstrations,
assign readings, and/or present short lessons relevant to discovered knowledge gaps.
Following this are cycles of exploratory and experimental work, followed by reflection on what has been learned,
application of what was learned to achieving the design challenge, evaluation of that application, and generation of
additional learning issues.
Potential solutions to the design challenge are attempted in each cycle and evaluated by building and testing a
model or actual device; comparing different design alternatives based on qualitative and/or quantitative
understandings; or analyzing using established design guidelines or the ratings of experts. Within this cycle are
several opportunities for students to share their work with others and hear their feedback and ideas. Important
during these "gallery walks" and "pin-up sessions" is that students justify their design decisions and explain how
their designs work (or would work) using science and engineering vocabulary.

Kolodner et al., 1998 [1], retrieved 18:42, 19 July 2006 (MEST).

[2]
For more details, see for the moment What is LBD? and publications below.

Tools and software

• SMILE (software to help students organize their thoughts into logical subjects). [Note: We have to find out if and
where this is available]
[3]
• Observation Prompt Tool (HTML version of a worksheet)
[4]
• LBD Fidelity Report Card (HTML version of a worksheet)

Examples cases
See: http://www-static. cc.gatech.edu/projects/lbd/units. html
• Launcher units (To launch physical science, experiment design, ...)
• Digging in (To launch earth science, modelling, ..)
• Vehicles in motion (Forces and motion)
• Tunneling Across Georgia
Learning by design

Links
[5]
• Learning by Design homepage. Hosted at Georgia Institute of Technology.
 178
References
[6]
• See also: Learning by Design publications page . Many papers are freely available in PDF or HTML form.
• Crismond, D., Camp, P.J., Ryan, M. & Kolodner, J.L. (2001). Design Rules of Thumb - Connecting Science and
Design. AERA, Seattle, WA, April 2001. PDF Preprint [7]
• Holbrook, J., & Kolodner, J. L. (2000). Scaffolding the development of an inquiry-based (science) classroom. In B.
J. Fishman & S. F. O'Connor-Divelbiss (Eds.), Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference of the Learning
Sciences (pp. 221-327). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. HTML Preprint [8].
• Holbrook, J. K., Gray, J., Fasse, B. B., Camp, P. J.,&Kolodner, J. L. (2001). Assessment and evaluation of the
Learning by Design physical science units, 1999-2000. HTML [9], retrieved 18:42, 19 July 2006 (MEST).
• Holbrook, J.K., Fasse, B.B., Gray, J. & Kolodner,J.L. (2001). Creating a Classroom Culture and Promoting Transfer
with "Launcher" Units. AERA, Seattle, WA, April 2001. PDF [10]

• Kolodner, J.L. (1997). Educational Implications of Analogy: A View from Case-Based Reasoning. American
Psychologist, Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 57-66.
• Kolodner, J.L., Camp, P.J., Crismond, D., Fasse, B.B., Gray, J., Holbrook, J., & Ryan, M. (2003, in press).
Promoting Deep Science Learning Through Case-Based Reasoning: Rituals and Practices in Learning By
Design\u2122 Classrooms. In Seel, N.M. (Ed.), Instructional Design: International Perspectives, Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates: Mahwah, NJ.
• Kolodner, Janet, L. Paul J. Camp, David Crismond, Barbara Fasse, Jackie Gray, Jennifer Holbrook, Sadhana
Puntambekar, Mike Ryan (2003). Problem-Based Learning Meets Case-Based Reasoning in the Middle-School
Science Classroom: Putting Learning by Design(tm) Into Practice Journal of the Learning Sciences, Vol. 12, No. 4:
pages 495-547 Abstract/PDF [11] (Access restricted)
• Kolodner, J.L., Crismond, D., Gray, J., Holbrook, J. & Puntembakar, S. (1998). Learning by Design from Theory to
[1]
Practice. Proceedings International Conference of the Learning Sciences '98, pp.16-22. HTML Preprint
• Kolodner, J.L., Crismond, D., Fasse, B., Gray, J., Holbrook, J., Puntembakar, S. (2003, in press). Putting a Student-
Centered Learning by Design (TM) Curriculum into Practice: Lessons Learned. Journal of the Learning Sciences,
[11]
Vol.12 No.4. Abstract/PDF (Access restricted).
• Chris Quintana, Brian J. Reiser, Elizabeth A. Davis, Joseph Krajcik, Eric Fretz, Ravit Golan Duncan, Eleni Kyza,
Daniel Edelson, Elliot Soloway. (2004) A Scaffolding Design Framework for Software to Support Science
Inquiry. Journal of the Learning Sciences 13:3, 337-386

Textbook genres and examples

Draf

Definition
“ Does a reprint of a Shakespeare play used as part of a learning programme constitute a textbook? Is an Open
University workbook a textbook? Is a collection of mathematical exercises a textbook? Is a shorthand exercise book
used by colonial administrative clerks in prewar India a textbook? Would an alien anthropologist be justified in
considering the Bible as a textbook? [...] There is such a wide range of uses for the textbook, from garage manual to
classroom aid, that a typology of uses offers little analytical consistency.” (Issit, 2005) This article attempts to
identify various genres of textbooks. See also:
• Textbook (Introduction)
Textbook genres and examples 179
• Textbook research
• Textbook writing tutorial
This articles attempts to do three things
• List some criteria to look at textbooks
• Summarize some examples of various kinds
• Come up with a provisional taxonomy
Daniel K. Schneider doesn't have many textbooks at hand (it's really not a tradition in a Swiss research university).
But in order to write this article, I looked at some I do have and took a few that I respect. Therefore some of the
writing here is biased towards fields I work in and quality textbooks.

Genres of textbooks, a first look at criteria

As argued in the textbook article, according to the educational context and pedagogy adopted by a teacher,
textbooks can have very different functions and probably need to be organized in a different way. There are
different ways to look textbooks and it may not be easy to define a taxonomy based on good criteria.
Daniel K. Schneider (after a little research) couldn't find any prominently cited list of textbook genres. Therefore I
suggest looking at a few kinds of features that might help defined textbook features that might be used to build a
taxonomy of genres. In addition, I will summarize features of a few books I have on my shelf.
According to genres of teaching media
(Sigurgeirsson 1990, DsU 1980:4) cited by Johnsen distinguish five kinds "teaching media". In their pure form,
Daniel K. Schneider would hesitated to call them textbooks. However, textbooks come in various forms and some of
these textbook forms can be close to these genres. In addition, teachers may use these texts as textbooks.
• basic texts
• manuals
• workbooks
• reference books
• exercise books
These forms may be linked to their function in the global pedagogical design. E.g. a university teacher who "owns"
his lectures, presents his own work-through example, designs his own assignments, etc. probably is rather
interested in a pedagogically well written manual than a typical (lengthy) US textbook.
According to amount of "built-in pedagogy"
Textbook genres and examples 180

There are parameters that this is a manual define how much "built-in pedagogy" is needed. Typically in small
classrooms or systems with strong tutoring support, there is less need. Here are few typical setups for which
textbook needs may be different:
• Small classrooms (with less than 20 students)
• Large classrooms (teacher can not monitor individual students)
• Large classrooms with attached seminars/labs run by teaching assistants
• Good distance education (tutored learning
• Low cost distance education (full self-learning)
Cost
There is a question of cost, in particular for the third world where interest is very high in quality Open educational
resources.
• Rich / medium / poor context (students can/cannot afford textbooks)
Since textbooks are expensive, cost is also an issue in countries where education is supposed to be free (e.g. in
Switzerland) and where textbooks are mainly used for "supplementary reading".
According to any sort of learning or pedagogical theory.
• Learning modes. E.g. Hayes (2005) uses Kolb's experiential learning modes: active / concrete learning,
reflective / active learning.
• Learning theory, e.g. behaviorist, cognitivist, constructivist, socio-constructivist like in Horsley and Walker
(2005:265)
• Major pedagogic strategy, e.g. Baumgartner's learning I/II/III or Clark's Receptive, Directive, Guided discovery,
exploratory instruction Political / cultural
• E.g. Titles that are formally approved by some body (a university, a school district, etc.) as teaching materials.
• E.g. Titles that are sold as textbooks (e.g. everything that is published by Pearson's brands)
According to media
• Published as book (online or offline)
• Informal linear texts (online or offline)
• Non-linear online texts
[1] [2]
• Other technology-enhanced online texts (e.g. McGraw Hill 's smartbook .

Textbook examples

Internet and the World Wide Web

Deitel, Harvey M., Paul J. Deitel, Andrew B. Goldberg, Internet & World Wide
Web How to Program (3rd Edition). Prentice Hall; 3 edition, ISBN 0131450913
[3]
The home page of the book includes additional resources and for
registered uses, downloads of examples and PPT slides
This is a (now) outdated 1500 page thick textbook. It's not a really verbose
text, it just covers a lot of subjects (too much I'd say e.g. the PHP chapter is
too short). The book is rather well written (although not consistently
everywhere) and it's too much focused on non-standard IE/Microsoft
technology, but that's not an issue here.
Frontcover of Deitel et al. Organization of the Book
The Book is organized in
• Contents
Textbook genres and examples 181

• Preface, including for example

• Explanation of the teaching approach
• Font conventions and tips (see below)
• Tour of the Book
• Dependency Chart (among chapters)
• 29 chapters
• A CD with 9 extra chapters
• 6 Appendixes
• 2-page bibliography
• Index
Chapter organization
Chapters are organized like this:
• Objects (one page to the left), includes a picture and (useless) quotes from famous people
• Outline (mini table of contents)
• The usual numbered Sections are: Introduction - Other Chapters - Web Resources
• At the end of the chapter are (not numbered/indexed): Summary, Terminology, Self-review exercises (plus
answers), Exercises
Typical functional / typographic elements
Sections look like this:
• They are rather short (about 3 pages)
• A big portion of specially marked code (yellow boxes) and associated screen captures usually at the end.
• Some special inserts (tips) are marked by an icon and a colored title:
• Common Programming Errors
• Error-prevention tips
• Good Programming Practise
• Look and Feel Observation
• Portability tips
• Software Engineering Observation
Here is an example from the Preface that explains one of the tips:

Good Programming Practices Insert from the

Deitel Book

New Perspectives XML Comprehensive 2nd edition

Patrick Carey (2006) New Perspectives on XML, Second Edition,
Comprehensive. ISBN 1418860646, 655 pages
The Book homepage [4]

• Includes downloads student downloads (easy to find) and teacher

downloads. The latter are very hard to find. If you are not an American,
you are invited to call an obscure phone number in London.
• In this wiki, see XML (if you are interested in the topic)

Frontcover, New Perspectives XML

Comprehensive 2nd edition
Textbook genres and examples 182

This is a over 600 pages typical textbook. I used it in a course and find it ok. I didn't like the XSLT part since the
author doesn't emphasize how to program with templates, i.e. he uses unnecessary "for" loops. Also, it is weak on
some important vocabularies like SVG.

This is what I would call a typical American textbook, i.e. it has a clear and good instructional design behind it. It's
also lengthy and repetitive, i.e I wouldn't use if for myself.
Organization of the Book
The book has two parts: Level I and Level II Tutorials (Chapters)
• Preface (with no interesting contents for the student)
• Brief table of content
• Long table of content
• Introduction to Level I Tutorials
• 4 chapters (called tutorials)
• Introduction to Level II Tutorials
• 6 chapters (called tutorials)
• 6 appendices (5 of them reference)
• Glossary/Index
The Introduction to Level I/II Tutorials
• 1-page introductions telling the student to download/use files, a message to the instructor where to find these
files and system requirements
Chapter (Tutorial) Organization
• Chapters are called tutorials. Each is divided into sessions
• On the first page, Objectives are defined for each session (between 4 and 6)
• On the bottom of the first page, student data files are summarized
• The rest of the page (i.e. the main part) presents a case problem that will be used throughout the chapter
• Chapters are shown in the running heads on top of the page (but not sessions)
• Each chapter is organized in three sessions (see below)
• At the end of the chapter is a special review/exercising section
Section (Session) Organization
• Sessions (sections) usually start with the presentation of a data structure (XML is about data mostly). This
presentation includes a short "story" related to the case problem, a list of elements of the data structure, a
figure that can be a diagram, and a little bit of text. Then the student may be invited to look at the real data
(open a file).
• This is followed by longer introductory explanations about the technology
• Next are a series of topics. Each topic may include a story, general explanations (including many figures),
instructions how to do things, etc.
• At the end of each sessions is a short "Quick check" (1/2 page)
Typical functional / typographic elements
Typical elements one can find in a section are:
• Sub-sections and sub-subsections. These elements are not numbered
• Various kinds of figures:
• Diagrams
• Instructions (do ...). These boxes take up less than a page, are rendered in yellow and students really have to do
these if they plan to learn something. Instructions include both instructions, code to copy and occasionally a
diagram or screen fragment capture.
Textbook genres and examples 183

• Reference Window (usually code fragments but also of kind "if you want to obtain x, do/use "y").
• References (i.e. portions of what one could find in a concise reference manual).
Chapter review sections
Chapter review sections include:
• Tutorial summary (1/2 page)
• Key Terms (1/2 page)
• Review assignments (several pages)
• Case problems (long). There are four case problems for each chapter:
• Practise (work on the same case as the one used throughout the chapter)
• Apply 1 (work on a case that is structurally similar)
• Apply 2 (work on a case that is structurally similar)
• Challenge (somewhat in between applying and designing)
• Create (design something that is fairly new)
• Answers to Review assignments
The book is part of a series that follows the same pedagogical objectives and design. In contrast to some other
textbooks, there is a strong focus on transfer. “ The New Perspectives Series challenges students to apply what they
are learning to real-life tasks, preparing them to easily transfer skills to new situations. With the New Perspectives
Series' approach, students understand why they're learning what they're learning, and are better situated to retain
[5]
skills and concepts beyond the classroom.” The New Perspectives Series , retrieved 22:40, 9 August 2007 (MEST).
This book clearly requires a student to work through the pages. You can't just dive in like with the Deitel Book
(which also is a typical textbook). Case problems are well prepared (3 pages of text + materials). It's probably a very
good textbook in a context where students are expected to work hard on their homework and agree to work on
pre-built problem cases (instead of their own projects).

La démarche d'une recherche en sciences humaines

Dépelteau, François (2000), a démarche d'une recherche en sciences humaines, De Boeck ISBN-10 2804135268
In included this book, because I consider it to be the best introductory social science methodology book in French
language. Also, it represents Belgium "instructional design" (which is quite different from the french one and rather
closer to Dutch thinking I believe)
Book organization
• Table of Contents
• A page that lists with a diagram competences to be acquire performance criteria (what a student should be able
to do) with links to concerned chapters
• General introduction (26 pages)
• 6 chapters
• Bibliography
Chapter organization
• Title and synthesis (mostly listed items)
• Numbered sections and numbered subsections
• At the end: a 1-page list of review (synthesis questions)
Typical functional / typographic elements
• Strong use of marginalia (typically 1-2 / page). The summarize or give reading/understanding hints. All look the
same
• Boxes (vignettes) which may contain
• definitions
Textbook genres and examples 184

• pictures
• Flow diagrams (methodological how-to)
• Figures
• usually diagrams to explain a concept

Textbooks for professionals and tutored students

This is a category of books that are somewhat in between typical US textbooks, manuals and can also be called
"introductory literature".

E-Learning and the Science of Instruction

Clark, Ruth Colvin and Richard E. Mayer (2003). E-Learning and the Science of
Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia
Learning, Pfeiffer, ISBN 0787960519
• In this wiki, see e-learning and multimedia presentation (if you are
interested in the topic)
This book can be used both in university teaching but also as a manual for e-
learning professionals. Organization of the book
• Contents
• Preface (personal stuff)
Frontcover of Clark & Mayer
• Introduction:
• Purpose of the book
• Overview of chapters
• Explanation of chapter layouts
• Overview and nature of examples used
Chapter organization
• First page (left) contains an outline (detailed table of contents)
• Chapter Preview
• A vignette (box) with "design dilemma" (1-2 page case problem)
• Unnumbered sections and sub-sections.
• The first section provides an introduction
• Next are design guidelines (i.e. what you as designer should apply
• Then research is presented that supports these guidelines
• End of the chapter
• Design dilemma resolution
• A item list What to look of in e-learning
• A short coming next
• Suggested readings
Typical functional / typographic elements
• Sections cover aspects of the design dilemma introduced at chapter start
• Important concepts are explained with a section • Sections include text, graphics, tables, screendumps.
• Pedagogical elements are
• Explanatory text (introducing concepts with examples and diagrams)
• Summary tables
Textbook genres and examples 185

• How-to lists
• Summarized prescriptive advice
This book is quite nice to read (I do admit that only read parts of certain chapters). It is well written and well
organized. It certainly can be used in content-oriented e-learning design classes, but its up to the teacher to define
related review, exercise or design activities.
Similar books
This book is part of a "Essential resources for training and HR professions" series. Other books do not follow exactly
the same chapter organization. Let's have a short look at:
• Driscoll, M., Carliner, S. Advanced Web-Based Training : Adapting Real World Strategies in Your Online Learning,
Pfeiffer. ISBN 0787969796 This book organizes chapters into:
• Some quote
• Learning goals (stated with bullets)
• A challenge (not in form of a vignette/box)
• Different looks at the challenge (conceptual, practical, technical)
• Discussion of Examples
• Chapter ending
• Conclusion
• Further commented reading and web links
• Reflection and application
Both books have in common, that they adopt a similar problem case-related strategy.

Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology

Reiser Robert A. and John V. Dempsey (eds). (2006). Trends and Issues in
Instructional Design and Technology, 2nd edition. Prentice Hall. ISBN
0131708058
This is probably the best buy if you are looking for a single book covering
educational technology, learning theory and instructional design. It's in my
list of essential reading. Anyhow, it's not a textbook in the "classic" sense, but
a collection of "texbook-like" articles that can be read independently.
Explicitly mentioned target population are entry-level graduate students and
its chapters are written by leading experts (which is another plus).
Book organization
Frontcover of Reiser et al.
• Preface

• Strength of the book :)

• Pedagogical features (1/2 explaining how the book and its writings are organized)
• New edition / Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• The book is organized in 7 parts (called sections), each one contains 3 to 6 chapters
• Short 1/2 epilogue
• Author biographies
• Index (no common bibliography)
The book is about letter size and pages are written in 2 columns
Parts organization (called sections)
• Each section starts with a section overview that defines topics covered in chapters, their purpose and relation
• Then come the chapters
Textbook genres and examples 186

Chapter organization
Each author could organize its chapter in different ways, but there are common features:
• An introduction by the Editors
• A list of "knowledge and compression question" in a box that takes up the left column. These questions should
help understanding of the text.
• Application questions (1/3 page). These questions encourage students to go beyond reading and may be link to
individual or collaborative assignments by the teacher using this book.
• References (little to a lot)
• Text is divided into unnumbered sections and sometimes sub-sections and includes figures
Multimedia for Learning
Alessi, Stephen. M. & Trollop, Stanley. R., (2001) Multimedia for Learning (3rd
Edition), Pearson Allyn & Bacon, ISBN 0-205-27691-1.
This is probably the best textbook on multimedia learning. It's very readable,
but not "dumbing down". There are no bullet lists for learning goals, review
questions, exercises and such.
Book organization
• Contents
• Preface (mostly the history of this book)
• The book is organized in three parts (with no particular introductions) and
Frontcover of Alessi et al.
15 chapters

Chapter organization
• Chapters are divided in unnumbered sections and sub-sections
• Each chapter has a longer introduction (in text) presenting aims of the chapter and a conceptual overview of the
topic
• The conclusion of the chapter includes
• A short summary
• References
• Sometimes a summary vignette
Typical functional / typographic elements
These elements differ a lot from chapter to chapter which can be general conceptual, topic-oriented, technical,
cooking, ...)
• Relatively few lists (bullets or definition lists), most text is in paragraph form
• Figures with screen captures
• Figures with diagrams
• Summary vignettes (usually lists of items with sub-items)
• Fill-in tables for planning (also called figures but they take up more space)

Workbooks
This is a more socio-constructivist version of textbook. It aims to engage learners in situated action. Learners
typically are adults, e.g. teacher's in training.
Textbook genres and examples 187

Project-based learning: Using Information Technology

Frontcover of Morsund

Morsund, David (2002) Project-based learning: Using Information Technology, 2nd edition, ISTE. ISBN 1-56484-196-
0
[6]
• A ICT-Assisted Project-Based Learning website
• In this wiki, see Moursund project-based learning model and Project-oriented learning (if you are interested in
the topic)
Book organization
• Editor (ISTE) and Author
• Table of contents
• Preface* At t

• Use of Project-based learning

• Summary of Chapters
• Teaching and learning philosophy (focus on constructivism
• Possible Uses of the book (both preservice and inservice teachers)
• Introductory chapter (includes a short case description)
• 7 other chapters
• 3 Appendixes (goals for IT in Education; Overview of Problem Solving; References and Resources)
• Index
Chapter organization
• short statement of it purpose
• Unnumbered sections with short sub-sections that introduce concepts. Sections contain major subtopics.
• Summary (final remarks)
• Activities
Typical functional / typographic elements
• Various sections are not always organized in the same way (depending on the nature of issues addressed in a
chapter)
• Conceptual chapters are mostly in expository style and include figures and tables
• Practical chapters contain lists (some with sub-lists) with instructions and "fill-in" tables whose structure should
be reproduced.
This is both a conceptual book and a "how-to" book with detailed recipes
Similar books
• Thom Markham et al. (2003), Project Based Learning Handbook, Buck Inst for Education, ISBN 0974034304 This
book is quite similar in structure to the Morsund book.
Textbook genres and examples 188

• It uses fancier layout elements. Also the book is spiral-bound with tabs, so navigation within the book is really
fast and painless. This is quite interesting, since I personally find navigation in textbook sometimes awfully
difficult.
• It includes paper tools (fill-in tables) that can be copied an used "as-is" to plan teaching.
• It is more practical than Morsund. I'd call it a "cookbook" (although it does require a lot of teacher engagement
and intellectual work to get some cooking done).

Examples of manuals that can be used as textbooks

Of these, I got several. E.g. I consider that most O'Reilly computer books fall into this category.

Flash CS3 - The Missing Manual

• Veer, E.A. Vander and Chris Grover (2007). Flash CS3: The Missing Manual.
ISBN 0596510446
[7]
There is dedicated page at O'Reilly . The example files can be found on the
[8]
Missing CD-ROM page.
• In this wiki see Flash (if you are interested in the topic)
This is not a textbook, I'd call it an instructional manual. It's organized by
topic (not projects) so as a teacher one may have to assign readings not
chapter by chapter, but rather a good part of a chapter together with some
pages from other chapters. Also, it does not repeat the same concept several
Frontcover of Veer et al. times
Organization of the book
• Introduction. It contains
• motivational elements (what can you do with Flash),
• A short description of the Flash CS3 authoring environment,
• Summaries of most important concepts (Anatomy of an Animation, Flash in a Nutshell, The Very Basics), •
A short summary of parts
• (Very shortly) typographic conventions.
• The rest of the book is organized in five parts
• These parts just group together chapters, there isn't any extra text.
• There is a total of 14 chapters
• 2 appendixes
• Index
• At t
Page layout
• Running header left/right page: (unnumbered section title)
• Running footer right page: chapter title
Chapter organization
• Each chapter contains (unnumbered sections and subsections)
• Typically a chapter starts with a short introduction that includes learning goals (formulated with sentences).
• Then, there is an introduction to the first section (that an attentive reader can identify by looking on the running
headers).
Pedagogical style is basically direct instruction.
• Explanation of key concepts
Textbook genres and examples 189

• Works-through examples with a lot of screen captures.

There are no review questions, nor assignments. The idea is probably that people who buy this book are mature
enough to try it out either with some downloaded files or rather on their own examples (e.g. like did when I wrote
some Flash tutorials you can find in this wiki. Btw. I used this book + the help built-in in CS3.
Typical functional elements with typographic rendering
• Text (with a lot of bullets and lists)
• Annotated Screen captures
• Tips (specially marked short inserts)
• Notes (specially marked short inserts)
• Large inserts for various purposes using the same layout. They can labelled for example:
• "Design Time". E.g. a full page on "tips from the trenches".
• Workaround workshop
• Frequently asked questions
• Up to speed

Writing and Developing Your College Textbook

• Lepionka, Mary Ellen (2003), Writing and Developing Your College Textbook, ISBN 0-9728164-0-2.

The author owns Atlantic Path Publishing [9] on which you may find some extra information, i.e. a good list of links.
This is not a textbook, but a introduction and practical manual for "would-be" authors. It could be used as a
textbook, since the text is pedagogically structured. Only missing typical elements are review questions and
assignments. Also, it is concise, precise and understandable (not always the case with textbooks).
Book organization
• Table of Contents
• Preface (1 1/3 pages): Defines experience of the author and what a good textbook is
• 14 chapters
• Glossary
• References
• Index
Chapter organization
• Chapters start with a show 1-paragraph introduction describing aim, motivation etc. of a chapter
• Most chapter have an appendix that summarize key elements an author should take into account. This can be a
"fill-in table", a list of definitions or references to standards,
• Chapter contents are divided into unnumbered sections (topics) and sub-sections
Typical functional elements with typographic rendering
• Lists in various forms (numbered, bulleted, indented definition lists)
• Boxed lists
• Fill-in tables (in particular at the end of each chapter)
• Indented blocks like case studies or other examples

Conclusion

Common elements of textbooks and similar

Textbooks
• Most often explain how the book is to be used
• Are highly structured, but in US books, sections and subsections are not numbered. I find this very strange.
Textbook genres and examples 190

Almost if textbook designers really don't want readers to jump back and forth in a text. Interestingly, the only
Belgian example presented and which is a typical textbook does have numbers
• Use a series of typographic "tricks" (but absolutely not the same) to mark special strands like case problems,
examples, tips, to-do-lists, etc.
• Chapters are structured in a similar way
• Chapters (and sometimes section) explicitly define learning goals
• Chapters (at the end usually) self-review questions, exercises and sometimes larger case problems
Textbook-like books (and that are being used as textbooks)
• Most often explain how the book is to be used or at least presents shortly some use cases
• Are also highly structured (but sometimes less consistently). This is probably due to the fact that chapters can
have different purposes. US books reviewed don't number sections.
• Usually include at least informal definition of chapter goals
• Mostly do not include review questions
• Mostly do not include exercises, instead they may have "cooking recipes", e.g. in the form of "fill-in tables" that
can be used in a design.

A provisional taxonomy of textbooks and similar

Criteria for a taxonomy

I suggest (well after 10 minutes of looking at what I wrote) to distinguish three main axis:
1. Built-in pedagogy and navigation
This is also tied to the question whether one can find something in the book and navigate. The less it has pedagogy
the better is navigation.
1. little pedagogy
• E.g. a typical manual where one can find things (can be used as reference)
• E.g. an introductory text that summarizes mostly standard knowledge
2. medium pedagogy
• E.g. a typical guide book
• E.g. a cook books that rather target professionals
3. lots of pedagogy
• e.g. a typical undergraduate US textbook whose chapters should be read in linear fashion.
2. Main built-in pedagogical strategy
See pedagogic strategy. This does not mean that corresponding teaching has to follow this. E.g. paradoxically, a
constructivist teacher may prefer simple expository manuals.
1. Learning I, i.e mainly expository
2. Learning II, i.e. problem solving or procedure training, including a lot of hands-on activities
3. Learning III, i.e. engaging students to apply things in real-life projects
3. Conceptuality
This may relate to a "dumbing down" factor
1. little, i.e students are exposed to facts or engaged in skills learning without being exposed much principles
2. medium, i.e. students are exposed to principles
3. high, i.e. students are exposed to real research or really difficult engineering issues Other
Of course, there could be more variables, i.e. textbook research and textbook writing tutorial identify some, but
useful typologies are difficult to make with too many variables (unless I could hire someone to code textbook
structures and contents and the run a cluster analysis program ...)
Textbook genres and examples 191

A provisional taxonomy
If we reduce the pedagogy and conceptuality dimensions to two values (little/much), we get a cube with 12 types (I
should draw this cube once I am convinced of this taxonomy ...). Some types are probably empty, i.e. the
combination of expository text with lot's of pedagogy probably doesn't make much sense, since good pedagogy
would include some problem solving activities. Well, to be discussed. I really wrote this piece in a few hours only...
1. Expository texts with little pedagogy and little ambition
• Badly made textbooks (e.g. simple lecture notes)
2. Expository texts with little pedagogy and high ambition
• Reviews of literature written by a good domain expert
3. Problem solving or (complex) procedure training with little pedagogy and little ambition
• Simple "dumbed down" manuals
4. Problem solving or (complex) procedure training with lot's of pedagogy and little ambition
• Introductory textbooks
5. Problem solving or (complex) procedure training with little pedagogy and high ambition
• Introductory manuals (e.g. in medicine or computer programming)
6. Problem solving or (complex) procedure training with lot's of pedagogy and high ambition
• Maybe some mathematics or history manuals
7. Learning in action with little pedagogy and little ambition
• Guidelines
8. Learning in action with little of pedagogy and high ambition
• Guidelines with well documented case studies and problem assignments
9. Learning in action with lots of pedagogy and little ambition
• Constructivist introductory textbooks
10. Learning in action with lots of pedagogy and high ambition
• Constructivist textbooks for advanced levels and professionals
This is a first attempt made by Daniel K. Schneider on 16:30, 10 August 2007 (MEST). I have to let it sit and go over
it sometimes ...

A final note on pedagogy

The taxonomy presented above uses words like "little" or "badly made". Such qualifications don't have per se an
implication on learning outcomes.
E.g. if I tell one of my students to read this article, read follow up links in textbook, textbook research and textbook
writing tutorial and then require him to study either textbooks (using a a serious analysis instrument) or to study
the use of textbooks (e.g. with interviews) he'd learn a lot more than by reading a well written textbook chapter
about textbooks... What counts is the global pedagogical design and that must be adjusted to teaching goals.
An often heard statement (that probably is even backed up by serious research) is that "Bad texts can be very
beneficial, since they require students to think..."
Finally, analysis of the target population and use cases may tell you that a lot of professionals work by a 20/80 %
rule, i.e. they only want to learn 20% in order to get 80% done. I have the hypothesis that most teachers, for
example, work that way. Therefore, writing simple "how-to" guides may be real option, if you aim at impact.

References
Textbook genres and examples 192

Cited
• Haynes Anthony, Textbooks as Learning Resources, Eighth International Conference on Learning and Educational
Media, PDF [10]

• Issitt, John (2005) Reflections on the study of textbooks, History Of Education, November, 2004, Vol. 33, No. 6,
DOI [11]

• Johnsen, Egil Børre (2001), Textbooks in the Kaleidoscope, A Critical Survey of Literature and Research on
Educational Texts, Translated by Linda Sivesind, Digital Edition Tønsberg: Vestfold College, 2001 HTML [12]

Examples discussed
• Alessi, Stephen. M. & Trollop, Stanley. R., (2001) Multimedia for Learning (3rd Edition), Pearson Allyn & Bacon,
ISBN 0-205-27691-1.
• Clark, Ruth Colvin and Richard E. Mayer (2003). E-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for
Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning, Pfeiffer, ISBN 0787960519
• Carey, Patrick (2006) New Perspectives on XML, Second Edition, Comprehensive. ISBN 1418860646, 655 pages
• Deitel, Harvey M., Paul J. Deitel, Andrew B. Goldberg, Internet & World Wide Web How to Program (3rd Edition).
Prentice Hall; 3 edition, ISBN 0131450913
• Dépelteau, François (2000), a démarche d'une recherche en sciences humaines, De Boeck ISBN-10 2804135268
• Morsund, David (2002) Project-based learning: Using Information Technology, 2nd edition, ISTE. ISBN 1-56484-
196-0
• Reiser Robert A. and John V. Dempsey (eds). (2006). Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology,
2nd edition. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131708058
• Veer, E.A. Vander and Chris Grover (2007). Flash CS3: The Missing Manual. ISBN 0596510446
Textbook research 193

Textbook research
Draf
This article deals with research on textbooks.
See also (and maybe before):
• Textbook (Introduction)
• Textbook genres and examples
• Textbook writing tutorial
For now, this article just includes a list (disorganized) and short strands of textbook research. It should be
completed some day, for the moment I just copy/pasted a few quotes and ideas - Daniel K. Schneider 19:57, 8
August 2007 (MEST))
“ The noun "textbooks" provokes many, mostly negative, responses. When I tell my students and colleagues that I
study textbooks, tombstones often appear in their eyes expressing painful and buried memories of cramming for
exams and repetitious wading through excruciatingly boring pages as directed by teachers who, they felt, could not
be bothered to teach the material themselves. One fellow lecturer who was clearly less than sensitive to my
sentiments even ventured "what on earth can be interesting in textbooks?"” (Issitt, 2004: 683)

Users (students/teachers)

Reader-book relationship (from a discourse analysis point of view)

A textbook must be interpreted by the reader according to most modern cognitive and text analysis theories.
Rosenblatt (1978) cited by Johnsen (2001) “pointed out that no text is complete until it has been read, and that
there must of necessity be several ways to read all texts since they are used by people with vastly different
backgrounds, even if they are the same age.” and Fisch (1980) cited by Johnsen (2001) argues that “ groups of
reading and interpretation patterns emerge which are determined more by society than by individuals”. See also
Aamotsbakken (2005: 106)'s model readers vs. real readers

How students deal with textbooks

As a whole ...
There is also specialized research on how students understand elements, i.e. shorter units like presentations, in
particular combination of illustrations with text. E.g. Wolf

In-classroom use of textbooks

E.g. Hoarsley (2001). Hoarsley (????) argues “that there is need for research that is committed not to the empirical
search for 'effective' textbook use as defined by the producer (the publisher, designer, author), but to the
uncovering of meanings attached to textbooks by the consumer (teachers and pupils). How do teachers and pupils
make sense of the textbook within the context of wider learning environments, an make use of them ?”

Textbook - teacher relationship

E.g. Ball and Feiman-Nemser (1988:401) “Although the student teachers were enrolled in two different teacher
education programs, all of them developed the impression that if they wanted to be good teachers, they should
avoid following textbooks and relying on teachers' guides. They believed that good teaching means creating your
own lessons and materials instead. These ideas proved difficult to act on during student teaching when the student
Textbook research 194

teachers worked in classrooms where textbooks formed the core of instruction and they confronted the fact that
they were beginning teachers lacking knowledge, skill and experience.” (cited by Johnsen, 2001).
“John A. Zahorik demonstrates the teacher-book complexity in his investigation of the relationship between
textbooks and teaching styles (Zahorik 1990 and 1991). He based his work on that of K. Hinchman (Hinchman 1987)
and D. Alverman (Alverman 1989), both of whom distinguish between three types of usage that also display a
strong correlation to three teaching styles. The textbook may be perceived and used as a) a source of facts to be
learned ("coverage"), b) a source of different types of activities ("textbook based activities") and/or c) a basis for
[1]
interpretation and discussion ("higher level interpretation/reference").” (Johnsen , 2001).

Textbooks and the educational system

“Tools and media are ambivalent: as institutions they contribute to the stabilisation of the educational institution,
but they also challenge the institution and they force it to evolve. The textbook is more than a simple tool. Because
of the values that it transmits, and through the instrumentation that it offers to the master and the pupil, it
highlights the professionalism of both, it testifies to their specialisation and becomes one of the factors of their
social recognition. But, while the textbook officializes and consolidates, it also introduces changes, encourages
innovations and facilitates reforms.” (Moeglin, 2005:20).
Other research looks into the approval processes and the relation of textbooks with curricula.

Production and Writers

The learner model adopted by authors

Crucially, the passive learner model embodied in textbooks masks three crucially political relationships:
• the text and the learner are positioned such that the learner has a subordinate epistemological status;
• what counts as knowledge is clearly circumscribed by the text and, by default, alternative claims on the same
knowledge arena or alternative lines of exploration are cast as irrelevant;
• the purpose of reading the text is end-directed towards an exam or outcome reflecting a goal-carrying social
value. (Issit, 2005: 689)

Textbook production
• Roles of publishers and editors

Cognitive processes in textbook production

• The cognitive psychology of textbook composition, e.g. Flower and Higgins (see writing-to-learn for more
references.

Analysis of learning modes and styles

Haynes (2005:295), in a study (based on Kolb's experiential learning) of three textbooks he concludes: “ In
summary, we may say that Beginning Theory, Doing English and The English Studies Book all provide frequent
prompts to abstract learning. Two of them - Beginning Theory and Doing English - do this too for concrete learning.
Doing English provides more fully than either of the other two texts for reflective learning, though through its
learning activities The English Studies Book also does this to some extent. The section in The English Studies Book is
the only one that explicitly provides for active learning. None of the books offers balanced provision for all four
modes of learning.”

Linguistic organization
E.g. Lucas, 2005:57) concludes that “Textbooks are representative of the didactic genre, which cross languages and
epochs. This genre is based on explanation but also aims at active implication from the reader. It implies a very
Textbook research 195

careful organisation and layout, in order to guide the reader and provide room for interaction. Exercises are the
canonical form of interaction. Due to the many constraints of clear explanation and sufficiently detailed information
on each topic, textbooks share many common features. Clear segmentation allows parallel progression between
illustration discourse and text discourse. Overall progression through the book is marked by explicit checkpoints.
Although textbooks are highly constrained, they still differ widely according to matter and grade, not to mention
culture.”
Aamotsbakken (2005:102) considers that textbook both contain open and closed texts (Eco). Open texts are open
for interpretation because they challenge the reader with a spectre of explicit and implicit codes, intertextuality and
a complicated structure.

Content analysis and politics

According to Johnsen (2001), “Up to the 1970s, the whole field of textbook research was dominated by a few
traditions (history book revision and historical content analyses) and by individual and composite works published
at long intervals.”. Examples are Fleming (1982) or Anyon (1979)

Cross-sectional / Other

Cultural differences
Textbooks are particularly important in the mainstream US Educational system that has strong roots in more
traditional instructional design.
Most of Europe's higher education system is somewhat different
• On one hand more emphasis is put on "Bildung" (education) as opposed to training. Students are supposed to
organize knowledge themselves and be able to cope with all sorts of more primary materials (e.g. real academic
books and articles).
• Professors are supposed to develop their own lecture (and views). These actually may be considered "spoken
textbooks" since often students are just supposed to reproduce contents at exams. University teachers also have
a fairly low teaching load (e.g. about 6 hours) since their main job is to do research.
Both of these features (that are in contradiction) make textbooks not very popular in standard universities.
However, in most European countries there are higher education institutions with little research and high teaching
loads, such as the Swiss Universities of Applied Sciences and these have a lot in common with American "teaching
universities".

Questions related to Dumbing down

Critiques of textbooks often claim that there can be dumbing down effect, in particular since some textbook
authors indeed overdo simplification.
But one must clearly distinguish between (1) the general question whether systematic use of textbooks (as in
teaching universities) can have a dumbing down effect and the (2) the question whether some textbooks are too
easy and aim too low and whether this is a global trend in education.

References
[2]
Disclaimer: I don't have any knowledge in textbook research. I copied some references (e.g. from Johnsen , 2001)
to have some starting points for further reading ... when I feel so ... - Daniel K. Schneider
• Aamotsbakken Bente (2005). The relation between the model reader/-s and the authentic reader/-s. The
possibilities for identification when reading curricular texts, Eighth International Conference on Learning and
Educational Media. PDF [3]

• Altbach, Philip G., Gail P. Kelly, Hugh G. Petrie, and Lois Weiss, eds. Textbooks in American Society: Politics, Policy,
and Pedagogy. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991.
Textbook research 196

• Alverman, D. (1989). "Teacher-Student Mediation of Content Area Texts." Theory into Practice 27.
• Anderson, Thomas H., Bonnie B. Armbruster: (1981) "Content Area Textbooks." In: Anderson, Richard C., Jean
Osborn, Robert J.Tierney (eds.): Learning to Read in American Schools: Basal Readers and Content Texts. New
York
• Anyon, Jean (1979) "Ideology and United States History Textbooks." In:Harvard Educational Review 49:3,
• Altbach, P.G. et al. (1991) (eds), Textbooks in American Society: Politics, Policy and Pedagogy (Albany: State
University of New York Press
• Herlihy John (1992). The Textbook Controversy, Norwood, NJ: Ablex
• Mikk Jaan (2000), Textbook Research and Writing, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang
• Bourdillon Hilary, History and Social Studies - Methodologies of Textbook Analysis (Amsterdam: Swets &
Zeitlinger, 1992).
• Apple, Michael W., and Linda K. Christian-Smith, eds. The Politics of the Textbook. New York: Routledge, 1991.
• Ball, Deborah Loewenberg, Sharon Feiman-Nemser (1988). "Using Textbooks and Teachers' Guides: A Dilemma
for Beginning Teachers and Teacher Educators.", Curriculum Inquiry 18:4
• Bhatia, V. K. Simplification v. Easification: The Case of Legal Texts. Applied Linguistics 4(1), pp. 39-78.
• Cole, John Y., Thomas G. Sticht(eds.): The Textbook in American Society. Washington DC 1981.
• Conderman, Greg; Elf, Nanci (2007), What's in This Book? Engaging Students through a Textbook Exploration
Activity, Reading & Writing Quarterly, v23 n1 p111-116 Jan-Mar 2007.
• Connors, Robert J. (1986). College Composition and Communication, Vol. 37, No. 2. (May, 1986), pp. 178-194.
[4]
Available from JSTOR: HTML

• Davies, Florence (1986). "The Function of the Textbook in Sciences and the Humanities." In: Gillham, Bruce (ed.):
The Language of School Subjects.
• De Castell, Suzanne, Allan Luke, Carmen Luke (eds.) (1989): Language, Authority and Criticism. Readings on the
School Textbook. London/New York/Philadelphia.
• Eco, Umberto. 1981. The Role of the Reader. Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts. London: Hutchinsons &
Co.Ltd.
• Farrell, Joseph P., Stephen P. Heyneman (eds.) (1989). Textbooks in the Developing World. Economic and
Educational Choices. The World Bank. Washington DC.
• Fisch, S.: Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Cambridge 1980.
• Fleming, D.B., R.J. Nurse (1982): "Vietnam Revised: Are our Textbooks Changing?" In: Social Education No. 46.
[5]
• Flower and Higgings, Collaboration And The Construction Of Meaning, Technical Report No. 56 PDF . This is a
preprint of a writtten communication article.

• Flower, L. & Hayes, J. R. (1984). Images, plans, and prose: The representation of meaning in writing. Written
Communication 1: 120-160.
• Gionfriddo, Jeanne Jarema, The Dumbing Down of Textbooks: An Analysis of Six Textbook Editions during a
Twelve Year Span. M.A. Thesis, Kean College of New Jersey.
• Grannis, C.B. (ed.) (1967): What happens in Textbook Publishing. New York.
• Graves, M.F., W.H.Slater (1986). "Could Textbooks Be Better Written and Would It Make a Difference?" American
Educator 10:1.
• Haynes Anthony, Textbooks as Learning Resources, Eighth International Conference on Learning and Educational
[10]
Media. PDF

• Hinchman, K. (1987). "The Textbook and Those Content Area Teachers.", Reading Research and Instruction 26
Textbook research 197

• Horsley, M. and Lambert, D. (2001) The Secret Garden of Classroom and Textbooks: Insights from Research on
the Classroom Use of Textbooks, in Horsley, M. (2001) Ed. The Future of Textbooks? International Colloquium on
School Publishing: Research About Emerging Trends: Australian Publishing Association: Sydney
• Horsley, Mike and Richard Walker (2005). Video Based Classroom Observation Systems for Examining the Use
and Role of Textbooks and Teaching Materials in Learning, Eighth International Conference on Learning and
[6]
Educational Media. PDF

• Issitt, John (2005) Reflections on the study of textbooks, History Of Education, November, 2004, Vol. 33, No. 6,
[DOI [11]

• Johnsen, Egil Børre (2001), Textbooks in the Kaleidoscope, A Critical Survey of Literature and Research on
[12]
Educational Texts, Translated by Linda Sivesind, Digital Edition Tønsberg: Vestfold College, 2001 HTML (This
on-line text also includes a good bibliography, up the early 1990's).
• Jones, Alan (2005) Conceptual Development in Technical and Textbook Writing: A Challenge for L1 and L2
Student Readers, Proceedings of the International Professional Communication Conference, Limerick, Ireland,
12-15 July, 2005. PDF [7] - Abstract [8]
• Lucas, Nadine (2005). Textbooks as a research challenge in computational linguistics, Eighth International
[9]
Conference on Learning and Educational Media. PDF
• Lubben F; Campbell B; Kasanda C.; Kapenda H.; Gaoseb N.; Kandjeo-Marenga U. (2003). Teachers' Use of
Textbooks: practice in Namibian science classrooms, Educational Studies, Volume 29, Numbers 2-3. Abstract [10]
• McNamara, D.S., Kintsch, E., Songer, N.B. and Kintsch, W. (1996). "Are good texts always better? Interactions of
text coherence, background knowledge, and levels of understanding in learning from text", Cognition and
Instruction, v14 n1 p1-43.
• Michael, Ian (1990). "Aspects of Textbook Research." Paradigm No.2
• Mikk, Jaan. 2000. Textbook: Research and Writing. Frankfurt: Peter Lang GmbH. ISBN 3-631-36335-4
• Montelongo, José; Lola Berber-Jiménez, Anita C. Hernández, and David Hosking, Teaching Expository Text
Structures [11] (needs paid registration).
• Myers, G. (1992). Textbooks and the sociology of scientific knowledge. English for Specific Purposes, 11, 3-17.
• Nazarova, T. S. Gospodarik, I. P. (2006). Strategy for the Development of the Textbook. Russian Education And
Society 48 (6).
• Pierre Moeglin, The Textbook and after,Eighth International Conference on Learning and Educational Media. PDF
[12].

• Rosenblatt, L.: The Reader, the Text, the Poem. Carbondale 1978.
• Russel, Activity Theory and Its Implications for Writing Instruction. In Reconceiving Writing, Rethinking Writing
Instruction. Ed. Joseph Petraglia. (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum,1995): 51-78. (Word Preprint [13]).
[14]
• Russel, David R. (1997). Rethinking Genre in School and Society: An Activity Theory Analysis (preprint).
Published in Written Communication 14 : 504-554.
[15]
• Schlafly, Phyllis (1996). The Dumbing Down of America's Colleges, Eagle Forum 29:9 (has to do more with a
critique of the school system)
[16]
• Hall, John et al. (1999). Mapping of International Studies of Textbooks, SCRE/OSI PDF (this is a short
annotated bibliography).
• Schorling, Raleigh, J.B. Edmonson: "The Techniques of Textbook Authors." In: The Thirtieth Yearbook of the NSSE.
Part II. Bloomington 1931.
Textbook research 198

• Sigurgeirsson, Ingvar: "Inquiring into the Nature, Role, and Use of Curriculum Materials in Icelandic Schools."
Reykjavik 1990.
• Squire, James R.: "Textbooks to the Forefront." In: Book Research Quarterly, Summer 1985.
• Trail Mary Ann; Carolyn Gutierrez and David Lechner (2006)., Reconsidering a Traditional Instruction Technique:
Reassessing the Print Workbook, The Journal of Academic Librarianship, Volume 32, Issue 6, November 2006,
[17]
Pages 632-640. (Abstract )
• Tyson-Bernstein, Harriet, Woodward, Arthur: "Why Students Aren't Learning Very Much from Textbooks." In:
Educational Leadership, November 1989
• Wolf, Shelby A. Interpreting Literature with Children, ISBN: 0805845143
• Woodward, Arthur, David L. Elliott (eds.): NSSE Yearbook 1990: Part I. Textbooks and Schooling in the United
States. Chicago 1990.
• Zahorik, John A. (1990) "Stability and Flexibility in Teaching." In: Teaching andTeacher Education No. 6.

Textbook writing tutorial

Draf
Some sections are missing, but some elements may be useful. Unfortunately it is unlikely that I will finish this
sometimes soon - Daniel K. Schneider 19:08, 3 September 2008 (UTC). Maybe someone else ;)

Definition
This article deals with how to write a textbook, i.e. tries to formalize a few recipes. The first sections rather deal
with principles.
Disclaimer: I am not a textbook writer. This is just based on a summary of some literature and a superficial analysis
of some textbooks. My motivation was twofold: I had to write a small textbook for a distance teaching course on
educational technology. I also plan to use this to improve tutorials in this wiki over time - Daniel K. Schneider 10:17,
24 September 2008.
See also (and maybe before):
• Textbook (Introduction)
• Textbook genres and examples
• Textbook research
Textbook writing tutorial 199

Textbook writing and pedagogical theory

Firstly, textbook writing is related to instructional design and therefore one might look at textbooks in terms of
some instructional design models and methods.
On a prescriptive level, one might argue that authors should use at least some kind of backwards design, i.e. define
what students are supposed to be able to do (e.g. solve problems) and then write the books that enables them to
do so. In the same spirit, one also could argue that textbooks should respect some first principles of instruction, e.g.
let's recall Merrill's:
• The demonstration principle: Learning is promoted when learners observe a demonstration
• The application principle: Learning is promoted when learners apply the new knowledge
• The activation principle: Learning is promoted when learners activate prior knowledge or experience
• The integration principle: Learning is promoted when learners integrate their new knowledge into their
everyday world
• The task-centered principle: Learning is promoted when learners engage in a task-centered instructional
strategy
However, textbook writing is a specific activity and one should not forget that textbooks are usually just an element
in a wider pedagogic strategy. Therefore, writing should be planned together with some possible pedagogical use
cases. E.g. Horsley and Walker (2005:265) identify a changing conception of textbooks that is related to changing
learning theories. Teaching and learning materials e.g. textbooks are used differently according to pedagogical
theory:
• Transmission: Source of information, Basis of transmission, Knowledge authority, Structure of a teaching and
learning program
• Constructivist: Activity and inquiry source; Provision of multiple sources for students; student knowledge
;construction Multiple sources for teacher selection.
• Sociocultural: Scaffolds learning; Enculturates students into disciplinary knowledge and practices; Source of
inquiry activities; Basis of explicit teachings.
See also the related discussion around the pedagogical purpose of various kinds of learning objects.
This short discussion only tells us that textbooks can be analyzed in terms of their function and in this perspective it
becomes less clear what a textbook is. E.g. Johnsen (2001) argues that “the definition of a textbook may be as
general as to include other books made and published for educational purpose, or even any book used in the
classroom. The textbook may also be a subset of an even broader and increasingly more commonly-used term
"teaching media"”.
Daniel K. Schneider adheres to the idea that a textbook is a special genre of teaching media and that includes some
kind of "built-in" pedagogy or at least affordances to support a range of pedagogies.

Pedagogical objectives
Textbooks are written with pedagogical objectives in mind. But since teachers and learners must construct their
own representation, they sometimes re-purpose a text in ways not anticipated. E.g. a textbook could be used just
for reference instead of for direct instruction. The opposite is also true, a good reference book also could be used as
textbook.
For an author, there are several ways to manage objectives (each ISD model or extensions like the Kemp model will
tell you more). Often, advise on writing textbooks suggests to plan book chapters in terms of desired learning level
outcomes. But, again, the author should be aware that teachers define reading assignments (textbooks as a whole
or portions of it) in function of their pedagogical objectives. These may not be compatible with the original intent of
the author.
The most important objectives concern learning objectives, e.g. what the student should master after having
worked through parts of the textbook. Reading is usually linked to other class/homework activities. Again, both
authors and teachers (and one could argue, learners too) should also engage in this exercise. For example, the
Textbook writing tutorial 200

[1]
IOWA writing assistant identifies 6 levels of emphasis based on Bloom's taxonomy of learning that we reproduce
here exactly as defined in Applying your results [2] (retrieved 20:03, 27 July 2007 (MEST)):
1. Knowledge: rote memorization, recognition, or recall of facts.
2. Comprehension: understanding what the facts mean.
3. Application: correct use of the facts, rules, or ideas.
4. Analysis: breaking down information into component parts.
5. Synthesis: combind parts to make a new whole.
6. Evaluation: judging the value or worth of information or ideas.
Depending on global objectives of the book, an author can put different emphasis on each of "Bloom" levels.
Objectives at book and chapter level should also be associated with activities, assessment, etc.
Here is an example for Synthesis-level objective. Target students are students in educational technology. The
learning activity handed out is to prepare an e-Text about e-learning standards.
• Objective: "By the end of this section, you (as a student) will be able to design a learning object that introduces
key components of e-learning standards, and in particular modeling languages.
• Activities: Make your own summary of the most important concepts you can find in articles on educational
modeling languages and then design a course module with eXe
• Assessment: Quality of your course module (details to be announced)
• Key Words: Design, formulate, build, invent, create, compose, generate, derive, modify, develop.
Usually in textbooks, objectives are not just used to plan the text, but they are made explicit. Objectives can be
written out at the start of chapters and/or sections and activities inserted where appropriate. Hints for self-
assessment can added too.

Textbook language and organization of contents

Textbooks, in language research seems to be identified as a genre (or genres). Most research focuses on structural
analysis of textbooks, but some research also produces knowledge that can be used for prescriptions: According to
Jones (2005), textbook writers have three choices: simplification, easyfication, or the scaffolding of concept
knowledge. We shall summarize some prescriptions can be derived from this article.
Simplification strategies - enhanced cohesion/coherence
• simplification of content: explain new technical terms as they arise
• simplification of form: make sure that the text has cohesive links and restores implicit relationships, e.g. when
using general-specific of problem-solution progressions.
• simplification by including explanations and exemplifications
• using similar structures, i.e. syntactic repetition acts as a form of syntactic scaffolding.
Note that simplification may turn against learning. For example NcNamara et al. (1996) found that “ text coherence
improved readers' comprehension, but also that giving readers with sufficient background knowledge an
incoherent text that forced them to infer unstated relations engaged them in compensatory processing, allowing
deeper text understanding than might occur with a coherent text.”
Easyfication strategies - enhancing structure
The purpose easyfication is to “give learners an additional instructional
appahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textbookratus by developing a kind of "access structure" around the text without
his [sic] having gone through the intervening stages of simplified materials” Bhatia cited by Jones (2005:9).
Examples of such devices are:
• Provide introductory paragraph(s) to a text (or text segment)
• Provide a structural analysis ('tagging' sections) to a text (or text segment), e.g. as in Advance Organizers.
• Provide a schematic representation of a text (or text segment)
• Add annotations/explanations to the text, e.g. marginalia
Textbook writing tutorial 201

• Add metadiscursive commentaries (before, in the middle, or after)

• Add questions to encourage interactions with the text
Scaffolding - providing domain knowledge
“Scaffolding in the sense intended here means the provision of a series of carefully designed pre-task exercises (or
activities) which allow students to familiarize themselves with concepts of increasing complexity and to explore
these concepts in terms of their reactances and interrelations.” Jones (2005:10) Typical scaffolding activities can be:
• filling in gaped texts
• complete sentences
• propositional clusters
• produce or complete tables and flow charts
• write summaries of various sorts, e.g. include critique, most things relevant, organize information, etc.
Of course these activities can be assigned by teacher, i.e. they must not necessarily be part of the text itself.

The book structure and genre

Objectives and genres

Let's recall that a textbook should be written with respect to an identified set of objectives. These should include an
analysis of learning objectives and pedagogical function of the book
within potential learning situations/environments. You may have to compromise here, i.e.
anticipate different use cases.
In addition, in some areas you may consider switching genres in different chapters. E.g. a text on educational
multimedia animation may include a chapter on learning theoretical background (e.g. cognitive load) and a
introduction to flash. Clearly, such chapters are not of the same kind and may adopt different rhetorics.
See Textbook genres and examples for a discussion of some genres we superficially analyzed.

Structure (headings)
Often textbooks are divided into a structure like this:

Parts
Chapters
Sections
Sub-sections

Parts either represent different major topics (e.g. conceptual vs. technical) or levels
Chapters contain a clearly identifiable major topic. In the US teaching university system, a textbook corresponds to
a week's work, e.g. two classes and a homework assignment. This may be the reason why most textbooks are
divided into 8-12 chapters. You need a least 8 if you want to sell the book to a "teaching professor" it seems.
Sections contain major subtopics, i.e. a independent unit of instruction. Sub-sections usually cover a concept or
procedure to be learned. For a reason I do not understand, sections are generally not numbered in American
textbooks. An exception is Deitel (2004).
Each heading that has subheadings must have at least two of its kind. E.g. a chapter should not just include a single
section, but at least two. In most "hard-core" textbooks, everything is usually divided by three or four, plus openers
and closers. Btw. this is also how military units are organized ...
Style of headings may be imposed by the publisher, e.g. capitalization and numbering scheme. Therefore,
structuring is not only a pedagogical issue and you may have to give up pedagogical beliefs in order to comply with
external constraints. E.g. I find it strange that navigation is so difficult in typical US textbooks and I suspect that this
may be the result of "artistic" guidelines.
Textbook writing tutorial 202

Good topical structure

Heading structure should have a function as conceptual organizers. The structure “ reflects the amount of
information you are providing, the amount of differentiation you are making within and between topics, and each
topic's relative importance in you scheme of things” (Lepionka: 106).
Lepionka (2003:108) outlines a few characteristics of good topical structure that we reproduce here with different
wording:
(1) Each major section (chapter, section and sub-section) should include a thesis statement, either
typographicallymarked or in the introductory paragraph. E.g. in Alessi (2001:138) we find in the third paragraph
of introduction to the "Hypermedia chapter":
Two components are necessary for a hypermedia program to be successful. First, it must have a clear and well-
reasoned purpose. Second, it must be designed in accordance with that purpose ...
(2) Ideas or points are grouped into meaningful chunks of information.
(3) There should be a balance of topical development and including a reasonable amount of information. E.g.
forsmaller concept (a sub-section level) between 1/2 and 1 1/2 pages (figures not included).
(4) Topics (sections, subsections, etc.) should lead to each other. In other words, a textbook should not be
writtenlike an Encyclopedia. (This wiki is clearly not a textbook).
(5) These transitions should be clear, i.e. made explicit for the novices that your readers are.
(6) Each main concept should be supported, e.g. by data or examples.
(7) Each topic should only be treated once and you should avoid forward pointers.

Overview of textbook chapter elements

Most textbooks are written with a sort of direct instruction model in mind. However, this is not an obligation.
Consider that teachers engaged in other pedagogical approaches do not necessarily use textbooks, but rather a
combination of manuals and "normal" academic texts. I.e. a textbook that mainly targets research university
students as opposed to teaching college students may implement very different design principles.
But in any case, chapters should include various functional elements that will at least help the reader to understand
the text. These elements also may show visually. Lepionka (2003:117-118,123) distinguishes four major kinds of
elements which we will summarize here, before a more detailed discussion later on.
1. Openers
Express “subject, theme, aims, topics, and organization of a chapter [... readers should] know at the outset
what they are reading and why or to what end” (Lepionka 2003:117). E.g. if you follow Gagné's nine events of
instruction then you should include something to motivate and gain attention (step 1), something to help the
frame and organize (step 2) and something to recall prior knowledge (step 3).
Typical openers are:
• overviews (previews)
• introductions
• outlines (text, bullets or graphics)
• focus questions (knowledge and comprehension questions)
• learning goals / objectives / outcomes / competences / skills
• A case problem
• In addition one may use the "special features" used inside chapters, e.g. vignettes, photos, quotations, ...
2. Closers
Give students opportunities to review, reinforce, or extend their learning, i.e. help with transfer of learning
(Lepionka 2003:118) Typical closers are:
• conclusions and summaries (may include diagrams)
Textbook writing tutorial 203

• list of definitions
• reference boxes (e.g. computer instructions)
• review questions
• self-assessment (usually simple quizzes)
• small exercises
• substantial exercises and problem cases
• fill-in tables (for "learning-in-action" books) to prepare a real world task
• ideas for projects (academic or real world)
• bibliographies and links (that can be annotated)
3. Integrated Pedagogical Devices
These elements aid the learning process in several ways, e.g. by giving advice on how to understand /
interpret or navigate, by engaging the learner in some reflection, by pointing out important elements, or to
summarize key elements treated in previous text.
Typical elements are:
• Emphasis (bold face) of words
• Marginalia that summarize paragraphs
• Lists that highlight main points
• Summary tables and graphics
• Crossreferences that link backwards (or sometimes forwards) to important concepts
• Markers to identify embedded subjects (e.g. an "external" term used and that needs explanation)
• Study and review questions
• Pedagogical illustrations (concepts rendered graphically)
• Tips (to insure that the learner doesn't get caught in misconceptions or procedural errors)
• Reminders (e.g. make sure that something that was previously introduced is remembered)
4. Interior Feature Strands
“Intext features, whether boxes or portions of text set off through design, function pedagogically to attract
attention; arouse curiosity; increase motivation to read stimulate critical thinking; and provide opportunities
for reflection, application, or problem solving” (Lepionka, 2003: 118).
Typical elements are:
• Case studies
• Problem descriptions
• Debates and reflections
• Profiles (case descriptions)
• Primary sources and data
• Models
Some of these four kinds of elements will be discussed in more details below

Chapter Openers
Chapter openers should be used consistently through the text, at least in form (in case chapter genres are
different). Below we present a few techniques that can be use in combination or (as seen in some textbooks) alone.
Again, it is not always obvious to differentiate between function and structure. A well written introductory text
labelled "introduction" may very well cover preview, introduction and outline without making a clear distinction.
But its probably best to use a paragraph for each. E.g Alessi (2001:138) which is a highly regarded book since 1985
now in its third edition, structures the introduction to the "Hypermedia chapter" with three elements:
• Topic and definition of the concept
• A list of 5 topics (truncated below) • A chapter preview (truncated below) Quotation:
Textbook writing tutorial 204

This chapter focuses on the hypermedia technology. Programs of this methodology consist of a database of
information with multiple methods of navigation and features to facilitate learning. The chapter includes:
1. A brief description of hypermedia's history and origins
2. A description of the basic structure of hypermedia and its essential characteristics 3. Description
of various hypermedia formats
4. ....
Two components are necessary for a hypermedia program to be successful. First, it must have a clear and well-
reasoned purpose. Second, it must be designed in accordance with that purpose ...
Below we shall examine various chapter opener elements with some more examples.

Chapter Previews
Also called chapter overviews (but there might be a slight different), these elements summarize the "big picture"
and frame the reader for acquiring the details.
Here is an example from Clark (2003:97) in the chapter "Applying the Redundancy Principle"
SOME e-LEARNING describe graphics using words in both onscreen text and audio narration in which the audio
repeats the text. We call this technique redundant onscreen text. In this chapter, we summarize empirical evidence
that graphics explained by audio alone rather that graphics explained by audio and redundant onscreen text gets
better learning results. [...four lines cut ...]
Previews also act as self-monitoring device, i.e. it will you as an author whether you are able to understand what
you wrote ...

Introductions
Introductions both at chapter and section level rather focus on the problem, i.e. try to convey to learner why the
topic is important and in which context this knowledge is relevant. It also can link to previous chapters. E.g. the
editors introduction to David Merrills' chapter on "First Principles of Instruction" (Reiser, 2006:62) starts like this:
In section 2 of this book, several of the authors point to differences in design practices between positivists
(objectivists) and relativists (constructionists). In this chapter, David Merrril takes a different tack. Having spent
several years studying a number of different instructional design theories and models, including a variety of
positivist and constructivist approaches, he concludes that these different theories and models do share common
instructional principles, which he labels First Principles of Instruction.
This text states a goals or an achievement, but it does not (like in a chapter preview) summarize these first
principles of instruction
Here is another example from Deitel (2004:141). The Introduction is a numbered section and comes right after the
outline (see below).
In Chapters 4 and 5, we introduced the Extensible HyperText Markup Language (XHTML) for marking up
information. In this chapter, we shift our focus to formatting and presenting information. To do this, we use a W3C
technology called Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) that allows document authors to specify the presentation of
elements on a Web page (e.g., fonts, spacing, margins, etc.) separately from the structure of the document (section
headers, body text, links, etc.). this separation of structure from presentation simplifies maintaining an modifying a
document's layout.
Again, this introduction, makes a link and provides motivation for reading on.

Chapter outlines
Chapter outlines either support or integrate (replace) the function of Preview and Introduction. E.g. Morsund
(2000:35) in the "the case for PBL" chapter uses a rather short multi-purpose introduction:
Textbook writing tutorial 205

PBL is a versatile approach to instruction that can readily be used in conjunction with other approaches. A huge
number of articles have been written about PBL. Most, however, are specific examples and testimonials rather than
carefully conducted research studies.
This chapter discusses a number of different types of arguments that support the use of PBL and IT-assisted PBL in
the classroom. In total, they present a strong case for increased use of PBL in K-12 education.
Driscoll (2005) starts chapter 6 "Simulations" with a quote from two researchers and then outlines the chapter as
follows:
In This Chapter
In this chapter, we will
• Define the term simulation
• Discuss the factors that have been obstacles to the adoption of simulations as and instructional strategy
• Describe the benefits and limitations of simulations
• Describe nine types of simulations to add to your portfolio of simulation techniques and explain how these types
of simulation differ
• Provide a portfolio of examples of simulation
In addition to an introductory text, one may also just display the chapter's internal table of content. It may replace
the outline 'if' the section titles are well chosen.
E.g. Deitel (2004: 141) after presenting Objectives and funny quotes on page one presents an outline of the 12
sections: Outline

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Inline Styles
6.3 Embedded Style Sheets
...
This is followed by an introduction.

Learning objectives
Learning objectives can be interwoven with any of the above, but in a "hard-core" textbook they are usually stated
in box à-part in list form.
E.g. Carey (2007:227) in the "Working with Cascading Style Sheets" Tutorial (chapter) defines objectives for each of
the three Sessions (sections) in a sidebox next to the case problem that opens the chapter.
Session 5.1
• Understand the history and theory of CSS
• Write selectors for specific XML elements
• Set the display style for elements
• Size and position elements on a rendered page
...

Focus questions
Focus questions or in terms of Reiser (2007:viii) "knowledge and comprehension questions “at the start of each
chapter require students to identify the key ideas presented and demonstrate their understanding of those ideas”
There are five focus questions attached to David Merrills' chapter on "First Principles of Instruction" (Reiser,
2006:62) and rendered in a smaller left-side column of the first chapter page. We list the two first ones:
1. In your own words, briefly describe each of the five first principles of instruction discussed in this chapter.
Textbook writing tutorial 206

2. Merrill briefly indicates why each of the first principles is important. Briefly summarize his position regarding the
importance of each principle and the indicate, for each principle, whether you agree or disagree with his point
of view. Explain why you feel this way.

Case problems
Case problems have two functions:
• They motivate since the link topics to be covered to a real world problem
• They provide an example which can structure and/or exemplify the discourse
Clark (2003) use what the call a Design dilemma for each chapter. It is part of the chapter preview, i.e. follows a
paragraph in the proper sense of preview as illustrated above. Design dilemmas are marked in a grey box and take
up 1 or pages. In the chapter "Applying the Redundancy Principle", there is a 2-page dilemma of which we quote a
few excepts (it also contains 2 figures).
Design Dilemma
In response to a request from the quality director of Madison Industries, you have created the perfect multimedia
presentation for a company training program. As described in the previous chapter, your introductory lesson gives
an overview of the quality control tools as part of the overall company quality process. As shown in figure 6.1, it
contains a short animation and is consistent [ ... ] In spite of your valiant efforts, the directory says "we need to
accommodate different learning style ... [ ... ] Although you have complied with the director's request, you are not
convinced ...
Carey (2007:227) in his chapter design only uses a list of objectives and a case to open chapters. The case
description usually takes a half a page (but specifics are introduced throughout the rest of the chapter). We quote a
few excerpts:
Tour Nation Janet Schmidtt works in the Advertising Department of Tour Nation, a leading bicycle manufacturer.
On of her responsibilities is to maintain an XML document that describes the various models offered by Tour
Nation. Janet created a [ ... ]
In its current form, the document is not very easy for other Tour Nation employees to read. Janet wants to format
the document [...]

Other elements
At chapter start one also may use typical features that are use as interior feature strands. See
[#Special_features_strands|Special features strands]

Integrated pedagogical devices

(missing)

Special features strands

Case studies and scenarios
(missing)

Quotations and epigrams

(missing)

Pictures
(missing)
Textbook writing tutorial 207

Summary and reference tables

(missing)

Chapter Closers

Conclusion
A conclusion should make a point. It may be seen as the "alter ego" of the the Chapter Introduction.
David Merrills' chapter "First Principles of Instruction" (Reiser, 2006:69) conclusion takes about 2/3s of a column
and starts like this:
It would apprear from the limited sources quoted in this chapter that first principles are not only common to and
prescribed by mny instructional design theories and models, but that they are also consistent with empirical
research on instruction ...
Alessi (2001:173)'s conclusion takes up a bit more than a page and ismore of a summary. But it starts like this, i.e
with a point:
There are many important factors in hypermedia design. It cannot be distilled into a specfific set of things to do and
not do. However, some general and some specific principles, when applied intelligentyl (that is, in consideration of
your context, content, and learner characteristics), ca help you make good design decisions.

Summary
The summary has a similar function as the chapter preview. It may be part of the conclusion or be labelled as a
separate section or sub-section. It may for instance summarize essential points for each section. “A summary
should be a content review, not a catalogue of what has been covered” (Lepionka 2003:141)
Alessi (2001:173)'s hypermedia chapter conclusion is mostly a summary of design principles, i.e. 2 paragraphs and a
longer item list The first summary paragraph looks like this (see above for the conclusion opener):
First and most importantly, you should be clear about the purpose of your program and identify which of the eight
hypermedia formats you will use to accomplish that purpose. Most other design decisions concerning the
knowledge database, navigation, an support for learning follow logically from your purpose and chose format.
After stating an other second principle, the authors then list some morespecific recommendations as a list (see
below)
Carey (2007:282)'s tutorial chapter summary is just a review of topics covered. In Daniel K. Schneider's this may be
ok for a technical textbook. The summary starts like this:
This tutoraiil covered how to create a CSS style sheet and apply it to an XML document. The first session covered
the history and theory behind the development of CSS. The session then explored [ ...] The second session [...]

Lists of principles
Alessi (2001:173) ends the conclusion of the hypermedia chapter with a list of specific recommendations that can
apply to most hypermedia programes. We quote the first four (out of 21) here:
• Use multiple media, including both visual and autitory presentations.
• Make the structure of information visible to learners
• Provide cues, coaching, landmarks, section labels, and display consistency to facilitate learner orientation.
• Design for text readability and to encourage deep processing of text.

List of definitions or key terms

Carey (2007:283) ends a tutorial (a chapter) with a tutorial summary(a paragraph) and a list of "naked" key terms,
followed by several "practice pages".
Textbook writing tutorial 208

absolute position CSS3 relative position absolute unit em unit

relative unit ....

This is IMHO rather useless, unless it is meant to challenge the student to make sure that he integrated definitions
of these.

Review questions
Carey (2007) inserts review questions at the end of sessions (sections). E.g. the review (also marked with a
marginalia title) of session 5.3 includes 7 questions and starts like this:

Session 5.3 Quick Check

1. What is the difference between a specific font and a generic font ?
2. What is a relative unit ? What are the two relative units supported by CSS?
3. How would you display the the Summary element in a boldface Arial font?

Review questions for Transfer

Driscoll's (2005) chapter 6 "Simulations" end includes as final element, a section labelled "Reflection and
application": It starts like this:
To reflect on the material presented in this chapter and apply in in a real e-learning situation, consider how you
would respond to the following challenges. (Each of these challenges is intentionally left vague. If you are unsure
about a piece of information, make an assumption about it and list the assumption On of the challenges starts and
ends like this:
To vice president of human resources in your company has scheduled a mdeeting with you to talk about an
initiative to improve customer service. Your company is in the hospitality business [...] You are considering
recommending an online learning program that uses a simulation strategy. Outline the the benefits and limitations
of this strategy before your meeting.
This is a short and open ended case problem for which the student is support to sketch out a design.

Transfer aids
Driscoll (2005) ends chapter 6 "Simulations" with a section labelled "Conclusion". The second paragraph looks like
this:
Using the examples in this chapter, think about how you might use simulations in a blended mode. If you don't have
the budget, time, or support to develop a pur simulation-based program, consider simulation as a post-training
program. Use smaller programs with a focus on authentic and corrective feedback to re-inforce classroom lessons.
She then continues with a short annotated bibliography labelled "Learn More about it" an finally finally some
review questions (see above)
Some authors also include planning aides (e.g. till-in tables) for reader who want to put theory into practise.

Self-assessment
(missing)

Exercises
(missing)

Projects
(missing)
Textbook writing tutorial 209

Further reading
(missing)

Typographic Design

Overall style
Pedagogical discourse should be reflected in layout. However, as it is the general rule in educational technology,
there is no single solution. Daniel K. Schneider believes that a lot of design decisions are rather based on intuition
than on solide knowledge what works.
Globally speaking, there exist two extremes. Textbooks that relativeley "sober" with relatively few words per page
and the opposite end textbooks that use wide pages, lots of color and graphical markup. Here are two examples
from "real" textbooks:
Carey, Patrick (2006) New Perspectives on XML, Second Edition, Comprehensive.
This is the second page of the chapter (tutorial on CSS). The first page contains instructions dealing with code.

Carey, Patrick (2006) New Perspectives on XML

This is the third page of the same chapter

Textbook writing tutorial 210

Carey, Patrick (2006) New Perspectives on XM

Driscoll
This is the first page of the simulation chapter

Driscoll, M., Carliner, S. (2005) Advanced Web-Based

Training - Real World Strategies in Your Online
Learning

Titles
(missing)

Marginalia
(missing)

Strong text
(missing)

Crossreferences
Textbook writing tutorial 211

(missing)

Figures
(missing)

Boxes
(missing)

Using a word processor

• See Microsoft Word if you must use it ...

Links
• Richard Felder [3]'s resources in science and engineering education.
• What I've Learned about Writing Economics [4] by Hal R. Varian, University of California, Berkeley
[5]
• Writing Guidelines for Engine (Eco)ering and Science Students by Michael Alley
[6]
• Getting Started Creating A Textbook by David Rees (goals and process). (also here [7]).
[8]
• Instructional literature , Development of Educational Material, CARNet, retrieved 19:57, 8 August 2007
(MEST)).
• Technical Writing, An Introduction to the Craft of Technical Communication] (2009) by Rachael Shoemaker •
So You Want to Write a Book [9] (O'Reilly)

References
For research-related questions, see textbook research

Practical Advise
• Alley, M. 1996 The Craft of Scientific Writing (3rd Ed.). Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. ISBN 0-387-94766-3
• Ben-Ari, M., Walker, H. M., Redvers-Mutton, G., and Mansfield, K. 2002. Writing a textbook. In Proceedings of
[12]
the 7th Annual Conference on innovation and Technology The Textbook and after... Pierre Moeglin in
Computer Science Education (Aarhus, Denmark, June 24 - 28, 2002). ITiCSE '02. ACM Press, New York, NY, 94-95.
DOI 10.1145/544414.544444 [10] (Summary of a panel discussion).
• Dale, N., Mercer, R., Koffman, E., and Savitch, W. 2001. Writing a textbook: walking the gauntlet. SIGCSE Bull. 33,
[11]
1 (Mar. 2001), 408-409. Abstract (summary of a panel discussion)
• Forbes, David J., (1996), Make History Textbook Writing "A Puzzlement", The History Teacher. Vol. 29, No. 4
[12]
(Aug., 1996), pp. 455-461. JSTOR Bitmap/POF
• Hatch, Mary Jo (2007). Writing From Teaching: A Textbook Writer's Tale, Journal of Management Education, Vol.
31, No. 3, 405-412 (2007). DOI 10.1177/1052562906298443 [13]

• Jones, Alan (2005) Conceptual Development in Technical and Textbook Writing: A Challenge for L1 and L2
Student Readers, Proceedings of the International Professional Communication Conference, Limerick, Ireland,
[7] [8]
12-15 July, 2005. PDF - Abstract
• Lepionka, Mary Ellen (2003), Writing and Developing Your College Textbook, ISBN 0-9728164-0-2. (This practical
book gets good reviews. I bought it and find it useful - Daniel K. Schneider)
Textbook writing tutorial 212

• Lepionka, Mary Ellen (2005), Writing and Developing College Textbook Supplements ISBN 0-9728164-1-0
• Silv (Eco)erman, Franklin H. (2004), Self-Publishing Textbooks and Instructional Materials, ISBN 0-9728164-3-7
• Thirlway, M. 1994 Writing Software Manuals: a Practical Guide. Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-138801-0
• Ranking, Elizabeth, The Work of Writing: Insights and Strategies for Academics and Professionals, Wiley, ISBN:
978-0-7879-5679-0
Remark: My reason for writing in English is simple. That way I can find at least a few readers. I know that my
unedited English is bad. Some things I could fix myself (like spelling, omission of words, too long sentences etc. if I
had more time). Anyhow, there exist some manuals about style. However, Geoffrey K. Pullum in his piece 50 Years
of Stupid Grammar Advice [14] warns that “ English syntax is a deep and interesting subject. It is much too important
to be reduced to a bunch of trivial don't-do-this prescriptions by a pair of idiosyncratic bumblers who can't even tell
when they've broken their own misbegotten rules.”.

Instructional objectives
See also: instructional design and instructional design method in particular.
• Felder, Richard M. and Rebecca Brent (1997). Objectively Speaking, Chemical Engineering Education, 31(3), 178-
179 (1997). HTML reprint [15]
• Gronlund, N.E. (1991)- How to write and use instructional objectives (4th ed.) New York, Macmillan.

Examples of textbooks
• Alessi, Stephen. M. & Trollop, Stanley. R., (2001) Multimedia for Learning (3rd Edition), Pearson Allyn & Bacon,
ISBN 0-205-27691-1.
• Clark, Ruth Colvin and Richard E. Mayer (2003). E-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for
Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning, Pfeiffer, ISBN 0787960519
• Carey, Patrick (2006) New Perspectives on XML, Second Edition, Comprehensive. ISBN 1418860646, 655 pages
• Deitel, Harvey M., Paul J. Deitel, Andrew B. Goldberg, (2004) Internet & World Wide Web How to Program (3rd
Edition). Prentice Hall; 3 edition, ISBN 0131450913
• Dépelteau, François (2000), a démarche d'une recherche en sciences humaines, De Boeck ISBN-10 2804135268
• Driscoll, M., Carliner, S. (2005) Advanced Web-Based Training : Adapting Real World Strategies in Your Online
Learning, Pfeiffer. ISBN 0787969796
• Morsund, David (2002) Project-based learning: Using Information Technology, 2nd edition, ISTE. ISBN 1-56484-
196-0
• Reiser Robert A. and John V. Dempsey (eds). (2006). Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology,
2nd edition. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131708058
• Veer, E.A. Vander and Chris Grover (2007). Flash CS3: The Missing Manual. ISBN 0596510446
Learning design 213

Learning design
Draf

Definitions
A Learning Design describes the educational process, not just courseware but the whole teaching/learning
experience. It's a more or less formal description of a pedagogical scenario (also called educational script or
storyboard) and that may or may not follow an instructional design model.
The process of learning design refers to the activity of designing units of learning, learning activities or learning
environment.
Learning Designs are “pedagogically informed learning activities which make effective use of appropriate tools and
resources” (Gráinne Conole and Karen Fill [1], creators of the DialogPlus Toolkit.)
“The basic idea of EML and LD [Learning Design] is in essence simple. It represents a vocabulary which users of any
pedagogical approach understand, and into which existing designs can be translated. The core of LD can be
summarised as the view that, when learning, people in specific groups and roles engage in activities using an
[2]
environment with appropriate resources and services.” (Rob Koper and Colin Tattersall , creators of EML/IMS
Learning Design).
“The field of Learning Design seeks to describe the "process" of education - the sequences of activities facilitated by
[3]
an educator that are often at the heart of small group teaching.”(James Dalziel , creator of LAMS, retrieved 18:53,
4 June 2007 (MEST)).
See also:
• IMS Learning Design which is a related educational modeling language.
• CSCL script, an other type of learning design popular in collaborative learning.

Benefits of the learning design approach

Much of the work on Learning Design focuses on technology to automatically "run" the sequence of student
activities (facilitated by the educator via computers), but an activity in a Learning Design could be conducted
without technology. Hence, a particular Learning Design may be a mixture of online and face-to-face tasks
("blended learning") or it could be conducted entirely face-to-face with no computers (in this case, the particular
Learning Design acts as a standardised written description of the educational process - like a K-12 lesson plan). One
way to think of a Learning Design system is as a workflow engine for collaborative activities. A particular Learning
Design is like an educational recipe for a teacher - it describes ingredients (content) and instructions (process).
(James Dalziel [3], retrieved 18:53, 4 June 2007 (MEST)).
Learning Design theory is a new attempt to describe the foundational elements of the educational process. It
provides conceptual and technical tools to describe who is involved in a learning activity, what resources are
required for the activity, how the activity is conducted, and most importantly, how a collection of activities are
structured into a Learning Design(also called a unit of learning, sequence of learning activities, digital lesson plan,
etc). Two distinguishing features of recent work are (1) the description of Learning Designs in machine readable
formats so that they can be run by software systems, and (2) the ability to store Learning Designs, and hence share
them, search for them, re-use them, adapt them and so on. Taken together, these features of Learning Designs have
the potential to transform teaching and learning through the sharing and implementation of good practice. More
fundamentally, Learning Design theory may provide a new way to conceptualise the educational process via a
shared vocabulary for describing learning activities and how they are combined.
[4]
(James Dalziel, ED-MEDIA 2006 Learning Design Keynote , retrieved 4 June 2007
Learning design 214

[1]
The OU Learning Design Initiative (retrieved jan 26, 2009) identified six main benefits to adopting a learning
design approach:
* It acts as a means of eliciting designs from academics in a format that can be tested and reviewed by others
involved in the design process, i.e. a common vocabulary and understanding of learning activities.
• It provides a method by which designs can be reused, as opposed to just sharing content.
• It can guide individuals through the process of creating new learning activities.
• It helps create an audit trail of academic (and production) design decisions.
• It can highlight policy implications for staff development, resource allocation, quality, etc.
• It has the potential to aids learners and tutors in complex activities by guiding them through the activity
sequence.
Learning design can be seem as an attempt to grow the troyan mouse. “E-learning is often talked about as a ‘trojan
mouse,’ which teachers let into their practice without realizing that it will require them to rethink not just how they
use particular hardware or software, but all of what they do.” Sharpe & Oliver, 2007: 49. Once engaged in e-
learning, reflective practitioners then might become interrested in more powerful tools for planning and enacting
their teaching.

Learning Design and educational technologies

So far, typical source leaders rarely use tools to design courses. For example Masterman (2006) regarding the use of
tools in designing for learning in postcompulsory education, reported that out of 69 respondents most respondents
either rely on Pencil and Paper or very simple e-tools such as Word processors or presentation software: “On
average, respondents used 2.5 different genres of e-tool, although this figure masks a wide variation. Only 13 used
four or more genres, while 22 used only one genre, suggesting either lack of experience with other genres or that
the tool they used appeared to satisfy their requirements. Where only one e-tool was used, that tool was Word in
just over half of cases (12 out of 22)” (Masterman, 2006:13). Only 5.8% did use specialized learning design tools.
According to the LADIE framework (LADIE, 2005), we can distinguish two basic facts of learning design:
1. The design and construction of learning activities (LAA), including for example design of learning activities and
learning conents.
2. The learning activity realization (LAR), i.e. the construction of the environment and the execution of the learning
activities themselves.
Learning design tools can provide support for either one or both.
Here is an incomplete of some specialized learning design languages, tools and systems (follow up these links to
find references) and also have a look at the category educational modeling languages
Standards, formalisms and modeling languages
• IMS Learning Design (An educational modeling language)
• coUML A UML-based design language.
• BPEL (Business Process Execution Language, used for Model-Driven Learning Design)
• Collaborative learning flow pattern (CLFP)
Visual modeling languages with a tool
• E2ML
• PALO
• IAMEL (Bottino et al. 2011)
Systems
• LAMS (Learning activity management software)
• CeLS
Learning design editors
Learning design 215

• MISA (An instructional design method, includes the MOTD+ editor)

• Collage (CLFP editor)
• Compendium LD
• ASK Learning Designer Toolkit (ASK-LDT)
On-line repostitories for scenarios
• DialogPlus Toolkit (An online scenario builder).
• Cloudworks
Other initiatives (some are not called "learning design")
[5]
• Open University Learning Design Initiative (ended 2012)
• CSCL scripts
• eLML (Pedagogical document markup
[6]
• Various more ambitious lesson planning tools, such as the London Pedagogy Planner or the Phoebe pedagogic
planner

Bibliograph and links

• Bottino R. M., Ott M., Tavella M. (2011). Scaffolding pedagogical planning and design of learning activities: an on-
line dedicated tool [7], International Journal of Knowledge Society Research (IJKSR) 2, 1
• Cross, S., Galley, R., Brasher, A. & Weller, M., (2012) OULDI-JISC Project Evaluation Report: the impact of new
[8]
curriculum design tools and approaches on institutional process and design cultures
• Cross, S., Galley, R., Brasher, A. & Weller, M., (2012) Final Project Report of the OULDI-JISC Project: Challenge and
Change in Curriculum Design Process, Communities, Visualisation and Practice [9]
• OULDI Project: Evaluation and Final Project Reports now published – the impact of new curriculum design tools
[10]
and approaches on institutional process and design cultures (2012)

• Dalziel, James (2007). Learning Design and Open Source Teaching [3], retrieved 18:53, 4 June 2007 (MEST).
[4]
• Dalziel, James (2006). ED-MEDIA 2006 Learning Design Keynote
• Cross, S., Conole, G., Clark, P., Brasher, A., & Weller, M. (2008) 'Mapping a landscape of Learning Design:
identifying key trends in current practice at the Open University, European LAMS Conference.
• Conole, Gráinne and Karen Fill (2005). A learning design toolkit to create pedagogically effective learning
activities. Journal of Interactive Media in Education (Portable Learning. Special Issue, eds. Colin Tattersall, Rob
Koper), 2005/08. ISSN 1365-893X [17].
• Koper, Rob and Colin Tattersall (2005). Preface to Learning Design: A Handbook on Modelling and Delivering
Networked Education and Training. Journal of Interactive Media in Education (Advances in Learning Design.
Special Issue, eds. Colin Tattersall, Rob Koper), 2005/18. ISSN:1365-893X HTML [11].

• Kraan, Wilbert (2003). Learning Design and reuseability [12], CETIS.

[13]
• LADIE, The E-learning Framework, HTML
• Masterman Liz (2006). The Learning Design Tools Project, An Evaluation Of Generic Tools Used In, Design For
Learning, JISC Project Report. PDF [14]

• Masterman, Liz and Mira Vogel (2007). Practices and process of design for learning, in Helen Beetham, Rhona
Sharpe (eds.), Rethinking Pedagogy for a Digital Age: Designing and Delivering E-learning, Routledge, ISBN
0415408741.
Learning design 216

• Oliver, Ron (2000). When Teaching Meets Learning: Design Principles and Strategies for Web-based Learning
Environments that Support Knowledge Construction, ASCILITE 2000, keynote paper. Retrieved dec. 2007 from
http:/ /www.ascilite. org.au/ conferences/coffs00/ .PDF [15]
• Parrish, Patrick, E. (2007). Aesthetic principles for instructional design, Educational Technology Research and
Development (ETRD), http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/ s11423-007-9060-7.(Abstract/HTML/PDF) (Access restricted).
Acknowledgement: This article or part of this article has been written during a collaboration with the
[7] [8]
EducTice group of INRP , which attributed a visiting grant to DKS in january 2009.

Learning management system

Definition
A Learning Management System (sometimes also called "Course Management System", "Pedagogical Platform", "E-
Learning Platform") is a software system that delivers courseware plus e-tutoring over the Internet.
LMS should not be your starting point. Typically, when decision makers talk about E-Learning they want to know
what system to install. First of all, so called LMS are not the only answer, you also can implement E-Learning with
other tools (e.g. groupware, content management systems or even a wiki or other hypertext system, often in
combination with a forum. Second, in any case you should start by thinking about an appropriate instructional
design that uses appropriate teaching strategies for various learning types.
““LMS” is a catchall term in SCORM. It refers to a suite of functionalities designed to deliver, track, report on and
manage learning content, learner progress and learner interactions. “LMS” can apply to very simple course
management systems, or highly complex enterprise-wide, distributed environments.” (SCORM 2004 3rd Edition
Overview Version 1.0 [1]) See also:
• LAMS A good learning design system that we can recommend (for people with serious activity-based e-learning
in mind)
• Rapid elearning (for mostly simple facts & skills training needs)
• LCMS (Learning content management systems)
• Student management system

Components of an LMS
Feature lists are getting quite long and it is not easy to decide which features are the most important unless you
have a good background in various areas like instructional design, ergonomics and systems management.
Typical features are:
• Course Management, e.g. lists of courses, registration, credit information and syllabus, pre-requisites
• Teaching Materials, i.e. courseware
• Self-assessment quizzes
• Lessons tools: Authoring for contents (structured XML or HTML) and quizzing/testing (e.g. Java Script generators)
or alternatively ability to import standard IMS or SCORM packages developed with an external tool (e.g.
Dreamweaver).
• Asynchronous Communication: email, forums
• Synchronous Communication: chat, whiteboard, teleconferencing,
• Student tools: Home page, self tests, bookmarks, progress tracking, ....
• Student Management Tools: progress tracking, on-line grading (assessment), ....
Learning design 217

• Learner feedback: course evaluation surveys, test evaluation surveys etc.

Learning management system 218

Usually LMS are closed circuit platforms (logins, restricted access to classes), so the idea of sharing contents and
reusing products generated during classes does not exist in the world of "LMSs" (main-stream e-learning).

List of software
These lists needs updating, therefore, before looking our lists please check the links section at the end of this page.
Others do a much better job than we do. In addition, it is very difficult to find truly independant reviews by real
experts - Daniel K. Schneider (talk) 16:15, 9 October 2013 (CEST)

Free / Open Sourcource Portalware

Software to install on your own server,
[2]
• Amadeus (the Brazilian Federal Government public software LMS)
• ATutor [3] (used at TECFA our student's to play with)
• Bodington [4]
[5]
• chamilo (made by people who left the Dokeos development).
• Chamilo LCMS Connect [6]. Same team, but very different from Chamilo, Try it [7]

• Claroline [8] (Older sister of Dokos and Chamilo).

[9]
• Claroline Connect (Beta, ready in summer 2014?) - try it
[10]
• DoceboLMS

• Dokeos [11] (popular in french and spanish speaking countries)

• e-Learning XHTML Editor [12] (contents can then be imported to most LMSs).
[13]
• eFrontLearning (fairly user friendly, not tested, there are commercial variants)
[14]
• Fle3 (research system, maybe dead)
• GaneshaLMS [15]
• ILIAS [16]
[17]
• interact (Dead link)
[18]
• KEWL.Nextgen (Dead link)
• LRN [19]
[20]
• Moodle (used at TECFA for several courses)
• OLAT [21]

• OpenUSS [22] and sourceforge site [23]

[24]
• Sakai , “a community source software development effort to design, build and deploy a new Collaboration
and
Learning Environment (CLE) for higher education.”
• Segue [25] (dead project)
[26]
• Stud.IP (Studienbegleitender Internetsupport von Präsenzlehre). More like a portal, made for German higher
education.
• TelEduc [27]
[28]
• WordPress LMS (since summer 2012).
Learning management system 219

[29]
You can try out some of these system at http:/ / www. opensourcecms. com/ (in addition to many other
portalware). You will have full administrator rights (all systems will be refreshed every hour).

Online services
(Most are commercial, basic services may be free)
• CCNet [30]
[31]
• Haiku LMS
[32]
• Canevas , a popular recent cloud-based system. As of 2013, many sites seem to migrate from Blackboard to
[33]
this. It does have a Auth2 / https / JSON based API. Single teachers can sign up for free.
[34]
• FeatherCap (trial version available)
[35]
• ProProfs (free version available)
[36]
• KoolLearning , new in 2013. Offers good integration of resources.

Commercial
These are either available for self-hosting, as service or both.
• Blackboard Vista (former WebCT)
[37]
• Desire2Learn
[38]
• Halogen eLearning Manager
• iQpakk [39]
[40]
• TopYX , a service-based social LMS
[41]
• Rapid Intake (several tools, both for corporate and school environments).
[42]
• Skilitix , a service-based LMS using the new Tin-CAN API (2013). At its core is a roleplay application. See also

rapid elearning, more popular in industry (low-level) training

Links
There are many sites that will give you advice on how to choose a standard, main-stream E-Learning System:

• elearningindustry.com [43] maintains several lists (search the site), e.g.

[44]
• The Ultimate list of Open Source Learning Management Systems • The Ultimate List of Cloud-Based
[45]
Learning Management Systems
[46]
• Course Management Systems (formerly Landonline).
• Probably the best site out there, if you are interested in criteria-based selection of an LMS
• This site was built to assist higher education in using a more rational decision making process to review the many
options for a course management system.
[47]
• LMS Talk List of products, forum, etc.
[48]
• Elearning Platforms (Learning Management Systems) by EduTech, the technological support for the Swiss
Virtual Campus project. Much shorter list, but enough for most of us ....
[49]
• LernmanagementSysteme.DE German blog about LMS, includes a large comparative table of LMS's (added
oct. 2011).
Learning management system 220

[50]
• LMS comparison

• UNESCO free software portal [51]

[52]
• The Re.ViCa wiki has been set up to provide an inventory and to show the results of a systematic review of
Virtual Campus initiatives of the past decade within higher education throughout the world.
[53]
• List of learning management systems (Wikipedia)

• See also Category:Learning management systems [54]

• What is an LMS [55] Free educational resource site with comprehensive articles explaining the different aspects of
Learning Management Systems: features checklists, cost comparisons, support & technology, enterprise LMS
checklists, LMS vendor comparisons, LMS & LCMS comparisons, proprietary/open source & SaaS LMS
comparisons and many more.

Bibliography
Usability / Evaluation of LMS studies
• Inversini, A., Botturi, L. & Triacca, L. (2006). Evaluating LMS Usability for Enhanced eLearning Experience. In E.
Pearson & P. Bohman (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and
Telecommunications 2006 (pp. 595-601). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Retrieved March 4, 2014 from http:/ / www.
editlib. org/p/23070.
• Chua B. B., & Dyson, L. E. (2004). Applying the ISO 9126 Model to the Evaluation of an e-Learning System. Proc.
of ASCILITE 2004, December 5-8, Perth, Australia, pp. 184-190.
• Al-sarrayrih, Haytham S.; Lars Knipping, Erhard Zorn, Evaluation of a MOODLE Based Learning Management
[56]
System Applied at Berlin Institute of Technology Based on ISO-9126, ICL2010. PDF
• Kakasevski, G.; Mihajlov, M.; Arsenovski, S.; Chungurski, S., "Evaluating usability in learning management system
moodle," Information Technology Interfaces, 2008. ITI 2008. 30th International Conference on , vol., no.,
pp.613,618, 23-26 June 2008. doi: 10.1109/ITI.2008.4588480. http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ stamp/ stamp. jsp?
tp=&arnumber=4588480& isnumber=4588363 [57]
• Chandra, V., D. Fisher, and V. S. Chang. 2011. “Investigating higher education and secondary school web-based
learning environments using the WEBLEI.” In Technologies for enhancing pedagogy, engagement and
empowerment in education: creating learning-friendly environments, ed. Thao Le and Quynh Le, 93-104. USA:
Information Science Reference, IGI Global.
• Chang, V., & Fisher, D. (2003). The validation and application of a new learning environment instrument for
online learning in higher education. Technology-rich learning environments: A future perspective, 1-18.
• Chang, V. (1999). Evaluating the effectiveness of online learning using a new web based learning instrument.
Proceedings Western Australian Institute for Educational Research Forum 1999. http:/ / www. waier. org. au/
forums/ 1999/ chang. html
• Kurilovas, E. (2009). Methods of Multiple Criteria Evaluation of the Quality of Learning Management Systems for
Personalised Learners Needs. European Conference on Technology-Enhanced Learning (EC-TEL'2009), 1-10,
Retrieved from: http:/ /wwwis. win.tue.nl/lms-ale-09/ Kurilovas_paper. pdf
• Srdevic, B., Pipan, M., Srdevic, Z., Arh, T. (2012). AHP Supported Evaluation of LMS Quality. International
Workshop on the Interplay between User Experience (UX) Evaluation and System Development (I-UxSED 2012).
NordiCHI 2012.
• Vinesh Chandra, Darrell L. Fisher, Students’ perceptions of a blended web-based learning environment, Learning
Environments Research, April 2009, Volume 12, Issue 1, pp 31-44.
Learning management system 221

• Jay Melton, The LMS moodle: A Usability Evaluation, http:/ / citeseerx. ist. psu. edu/ viewdoc/ download?doi=10. 1.
1.124.7533&rep=rep1& type=pdf (ref to find/add)
 222
Learning sequence

Learning sequence
Draf

Definition
A learning sequence is an ordering of student's learning activities.
In the design literature one may find two basic sorts of instructional design models
• Those that focus on materials, i.e. resources arranged to form an organization of learning-flow content. Typically,
they would use an instructional systems design method such as the Kemp design model.
• Those that focus on activities. In that case one rather talks about scenarization or storyboarding.

Learning sequences in Instructional Systems Design

“Sequencing is the efficient ordering of content in such a way as to help the learner achieve the objectives. For
some objectives, the sequence is suggested by the procedure [...]. Other topics, however, have a less obious
sequence. [...]” (Morrison, 2004: 136).
“The last step in the design phase is to determine program sequence and structure to ensure the learning
objectives are met. A proper sequence provides the learners with a pattern of relationship so that each activity will
have a definite purpose. The more meaningful the content, the easier it is to learn and, consequently, the more
effective the instruction.” Instructional System Design - Design Phase [1], retrieved 20:57, 4 June 2007 (MEST).
Typically a learning sequence would use an instructional design model like Gagne's Nine events of instruction or
Merril's component display theory.

Learning sequences in Learning Design

In IMS Learning Design sequences are implicitly defined as methods that contain a "play", i.e. a series of acts, in
which roles are played by those taking part, for example learner, tutor, mentor, and so on.

Links
[5]
• Donald Clark, Developing Instruction or Instructional Design .
• Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., & Kemp, J. E. (2004). Designing effective instruction (4rd ed.). New York: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
Learning to teach with technology model

Learning to teach with technology model

Draf

Definition
The Learning to teach with technology model is a science teacher training model by Friederichsen et al. (2001).
 223
The model
This model is based on the idea that teachers first have to experience a technology before they can use it in
teaching.
We quote from Friederichsen et al. (2001):
1. In the first phase of the model, students are viewed as science learners and engage in scientific inquiry using the
specified technology tool. [...]
2. In the second phase of the model, the students focus explicitly on the technology tool. The students engage in
additional scientific investigations using the technology tool, but in this stage of the model, some of the
instructor support is removed. [...]
3. During the third phase of the model, Curriculum Planner, the students examine existing technology-enhanced
science curricula and/or modify existing exemplary curricula to integrate the use of the technology tool. [...]
4. In the fourth phase of the model, the students move from the role of science learner to that of science teacher.
In a mentored, small group setting, the students use the technology tool to support other students scientific
inquiry.
[...]
5. The final phase of the model, Teacher, occurs in a school setting as the students plan and teach technology-
enhanced lessons for supporting childrens scientific inquiry. The students write lesson plans, teach using the
technology tool, and write reflective papers on their experiences. [...]
This model is summarized by Friederichsen et al. (2001:384) with the following picture (reprinted without
permission for the moment):

Learning to teach with technology model

References
• Friedrichsen Patricia Meis, Thomas M. Dana, Carla, Zembal-Saul, Danusa Munford, And Chen Tsur (2001).
Learning to Teach with Technology Model: Implementation in Secondary Science Teacher Education, Journal of
Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching (2001) 20(4), 377-394. PDF [1], Abstract/PDF [2]
 224

Lesson planning
Draf

Definition
• A writing noting the method of delivery, and the specific goals and time-lines associated to the delivery of lesson
content.
• It helps the teacher to know what to do in a class (prepared by themselves) with quite specific activities. EFL
Teachers Jargon [1] See also:
• curriculum planning
• the instructional design article that addresses very similar issue from a more "industrial" point of view, e.g.
consider models like Gagne's nine events of instruction. If you are interested by more sophisticated models
browse through the large list of instructional design models.

Lesson planning guide example

We provide a short summary of El-Tigi's Write a Lesson Plan Guide [2] with some modifications.
While planning a lesson, a teacher should think about each of the following categories:
1. Goals: Think about (1) broad objectives of the course, (2) goals of the particular lesson, (3) what students should
be able to achieve after the lesson.
2. Objectives within the lesson: Define what your students will do to acquire further knowledge and skills and how
they will be able to demonstrate that they have learned.
3. Prerequisites
4. Materials: What will be needed, e.g. what is available (make a list/bibliography) and what will have to be
prepared.
5. Lesson Description: Describe the general focus of the lesson and include thoughts to share with other teachers.
May include learning level. 6. Lesson Procedure
1. Introduction: Describe how you introduce ideas and objectives, get student's attention and motivation, etc.
2. Main activity: Define the sequence of activities, in particular pedagogic methods like presentation,
demonstration, explanation, discussion.
3. Closure/conclusion: Describe how you plan to draw ideas together and to provide feedback to students.
4. Follow up Lessons / Activities:
7. Assessment / Evaluation: Define how you will assess student's learning. Also evaluate if students engaged in
suggested practice.
Lesson planning

Lesson planning tools

• Frequently these tools are also called curriculum unit planners (we use these as synonyms).
• Finally, we refer to curriculum planners (or curricula planners to describe instruments that either describe
course contenents and objectives at a very high level or that allow students to select courses. But these
distinctions are not always obvious it seems....

Lesson planning models and guides

For Lesson Plan Information [3] based on the Hunter Model
• Madeline Hunter method, a direct instruction model
 225
• WIPPEA a backwards design method, based on Madeline Hunter.

• Lesson Planning self study guide [4] (58 steps).

• .... [more needed], see the references below

Lesson planners
Draf
Lesson planners also called lesson planning software help teachers to plan lessons. Sometimes, they also can be
considered a policy tool, i.e. some tools specifically try to insure that teachers follow official guidelines.
Special purpose tools
• In some ways, authoring toolkits that implement an idea of learning design also can be considered to be lesson
planners, see for example IMS Learning Design, Learning Activity Management System (LAMS), MOT, etc.
On-line tools
• The Dialog Plus Toolkit is an online toolkit to design activity-based learning designs
To sort out (applications and on-line tools)
Here are a few examples (not tested by the authors of this entry):

• LessonPlan101 [5] A wiki to share lesson plans and coming soon a lesson plan program for linux and windows. •
Lesson Planning Tool [6] assists elementary school teachers in making lesson plans that fulfill the Texas Education
Agency (TEA) guidelines.
• PLANright [7]
[8]
• Lesson Plan Maker
[9]
• NCRTEC Lesson Planner
• DiscoverySchool Lesson Planner [10]
[11]
• CyberCampus ObjectivesBuilder (On-line tool, Flash based).
[12] [13]
• Ontario Curriculum Unit Planner and Planificateur d'unités d'apprentissage
Lesson planning

Links

Lesson Planning
[14] [15] [16]
• Lesson planning , A teaching/learning module for teachers from the TILE support tool from the Kite
project.
[17]
• Pedagogic Planner Summit (workshop 8th of December 2008 at the University of Sydney) Includes slides
about plans for LAMS

Lesson Plans
On the Internet one can find thousands of good lesson plans. Often through specialized portals some of which are
sponsored by official school systems. The few links below are not at all complete and we absolutely don't vouch for
any of them (no time for reviewing) ! We may at some point identify the ones that are particularly interesting with
regarding technology integration.
[18]
• LessonPlanSearch.com Lesson Plan Search engine.
[19]
• The Teacher's Corner - Lesson Plans
• http://www. lessonplan101.com A lesson plan wiki - Share Your Lessons.
 226
• http://memory. loc.gov/ learn/ (Library of Congress).
• http://www. eduref.org/Virtual/ Lessons/
• http://www. readwritethink. org/ index.asp
• http://www. kidzonline. org/LessonPlans/
• http://www. lessonplanspage. com/
• http://www. lessonplansearch.com/
• http://school.discovery. com/ lessonplans/
• http://teachers. net/lessons/
• http://www. lessonplanz. com/
• http://www. lamap. fr/
[20]
• Scootle , The Le@rning Federation, Australia (large repository, only open to educators and students in
Australia and NewZealand.)

References

Introductions for teachers

• Fink, Dee, Planning your Course: A Decision guide, Instructional Development Program, University of Oklahoma,
[21]
Word Document . Quote: “ Whenever teachers plan or design their courses, they are in essence making a
series of decisions aimed at creating a "design," which in this case consists of a plan of activities for what the
teacher and students will do in a course. This guide identifies the several decisions involved in designing a
course, places these decisions in an appropriate sequence, and suggests ways to make good decisions.”. This
guide also includes worksheets.
[2]
• El-Tigi, Manal (1999). Write a Lesson Plan Guide, The Educator's Reference Desk, HTML retrieved 18:53, 27
June 2006 (MEST). This short guide also includes a library of examples and further pointers.

• Kizlik, Sandra, Lesson Plans The Easy Way, AdPrima, HTML [22]
Madeline Hunter method 227

Madeline Hunter method

Draf

Definition
The Madeline Hunter method is a kind of direct instruction model and method mostly applied to lesson planning.
This model is quite closely associated with typical general behaviorist/cognitivist instructional design models like
Gagne'sNine events of instruction and it incorporates mastery learning concepts.
There are many variants of this models, e.g. the simple WIPPEA lesson planning method.

The model
Disclaimer: DSchneider did not read original work of M.Hunter. In the literature and web pages consulted, there are
various variants of the typical "scenario steps". Usually it has either 7 or 8 steps.

From a preparation perspective

(1) Objectives and standards
• Fix them
(2) Prepare teaching materials
• Anticipation: Prepare materials to grab the student's attention and put him in "the right frame"
• Teaching: (input): Prepare "input" materials.
• Teaching (modeling): Prepare relevant examples that show what is expected
• Guide practice: Prepare exerices and other activities
• Closure: Rehearse a nice closing statement (that show what has been learnt, to point out important things, etc.)
• Independant practice: E.g. home work or group work. Should reinforce and engage learners in
decontextualization (by have them work on examples from different context)

From a scenario perspective

(1) Anticipation
• A short wake-up activity that get's the student's attention and interest
• e.g. a simple question, an example problem,
(2) Objectives, purpose, standards
• Tell the students what he will learn
• And (if necessary) how this knowledge will be tested
(3) Input (teaching basic concepts and skills)
• Summarize definitions
• Demonstrate basic skills
(4) Modeling (show)
• Demonstrate application of concepts and skill with a worked through example.
(5) Guided practice
• have learners do exercises
Madeline Hunter method 228

(6) Monitoring
• This is not precisely a step in time, monitoring has to be done in different ways:
• During and after steps 3 and 4, the teacher has to check for understanding (this is often presented as step
number 5 in fact).
• After steps 5 and 6 students have to be tested which is different sort of "checking for understanding", e.g. if
guided practice shows misunderstanding or bad understanding, go back to step 3 and/or 4 and adapt.
(7) Independent practice
• Students practice on their own (either in or out of class).
(8) closure
• Wrap up

Jonathan Mueller [1] presents the Madeline Hunter Lesson Plan format in a way DSchneider likes better. His outline
separates more clearly different phases:
Getting students set to learn
• Step 1: Review
• Step 2: Anticipatory Set
• Step 3: Objective
Instruction
• Step 4: Input and Modeling
Checking for understanding
• Step 5: Checking Understanding
• Step 6: Guided Practice
Independent practice
• Step 7: Independent Practice
Note: Mueller points out that “ How are checking understanding and guided practice different? Checking
understanding occurs in the process of instruction. Guided practice takes place just after instruction has occurred.
Checking for understanding is often a whole-class process by observing body language or asking a simple question
to the whole class. Guided practice may be done individually. Both involve quickly assessing whether students
understand what has just been presented.”

Links
• Some Basic Lesson Presentation Elements [8] (presents the Madeline Hunter Method).
[2]
• Madeline Hunter's Lesson Plan .

• A White Paper on Lesson Planning [3] by Cliff Schimmels.

[4]
• Formatting Lesson Plans: The Madeline Hunter Lesson Design Model

• Hunter Method [5] by Christy Keeler. This includes an example.

[1]
• Madeline Hunter's Lesson Plan Format by

References
• Burns Alvin C., (2006) Teaching experientially with the Madeline Hunter Method: An application in a marketing
[14]
research course, Simulation & Gaming, Vol. 37, No. 2, 284-294, DOI: 10.1177/1046878106287954 Abstract
PDF (Access restricted)
Madeline Hunter method 229

• Hunter, M. (1982). Mastery teaching. El Segundo, CA: TIP Publications.

• Hunter, M. (1985). What's wrong with Madeline Hunter? Educational Leadership, 42(5), 57-60.
• Hunter, Robin (2004). Madeline Hunter's Mastery Teaching, Corwin Press. ISBN 076193930X (Seems to be the
most popular modern M. Hunter method textbook)

Mastery learning

Definition
• Mastery learning refers to the idea that teaching should organize learning through ordered steps. In order to
move to the next step, students have to master the prerequisite step. Mastery learning engages the learner in
multiple instructional methods, learning levels and multiple cognitive thinking types.
According to Davis & Sorrel (1995): “ The mastery learning method divides subject matter into units that have
predetermined objectives or unit expectations. Students, alone or in groups, work through each unit in an
organized fashion. Students must demonstrate mastery on unit exams, typically 80%, before moving on to new
material. Students who do not achieve mastery receive remediation through tutoring, peer monitoring, small group
discussions, or additional homework. Additional time for learning is prescribed for those requiring remediation.
Students continue the cycle of studying and testing until mastery is met. Block (1971) states that students with
minimal prior knowledge of material have higher achievement through mastery learning than with traditional
methods of instruction. ”
Cited from Davis & Sorrel (1995): “ In summary, mastery learning is not a new method of instruction. It is based on
the concept that all students can learn when provided with conditions appropriate to their situation. The student
must reach a predetermined level of mastery on one unit before they are allowed to progress to the next. In a
mastery learning setting, students are given specific feedback about their learning progress at regular intervals
throughout the instructional period. This feedback, helps students identify what they have learned well and what
they have not learned well. Areas that were not learned well are allotted more time to achieve mastery. Only
grades of "A" and "B" are permitted because these are the accepted standards of mastery. Traditional instruction
holds time constant and allows mastery to vary while mastery learning or systematic instruction holds mastery
constant and allows time to vary (Robinson, 1992).”

Typical design of a large learning unit

(e.g. a course)
1. Definition of clear objectives of what has to be taught/learnt
2. "Subject is divided into relatively small learning units. Each unit will have:
• objectives (i.e. a clear definition of what has to be mastered");
• a brief diagnostic test to be administered before the unit (they may lead to supplementary instruction);
• learning materials and instructional strategies;
• formative evaluation (that in turn should lead to remediation) and summative evaluation. 3. Time to learn
is adjusted for each student in order to master at least 80% of the material
4. Assessment whether global objectives have been met.
 230
Mastery learning

See also similar instructional design models like Gagne's Nine events of instruction.

Mastery learning in practice

True mastery learning in the spirit of Bloom may not be very popular, mostly because it is very costly and difficult.
This applies to both classroom teaching and electronic courseware.
However, a few key ideas can be found in many designs, e.g:
• course modularity
• definition of objectives for each module
• entry tests
• individual learning pace
• feedback after learning task with some remediation
• assessment
The following picture shows a typical design of a distance teaching module architecture (minus the assessment
component).

Technologies
• Mastery learning at least at a superficial level of understanding and implementation is very popular in
Computer-based training and e-learning. It also can be found in richer models of computer-based learning.
• Toolkits like Authorware have built-in facitilities to implement mastery learning.
• IMS Content Packaging plus IMS Simple Sequencing allows in principle to implement this kind of design
(provided that the e_learning platform can fully deal with it.
• IMS Learning Design supports this instructional design model.
Mastery learning
 231
History
• According to Davis & Sorrel (1995), "The mastery learning concept was introduced in the American schools in the
1920's with the work of Washburne (1922, as cited in Block, 1971) and others in the format of the Winnetka
Plan."
• It was revived in the late 1950' with programmed instruction

• According to TIP [1], Caroll in 1963 was the first to argue in favor of some kind of mastery learning. See the Carroll
model of school learning article.
• Bloom in the 1960' defined the modern model and also was activly engaged in promulgation and evaluation.

References
• Block, J. (1971). Mastery learning: Theory and practice. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
• Bloom, B. (1968). Learning for mastery. Evaluation Comment,1(2), 1-5.
• Bloom, B. (1971). Mastery learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
• Bloom B.S. (1979). Caractéristiques individuelles et apprentissages scolaires. Bruxelles: Labor.
• Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64, 723-733.
• Carroll, J.B. (1989). The Carroll model: A 25 year retrospective and prospective view. Educational Researcher,
18(1), 26-31.
• Davis, Denese and Jackie Sorrell, (1995, December). Mastery learning in public schools. Paper prepared for PSY
702: Conditions of Learning. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Available online: [2]
• Kulik, C., Kulik, J., & Bangert-Drowns, R. (1990). Effectiveness of mastery learning programs: A meta-analysis.
Review of Educational Research, 60(2), 265-306.
• Levine, D. (1985). Improving student achievement through mastery learning programs. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass.
• Robinson, M. (1992). Mastery learning in public schools: Some areas of restructuring. Education, 113(1), 121-
126.
• Slavin, R.E. (1987). Mastery learning reconsidered. Review of Educational Research, 57(2), 175-214.
Medicine Blends Computers and PBL

Medicine Blends Computers and PBL

Definition
This is an example case of problem-based learning.
Source: http://edweb. sdsu. edu/clrit/ learningresource/ PBL/ PBLFacilitatingExample. html

The Medicine Blends Computers and PBL case

1. Students teams of five to six meet and are provided with a simulated patient's explanation of a medical
complaint via a computer network. The computer will allow students access to history, physical examination, and
diagnostic data for the case being presented. Students decide the learning issues involved in each case and how
to go about solving these issues. The problem finding projections and analyzing are entered into the computer
for record keeping and monitoring.
 232
2. The classroom, whether virtual or face to face, is transformed into a tutorial where instruction takes the form of
a process that evolves among students in a team and their coach. The instructor acts as a tutor/facilitator
analyzing and guiding student's thinking strategies and modeling these processes for them. As a "meta-cognitive
coach" the teaching role becomes one of questioning, probing, encouraging, critical appraisal, balancing
emphasis, promoting interaction, and prompting students to become aware of the reasoning skills they are using
(Gallagher, et. al., 1992). As different groups work through the problem, their progress is monitored by the
instructor and feedback is delivered along with identified research topics for teams. Teams work out assignment
among themselves and proceed to tackle them.
3. After one or two days students reconvene to reexamine the example problem and attempt a solution with
regards to their research findings, again the computer is used to record and monitor progress as before.
4. Next all groups will meet together with the instructor. At this time students will assume the role of "expert" for
the topic they explored and present findings. The instructor will give an expert description of the problem
solution (instruction in basic science concepts associated with the problem) and provide each group with
feedback concerning their efforts and findings. Faculty waits until students themselves have identified the need
for specific information to solve their problem, then provides it.
5. This procedure will be repeated for a group of prototypical problems covering a unit of instruction. The spiral
character of this curriculum consciously sequences projects so that each successive project draws on the
knowledge and skills developed in the preceding projects. From the student's vantage point this provides
repeated opportunities to repeat and refine their skills (Bridges, 1992).
6. After student teams have completed a unit of instruction the computer integration affords extended practice for
individuals. Students will be able to use the computer to practice problems analogous to the problems
presented in the unit and view the work of others. The computer will track the method by which the attempts
are made and record the information in a database. The computer will compare the student's methodology to a
standardized assessment form and record the differences. Feedback is available immediately, indicating the
importance of immediate feedback to students after they have attempted to solve a problem.
7. Evaluation may be administered using the computer on the basis of student performance on a standardized
simulation (Farnsworth, 1994).
Medicine Blends Computers and PBL

References
Bridges, E. M. (1992). Problem based learning for administrators. Eugene, OR: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational
Management. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 347 617)
Farnsworth, C. C. (1994). Using computer simulations in problem-based learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Proceedings of
the Thirty-fifth ADCIS Conference (pp. 137-140). Nashville, TN: Omni Press.
Gallagher, S. A., Stepien, W. J., & Rosenthal, H. (1992). The effects of problem-based learning on problem solving.
Gifted Child Quarterly. 36(4), 195-200.

Mentoring
Draf

Definitions
Mentoring is a form of coaching in both formal and informal training. It can be an important strategy element to
create or improve a community of practice.
 233
• When the term mentor is used, an image of older, wiser individuals leading around young proteges and passing
down age-old secrets comes to mind. In fact, the principals of mentoring and modeling have been around since
ancient times (Murray and Owen, 1991) cited by Hull (20002).
• A mentor relationship is a deliberate pairing of a more skilled or experienced person with a lesser skilled or
experienced person, with the agreed-upon goal of having the lesser skilled person grow and develop specific
competencies (Murray & Owen, 1991).
• A mentoring relationship is characterized by an experienced faculty member (mentor) taking an active role in the
development of the academic career of a less experienced faculty member (mentee) by offering guidance,
support and advice. A mentor's guidance is rendered with an inside knowledge of the norms, values and
procedures of the institution and from a depth of professional experience. (UTS [1])
• The word "mentor" reaches back to Greek mythology. When Odysseus went to war, he entrusted Mentor with
his son's education and development. Mentor's wise counsel, teaching, parental concern and protection are
evident in current interpretations of the mentoring process [2]

Mentoring components and conditions

According to Clark [3],
Facilitated mentoring is a process designed to create effective mentoring relationships, to guide the desired
behavior change of those involved, and to evaluate the results for the protégés, the mentors,and those supervising
the mentoring relationship. Facilitated mentoring includes the following components (Murray and Owen, 1991):
• A design that meets the perceived needs of the organization;
• Criteria and a process for the selection of protégés;
• Strategies and tools for diagnosing the developmental needs of protégés;
• Strategies and tools for diagnosing the developmental needs of protégés;
• Criteria and a process for qualifying mentors;
• Orientation to the responsibilities of the role for both mentors and protégés;* Strategies for matching mentors
and protégés on the basis of skills to be developed and compatibility;
• A negotiated agreement between mentor, protégé, and other involved agencies;
• A coordinator responsible for maintaining the programs and supporting relationships;
Mentoring 234

• Formative evaluation to make necessary adjustments to the program;

• Summarative evaluation to determine outcomes for the organization, the mentors, and the protégés.
Clark also stresses the idea that facilitating mentoring programs and relationships is very important.... and this is
not an easy task since it implies changes in organizational culture.

Maximal mentor roles

[2]
Below is a slighly modified (shortened) copy/paste from the Abreviated Mentoring guide .
• Trusted Counselor - Mentor listens and reflects the protégé's ideas and plans and shares his or her insights,
practical experience and may recommend specific steps.
• Teacher or Tutor - Mentor instructs or guides the protégé to learn specific information or concepts. Can also
provide useful sources of information.
• Coach - Mentor may go over the protégé's training and background, assess the experience level and where
deficiencies are identified, teach these skills to the protégé.
• Motivator - Mentor encourages and pushes the protégé to assume additional responsibilities when the time
appears right.
• Sponsor - Mentor supports and represents the protégé to the organization.
• Referral Agent - Mentor directs the protégé to proper sources to achieve his or her goal and introduces the
protégé.
• Role Model - Mentor is a senior participant who demonstrates, by example, the traits, performance and
contributions that spell success; someone the protégé wants to emulate.
This definition implicitly assigns a multiple and "heavy" role to a formal mentor in the Navy. On may add or remove
roles.

An Implementation model
From some of the literature and resources we can derive a simple mentoring model that includes some minimal
necessary conditions, a suggestion for setting it up, and an example for a mentoring contract.

Conditions
Mentoring works when:
• individuals are committed to it,
• when there is a goal (see the mentoring contract)
• a supportive environment.

Stages to set up a mentoring program

Here is a list of typical stages. Note that preparation (stages 1-4) is important.
1. Identify development needs of protégés
2. Identify and recruit mentors. This includes identification of their needs.
3. Prepare/train mentors
4. Mentor and protégé negociate a mentoring agreement
5. Implementation (can include meetings with a faciliator)
6. Evaluation
Mentoring 235

Typical contract
Mentors and proteges should agree on a formal contract. Here is an example from Training for trainers [4]
We agree to commit ourselves to the personal and professional development of the protegé by identifying his/her
development objectives and supporting their achievement through a relationship based on trust and openness.
Development objectives: ______
Roles an expectations: ______
Ground rules: ______
Other comments: _____
Date and signatures: ____

Things to do and not to do

[4]
See: Training for trainers

Models

Models for mentoring graduate students

This should be an important issue for many labs.
• An interesting model is the Campbell-Lom mentoring model which is a simple e-mail mechanism to enhance
reflection, independence, and communication in young researchers
• At TECFA we ask our lab assistants to contribute to this wiki (or the french version on a weekly basis in order to
help them doing their literature reviews. Their wiki home pages also can be used for planning and reflection.
Results, so far, are not as good as they could be, probably for the lack of mentoring "structure" - 21:20, 10
February 2007 (MET). Confirmed: results are awful ;) - Daniel K. Schneider 17:12, 9 November 2007 (MET)

The Wikipedia model

Wikipedia's [Wikipedia:Adopt-a-User | Adopt-a-User] program was designed in the end of 1996 to help new and
inexperienced users and to reduce vandalism as well as other bad edits like testing. Older editors can "adopt"
newer users, helping to mentor them along the way as they learn about Wikipedia.
To be adopted, a user can either:
• add a template ({{subst:dated adoptme}}) to his homepage • or directly try to find an adopter from the
[5]
Adopt-a-User list.

Links
[6]
• Peer Resources A comprehensive source of information, research, documents, and papers on trends and
issues associated with all types of mentoring

• Training for trainers [4]. Good introduction (workshop material).

[2]
• Abbreviated Mentoring Guide, prepared by US Navy Medical Corps, 1998 HTML
Mentoring 236

[7]
• International Society for Performance Improvement

• Mentorship [8] (Wikipedia)

References
• Boice, R. (1992). Lessons learned about mentoring. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 50. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Campbell A. Malcolm and Barbara Lom (2006). A Simple E-Mail Mechanism To Enhance Reflection,
Independence, and Communication in Young Researchers, CBE Life Sci Educ. 2006 Winter; 5(4): 318\u2013322.
doi: 10.1187/cbe.06-06-0170 Abstract/PDF [1]

• Clark, Sheila, Mentoring, [Promoting Critical Thinking Through Academic Service Learning: A Cognitive and
Affective Model for Learning How to Learn]
• Denofrio, L. A., Russell, B., Lopatto, D., & Lu, Y. (2007). MENTORING: Linking Student Interests to Science
[9]
Curricula. Science, 318(5858), 1872-1873. HTML
• Hull, H. (2000). Mentoring. In B. Hoffman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. Retrieved May 24, 2006,
[10]
from the Encyclopedia of Educational Technology
• Schoenfeld, A.C., & Magnan, R. (1992). Mentor in a Manual. Madison, WI: Magna Publications.
• Sands, R.G., Parsons, L.A., & Duane, J. (1991). Faculty mentoring faculty in a public university. Journal of Higher
Education, no. 62, pp. 174-193.
• Megginson, D., Clutterbuck, D., (1997) Mentoring in Action: a practical guide for managers, Kogan Page, London.
• Murray, M., & Owen, M.A. (1991). Beyond the Myths and Magic of Mentoring. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass (This is
a frequently cited textbook).
• National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering & Institute of Medicine. (1997). Adviser,
Teacher, Role Model, Friend: On Being a Mentor to Students in Science and Engineering. Washington D.C. This
[11]
book is available online at: HTML

• Paterson, B. (1993). Mentoring: What does it involve and how can I be a good mentor? in B.J. Cameron, Teaching
at The University of Manitoba: A Handbook. Winnipeg, MB: The University of Manitoba.
• Roche, G. R. (1979). Much ado about Mentors. Harvard Business Review, 57 (10, 14-20.
• Saunders, D., (1994), Mentoring Handbook, University of Glamorgan.
• Taylor, L.J. (1992). A survey of mentor relationships in academe. Journal of Professional Nursing, 8, 48-55.
• Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat. (Revised 1996). Guidelines for the Development of a Mentoring Program.
[12] ISBN 0-662-62414-9
• Wunsch, M.A., & Johnsrud, L.K. (1992). Breaking barriers: Mentoring junior faculty women for professional
development and retention. To Improve the Academy, no. 11 , pp. 175-187.
• University Teaching Services (1993). Mentoring, A Strategy for Career Development. University of Manitoba. PDF
[1]
, Retrieved 15:22, 24 May 2006 (MEST)
• Zachary, Lois J. (2000). The Mentor's Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Microlearning 237

Microlearning
Draf

Definition
• “ Microlearning deals with relatively small learning units and short-term learning activities. Generally, the term
'microlearning' refers to micro-perspectives in the context of learning, education and training. More frequently,
the term is used in the domain of E-learning and related fields in the sense of a new paradigmatic perspective on
[1]
learning processes in mediated environments on micro levels.” (Wikipedia , retrieved 18:44, 24 July 2007
(MEST)).
• [Microlearning] “ is a term used in the e-learning context for a learner's short interaction with a learning matter
broken down to very small bits of content. At present this term is not clearly defined. Learning processes that
have been called "microlearning" can cover a span from some seconds (e.g. in mobile learning) to 15 minutes
(learning objects sent as e-mails). There is some relation to older concepts like Microteaching. Of course the
notion of microlearning rises the question of adequate Micropedagogy and Microdidactics, as well as the
[2]
problem of learning itself.” (Microwiki ), retrieved 18:44, 24 July 2007 (MEST).)
• [Microlearning] “ in a wider sense is a term that can be used to describe the way more and more people are
actually doing informal learning and gaining knowledge in Microcontent and Micromedia/Multitasking
environments (see Microcosmos), especially those that become increasingly based on Web 2.0 and Wireless
Web technologies. In this wider sense the borders between Microlearning and the complementary concept of
Microknowledge are blurring.” (Microwiki [2]), retrieved 18:44, 24 July 2007 (MEST).
Related forms of learning are "just in time open learning" and "on the spot learning". Microlearning mostly happens
in an informal learning and particularly in a life-long learning context, but not exclusively. museum learning for
example is a form of microlearning.
Often microlearning is associated with mobile learning or more ambitious ubiquitous learning.

Forms of Microlearning
Theo Hug (2006:9) identifies various forms of microlearning and that can be identified through the following
dimensions:
• Time: relatively short effort, operating expense, degree of time consumption, measurable time, subjective time,
etc.
• Content: small or very small units, narrow topics, rather simplex issues, etc.
• Curriculum: part of curricular setting, parts of modules, elements of informal learning, etc.
• Form: fragments, facets, episodes, "knowledge nuggets", skill elements, etc.
• Process: separate, concomitant or actual, situated or integrated activities, iterative method, attention
management, awareness (getting into or being in a process), etc.
• Mediality: face-to-face, mono-media vs. multi-media, (inter-)mediated, information objects or learning objects,
symbolic value, cultural capital, etc.
• Learning type: repetitive, activist, reflective, pragmatist, conceptionalist, constructivist, connectivist,
behaviourist, learning by example, task or exercise, goal- or problem-oriented, "along the way", action learning,
classroom learning, corporate learning, conscious vs. unconscious, etc.

Tools and instructional designs

Microlearning 238

[3]
Firstly, a lot of social software, e.g. shared production portals like Skillsfeed or simple wikis like this one provide
bits of contents that can be used for learning.
To integrate microlearning activities, learners may use a personal learning environment.

The Kerres model

One important question is how to relate microcontents with some idea of instructional design. Kerres (2007:12)
makes a point for personal learning environments and he argues that “the task of instructional design would imply
to provide an arrangement of contents and tools that can be intrinsically interwoven with the personal workspace
of the learner”.
Kerres (2007:12-14) defines a model that is somewhat compatible with more traditional instructional design
models, but that is rather based on the German concept of "Bildung", that emphasizes the emergent and situated
process of learning. It's in Daniel K. Schneider's opinion not a microlearning model, but a use of microcontents
model.
Here is a summarized and probably slightly altered description version with some comments by Daniel K. Schneider.
1. An elearning environment should be perceived as a "gate" to the internet as a whole but may include specially
prepared contents (in particular assignments given to the learner).
2. The learning portal aggregates (typically small) contents from the net and integrates them as an integral part of
the learning environment. They are fetched by XML-feeds from other sites.
3. Complex materials can be integrated as learning objects that contain learning materials as well as metadata
describing the content, e.g. a sequences for delivering the content.
4. Materials that are being produced within the learning environment should be offered as feeds for reuse at
other sites on the net, e.g. for delivery on mobile devices.
5. Learners and teachers / authors use the same tools for working with contents of various kinds, for editing and
sharing documents, like weblogs, wikis, forum, pictures, calendars (e.g. see the list of web 2.0 applications.
Teachers and learners actively participate in developing the learning environment - with small differences
regarding administrative rights to the learning environment.
6. Users (teachers and learners) use free tags or tags from a taxonomy to describe informations produced.
7. Users can use tools of their choice to produce and work on content. Learners are encouraged to arrange their
own digital work space and to integrate existing tools.
8. There is a smooth transition between the personal learning environment and the environment people use for
their work and other personal activities on the net. Teaching means observing, participating and evaluating the
individual and social learning activities within the learning environment.
9. The environment supports social group processes by making visible what tools the users prefer and providing
direct access to these tools.
10. The system supports community building by providing a full digital identity of its members (background,
interests, competencies ..) including various workspace awareness tools reflecting personal engagements of
each user.
11. It should be attractive to become a member of the community. Registered users and members of learning
groups should enjoy certain privileges. They have access to more information and gain more rights, e.g. to
promote information to the front page and to comment immediately).
12. The environment documents the learning activities and results automatically. Contributions become visible to
other learners and the teacher, they can be included directly into an e-portfolio of the user (and the
institution).
13. Learners are encouraged to reflect their learning activities (Did I set appropriate goals? Did I make a sufficient
progress?), for example with a Weblog.
14. An elearning provider generates an added value to customers by supplying new and re-arranged (sequenced)
(micro-) contents for the learning environment, assignments that structure the learning process and different
variants of tutorial support (including examination and certification).
Microlearning 239

15. Teachers provide a role model. They are actively engaged and show their presence in the learning
environment,
e.g. by using the tools the environment offers, by supplying personal information, by supplying materials and
participating in discussions, by using a weblog and working on wikis. They react on feedback and error messages
immediately.
Discussion
Daniel K. Schneider thinks that this model may make too many concession to traditional e-learning. I can see the
relation to micro-contents, e.g. the personal learning environment is defined as along lines that can be compared to
the Toronto's school's knowledge-building community model where users indeed operate within a common
knowledge space, only that extends to the Internet. But I don't really see the needs of content aggregation (point
2), to work with learning objects (they are really not thought in terms of a living document system). What strikes
me most is the absence of microlearning in this model. (btw I may move this section to the personal learning
environment article).

Links
• Microlearning.org [4] (Through this website you can find various online publications, e.g. the 2005/6/7 electronic
proceedings of the Microlearning conferences).

• Microlearning [1] (Wikipedia)

References
• Gstrein, S.: Bridging the Gap between Work and Leisure - the Integrated Microlearning Approach. In:
Proceedings of IADIS International Conference Mobile Learning 2006
• Hug, Theo (2006). Microlearning: A New Pedagogical Challenge (Introductory Note). in Hug, T et al. (2006).
• Hug, T., Linder, M., Bruck, P. A. (2006), Microlearning: Emerging Concepts, Practices and Technologies after e-
[5]
Learning. Proceedings of Microlearning 2005. Learning & Working in New Media. PDF , retrieved 17:42, 24 July
2007 (MEST).
• Hug, T., Linder, M. , Bruck, P. A.: Micromedia & e-Learning 2.0: Gaining the Big Picture Proceedings of
Microlearning Conference 2006. Innsbruck: Innsbruck University Press, 2006. (There is PDF somewhere for this
...)
• Hug, Theo (ed.): Didactics of Microlearning. Münster u. a.: Waxmann (forthcoming)
• Kerres Michael (2007).In: Theo Hug und Martin Lindner (Hrsg.): Didactics of Microlearning. Muenster: Waxmann
[6]
2007 PDF
 240
MiniQuest

MiniQuest
Draf

• MiniQuests are simple, well structured WebQuests according to Internet Innovations Inc. [1]
• MiniQuests vs. WebQuests: MiniQuests can be constructed in a few hours and can be completed in one to two 1-
hour lessons. Therefore they can be quite easily be integrated in larger scenarios or "traditional" curricular
sequences.

The Instructional design model

According to Internet Innovations:
1. The Scenario: Defined as a "use case" scenario, the learners are told to solve a problem formulated as a
question. They have to play a given role.
2. The Task: Defined a set of precises questions designed to acquire factual information needed to asnwer the
question.
3. The Product: Defined as a guideline on how the answer must look. It contains a synthesis of information
including reflection to insure that the answer is constructed. If possible the answer should be an authentic
product. E.g. a directive if students have been asked to play "manager".

Links
Please consult the WebSite for detailed discussion of this design model

• MiniQuest Home [2]

• MiniQuest Instructional Design [3], at BioPoint.com.

Minimalist instruction

Minimalist instruction

Definition
• Minimalist instruction is based on the idea that one should minimize negative impact of instructional materials
and favor self-directed learning with meaningful tasks.
• "The key idea in the minimalist approach is to present the smallest possible obstacle to learners' efforts, to
accommodate, even to exploit, the learning strategies that cause problems for learners using systematic
instructional materials. The goals is to let the learner get more out of the training experience by providing less
overt training structure." (p. 77-78) (cited by Horn).
This approach developped by Caroll is based on studies on how people learn to use computers and how badly
tutorials and manuals do the job. Therefore his message also is addressed to the "documentation people".
As Kearsley (1994d) explains, this theory suggests that:
1. All learning activities should be meaningful and self-contained.
2. Activities should exploit the learner's prior experience and knowledge.
 241
3. Learners should be given realistic projects as quickly as possible.
4. Instruction should permit self-directed reasoning and improvising.
5. Training materials and activities should provide for error recognition and use errors as learning opportunities. 6.
There should be a close linkage between training and the current task

Minimalist instructional design

In applying Carroll's Minimalist theory, Kearsley (1994d) recommends the following:
1. Allow learners to start immediately on meaningful tasks.
2. Minimize the amount of reading and other passive forms of training by allowing users to fill in the gaps
themselves
3. Include error recognition and recovery activities in the instruction
4. Make all learning activities self-contained and independent of sequence.

Robert E. Horn [1] in his book review [2] (199?) summarizes the nine principles of the minimalist approach (shortened
by DSchneider, read the original !):
1. Use real tasks for the training exercises and let users select their own tasks. It enables people to use their
prerequisite competence and engages a "powerful source of motivation."
2. Get the learner started on real tasks fast by eliminating almost all front-end orientational material. Extensive
preambles can "obstruct meaningful activity."
3. Guide learners' reasoning, exploring and improvising with questions and other hints. This includes incomplete
training materials, so that learners have to explore. He also suggests presenting summaries in place of complete
texts.
4. Design the materials so that they can be read in any order in so far as possible. This principle permits learners to
"support their own goal-directed activities"
5. Help learners to coordinate training materials and software by providing landmarks for normal or error
situations,
e.g. illustrations which show what the screen should look like if everything is OK
6. Focus early attention in the training materials on enabling the learner to recognize and recover from errors.
Learners make many kinds of errors in learning computer systems. "Training materials must therefore explicitly
support the recognition of and recovery from error both to make the materials robust with respect to user error
and to train error recovery skills." (p.10)
Minimalist instruction

7. Engage the learner's prior knowledge in introducing novel concepts. Use familiar office tasks, language and
metaphors. Highlight differences in operation of the system from what might be expected from the learner's
background.
8. Consider using the learning situation, as opposed to practical on-the-job examples, for learning examples,
exercises and explorations. Help the learner understand the "fine detail of the actual situations in order to
create practical solutions." (p. 90)
9. Aim for optimizing learning designs by repeated testing and avoiding the temptation to systematize approaches
into checklists. Carroll says, "There is no deductive theory of minimalist instruction; that is, given a set of
minimalist principles, we cannot just crank out a training manual. Design never works this way." (p.91)
Now DSchneider wonders how we should write a "how to use this wiki" manual for beginners :)

References
• Carroll, J.M. (1990). The Nurnberg Funnel, Designing Minimalist Instruction for Practical Computer Skill.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
 242
• van der Meij, H. & Carroll, J.M. (1995). Principles and heuristics for designing minimalist instruction. Technical
Communications, 42(2), 243-261.
[3]
• Kearsley, Greg Minimalism (J. Carroll)

• Horn, E. Book Review: The Nurnberg Funnel by John M. Carroll [2].

• Mary Beth Rosson, John M. Carroll, and Rachel K.E. Bellamy, Smalltalk Scaffolding: A Case Study of Minimalist
Instruction, Proceedings of CH1'1990, pages 423-429, May 1990.

Model-based learning
Draf

Definition
Model-based teaching and learning (or model-based teaching or model-based learning refers to activities where
students manipulate or build models.
• Note: Model-based learning also refers to a machine learning technology (artificial intelligence).
See also: microworlds and simulation

Examples

Approaches
Horwitz (2002) distinguishes 3 technical components: “ Basically, visualizations are what we choose to show users,
simulations are what we let them do. And models are what link the two. In the case of educational software, the
design of the visualizations, simulations, and models will depend critically on what is being taught, for what
purpose, and to whom.”
• See Hypermodel
Model-based learning

systems and technology

• WISE
• Pedagogica

References
• Paul Horwitz (2002), Simulations and Visualizations: Issues for REC, EHR/REC Principal Investigators meeting,
HTML [2]

• Boulter, Carolyn; Buckley, Barbara; Walkington, Helen (2001) Model-Based Teaching and Learning during
Ecological Inquiry. ERIC, Abstract/PDF [1]

Moursund project-based learning model

Draf
 243
Definition
The Moursund project-based learning model as presented here has been published in one of the most popular
textboooks, intitled "Project-based learning: Using Information Technology".
The model presented here draws from a summary of Moursund (2002: 57-64). We did not simply "pick out item
headings", therefore it is our (DSchneider)'s reading of the model. See also: project-oriented learning and project-
based learning

Context
This model can be applied (or rather adapted) to a wide range of project-based learning at various levels of
teaching.

Definition of goals
Typicially project-based learning involves definition of different kinds of goals, e.g.:
1. Gain knowledge and skills within a global (class-wide) subject area
2. Gain knowledge and skills in individual project-related subject areas
3. Improve IT skills (in particular improve ICT-enhanced "knowledge working" and "community of practice") skills
4. Improve general problem solving skills including metacognitive and other learning strategies.

Definition of the PBL Lesson(s) Topic(s)

under construction

The PBL lesson implementation Model

This is only a short summary, please refer to the book for details. Note that this is a generic outline that needs to
adapted to each situation.

Getting started
1. Define the topic
2. Define timelines, milestones and assessment methods
3. Identify resources
Moursund project-based learning model

4. Identify prequisites
5. Advance organization (introduce project-methodology, skills that will have to be acquired etc.)
6. Form teams

Initial Team Activity - Project Planning

1. Knowledge pooling by team members
2. Initial project specification, e.g. formulate objectives and questions. At university level, this should lead to a
research design.
3. Planning, e.g. definition of workpackages, milestones and timelines
4. Formal teacher feedback
5. Revision of the project specification and plan (if need return to steps 2 and 3)
 244
Project Implementation
1. Have students complete one task and milestone at a time. Make sure that students engage in regular meetings
2. Refining of project definition
3. Sharing between team members (make sure that there is collaboration and cooperation, you decide)
4. Provide feedback (this incluse peer-to-peer tutoring, global feedback to the class for all projects,
etc.)
5. Move toward completion.
6. Repeat all steps until all milestones have been met

Completion
1. Students have to polish the final product and prepare associated presentations.
2. Assessment: The whole class should assist at the presentation of the results. Students may have the occasion to
integrate a last feedback.
3. Closing session with the whole class discussing the experience

Discussion
DSchneider believes that this model is very representative for project-based learning. In his own practise he uses
strong story-boarding with common milestones for all groups and strong usage of ICT, i.e. making sure that each
production is reified, that collective exchange activities are organized at the class level at regular intervals, that
students engage in reflective thinking etc. See the C3MS project-based learning model and the C3MS article.
It's a way to specialize the general Moursund model.

Links
• Dave Moursund, ICT-Assisted Project-Based Learning [6].
• This is a Website designed to support a workshop, a short course, or self study. However, DSchneider
also recommends to buy the book directly from ISTE [1] About instructional design models and educational policy
Moursund's website also features a nice cartoon that we would like to share
Moursund project-based learning model

[2] [3
Copyright: Jerry King nd From Now On

References
 245
• Moursund, David (2002) Project-based learning: Using Information Technology, 2nd edition, ISTE. ISBN
1-56484-196-0

• Some chapters of prior edition are available online [4]

Nine events of instruction

Definition
"Nine events of instruction" is an instructional design model put together by Gagne. This is a behaviorist model that
also draws from cognitivism.

The conditions of learning

“ Essential to Gagne's ideas of instruction are what he calls "conditions of learning." He breaks these down into
internal and external conditions. The internal conditions deal with previously learned capabilities of the learner. Or
in other words, what the learner knows prior to the instruction. The external conditions deal with the stimuli (a
purely behaviorist term) that is presented externally to the learner. For example, what instruction is provided to the
learner.” (Cory, 1996)
Gagné's most essential ingrediants of teaching are:
• presenting the knowledge or demonstrating the skill
• providing practice with feedback • providing learner guidance
These elements have to be designed differently according to the type of learning level (learning goal) to be
achieved. For Gagné, instructional design means to first identify the goal (a learning outcome) and then construct
the learning hierarchy, i.e. do a task analysis of skills needed to perform a measurable activitiy that demonstrates a
learning goal.
Nine events of instruction

The nine events of instruction

Gagne's 9 general steps of instruction for learning are:
1. Gain attention:
• e.g. present a good problem, a new situation, use a multimedia advertisement, ask
questions. • This helps to ground the lesson, and to motivate
2. Describe the goal:
• e.g. state what students will be able to accomplish and how they will be able to use the knowledge, give a
demonstration if appropriate.
• Allows students to frame information, i.e. treat it better.
3. Stimulate recall of prior knowledge
• e.g. remind the student of prior knowledge relevant to the current lesson (facts, rules, procedures or skills).
Show how knowledge is connected, provide the student with a framework that helps learning and
remembering. Tests can be included.
4. Present the material to be learned
• e.g. text, graphics, simulations, figures, pictures, sound, etc. Chunk information (avoid memory overload,
recall information).
5. Provide guidance for learning
 246
• e.g. presentation of content is different from instructions on how to learn. Use of different channel (e.g. side-
boxes)
6. Elicit performance "practice"
• let the learner do something with the newly acquired behavior, practice skills or apply knowledge. At least use
MCQ's.
7. Provide informative feedback ,
• show correctness of the trainee's response, analyze learner's behavior, maybe present a good (step-by-step)
solution of the problem
8. Assess performance test, if the lesson has been learned. Also give sometimes general progress information
9. Enhance retention and transfer :
• e.g. inform the learner about similar problem situations, provide additional practice. Put the learner in a transfer
situation. Maybe let the learner review the lesson.
“ The way Gagne's theory is put into practice is as follows. First of all, the instructor determines the objectives of
the instruction. These objectives must then be categorized into one of the five domains of learning outcomes. Each
of the objectives must be stated in performance terms using one of the standard verbs (i.e. states, discriminates,
classifies, etc.) associated with the particular learning outcome. The instructor then uses the conditions of learning
for the particular learning outcome to determine the conditions necessary for learning. And finally, the events of
instruction necessary to promote the internal process of learning are chosen and put into the lesson plan. The
events in essence become the framework for the lesson plan or steps of instruction.” (Corry, 1996) See also
instructional curriculum map for planning at larger scale.
Nine events of instruction

Links
• http://www. my-ecoach. com/ idtimeline/ theory/ gagne. html
• http://www. patsula. com/ usefo/webbasedlearning/ tutorial1/learning_theories_full_version. html

Links
[1]
• Robert Gagne from my-ecoach.com. (Includes a table of learning outcomes with examples and associated
learning conditions).

References
• Aronson, Dennis T., & Leslie J.Briggs, (1983). "Contributions of Gagné and Briggs to a Prescriptive Model of
Instruction", in Reigeluth, C.M. (1983) (e.d). Instructional Design Theories and Models: An Overview of their
Current Status. Hillsdale, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
[2]
• Corry, Michael, Gagne's Theory of Instruction, George Washington University, Webpage, HTML retrieved
21:13, 3 October 2006 (MEST).
• Driscoll, M.(1991) Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Allyn and Bacon.
• Gagne, Robert M., Briggs, Leslie, J., Wager, Walter, F. (1985). Principles of Instructional Design, Wadsworth, ISBN
0030347572
• Killpatrick, L. (2001). Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction. In B. Hoffman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational
Technology. HTML [3] retrieved October 3, 2006.

OASIF
 247

WARNING: Article could not be rendered - ouputting plain text.

Potential causes of the problem are: (a) a bug in the pdf-writer software (b) problematic Mediawiki markup (c) table
is too wide

DraftDefinition OASIF is a free pedagogical scenario scenario editor for open and distance learning and that is used
before the development process. It integrates with the Amarante platform.“ OASIF, Outil d'Aide à la Scénarisation
pour l'Ingénierie de la Formation, s'adresse aux acteurs de la FOAD : concepteurs de dispositifs ou de formations à
distance, enseignants, formateurs, ingénieurs de formation (IATOS).” (, retrieved 18:41, 18 October 2006 (MEST))
See also: MOT/MOTPlus the tools for the (MISA) design method. Architecture The OASIF software relies on a simple
instructional design model and method that can be summarized by three hypothesis: Open and distance learning
must be designed as a coherent, organized, flexible and regulated whole of learning activities; Design should be
oriented by pedagogic actitivities and not contents; The system is organized at four levels (see below). Here is the
original wording in french (, retrieved 18:41, 18 October 2006 (MEST)) Une conception basée sur la notion de
dispositif de FOAD (ensemble cohérent, organisé, souple et régulé d'activités pédagogiques pour l'apprenant) ; Une
conception orientée par l'activité pédagogique de l'apprenant (et non par les documents pédagogiques) ; Une
organisation du dispositif par une structure en 4 niveaux 4 levels of the OASIS methodLinks OASIF homepage
Download (Win/Mac/Linux, JRE 1.5 required) References Galisson Arnaud, Jean Sébastien Nouveau (2002), OASIF :
un outil collaboratif d'aide à la scénarisation de modules de formation ouverte et à distance, TICE 2002. PDF Kraus
Isabelle, & Christophe Serra, Le semi-présentiel pour la formation initiale d'élèves OASIF

ingénieurs : Mise en oeuvre d'activités pédagogiques sur une plateforme de téléformation, PDF

PALO
Draf

Definition
PALO is an educational modeling language and a system.
PALO is a proposal of Educative Modelling Language to describe and design learning content and learning
environments at a high level of abstraction using learning content ontologies and conceptual maps to search and
retrieve small-granularity Learning Objects.
PALO is based on a reference framework to design educative content based in levels of abstraction. Each level
identifies a certain group of related components or elements of a learning resource. The language allows to define
teaching strategies by mean of the definition of specific DTD's called instructional templates . This templates are a
general type of PALO document that specially suits for a given instructional or teaching purpose.
PALO has been designed to be a technology-independent representation of a learning reseource, thus allowing
educative content interchange , interoperability, mantainability and reusability. A PALO description of a learning
content (a *.palo file) can be turned into a variety of learning scenarios (each one built using an specific delivery
format) via a compiling process.
[16]
(PALO language Home Page , retrieved 18:21, 29 May 2007 (MEST).

Structure
 248
Google translation from Spanish of http:/ / sensei. ieec. uned. es/ %7Emiguel/ tesis/ node30. html ... almost
understandable ;)
• Content: It is the knowledge that, modelizado in the surroundings, is study object during the education process.
The content is modelizado of external and independent form of the structure of the surroundings. The
references to these components can be direct or by means of the use of properties and didactic or
instruccionales relations.
• Tasks: The tasks are the activities that the user of the surroundings makes to on approval practice or to put the
knowledge assimilated in the study matter. They are basic educational elements that allow the knowledge
acquisition, the pursuit, the evaluation of the student and the interaction with the professor.
• Structure: It defines the composition and the group of contents and tasks. It also determines the model of
navigation by the material and provides an index of he himself.
• Planning: The planning includes/understands logistic associate to the use of the surroundings and the temporary
requirements for its use.
• Management: It is the information that controls the accesses, the operation and the developed activity in the
surroundings.
PALO can be described in terms of three components
• The DTD: An instructional template defining the tags and possible tag combinations for the given template. It is a
SGML-based DTD
• The PALO File: An SGML file that contains declarative description of a learning environment according to the
instructional template above (DTD).
PALO 249

• The resulting environment after the compilation process of the PALO File using the PALO Compiler. There
are three kinds:
1. A demo environment with no interactivity, but having all the content.
2. An interactive environment using signed java applets. Students can install this environment, and work off-
line.
From time to time they can connect to our server and send the work done.
3. An interactive environment to be used remotely.

SGML DTDs
“The PALO Language is defined by a set of DTD's that describe different documents, each one to be used for an
specific instructional purpose. These DTD's describe a general template that can be instantiated into an SGML file.
In the PALO system, the family of DTD's are known as instructional templates.” [1], retrieved 18:21, 29 May 2007
(MEST).

GUIA
<!ELEMENT guia - - ((#PCDATA & lista* & talcual*), gestion , directorio ,(#PCDATA & lista* & tema+))>

<!ATTLIST guia id ID #IMPLIED nombre NMTOKEN #REQUIRED dir-uso

NMTOKEN #REQUIRED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT directorio - -

(objetivos,creditos,instrucciones,requisitos)> <!ELEMENT objetivos - - (#PCDATA & lista* & talcual*)>

<!ATTLIST objetivos id ID #IMPLIED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!

ELEMENT creditos - - (#PCDATA & lista* & talcual*)>

<!ATTLIST creditos id ID #IMPLIED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT

instrucciones - - (#PCDATA & lista* & talcual*)>

<!ATTLIST instrucciones id ID #IMPLIED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!

ELEMENT requisitos - - (#PCDATA & lista* & talcual*)>

<!ATTLIST requisitos id ID #IMPLIED

PALO 250
PALO 251

traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT talcual - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ATTLIST talcual id ID #IMPLIED tipo (html | latex | daylight | jme ) #REQUIRED> <!ELEMENT tema --

((#PCDATA , metainformacion?) & #PCDATA & lista* & talcual* & subtema* & glosario*)>

<!ATTLIST tema id ID #IMPLIED nombre NMTOKEN #REQUIRED traza ( si | no )

#IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT subtema - - ((#PCDATA & lista* & talcual* & glosario*), seccion+)>

<!ATTLIST subtema id ID #IMPLIED nombre NMTOKEN #REQUIRED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT

seccion - - ((#PCDATA & lista* & talcual*) & elemento* & relacion* & glosario*)>

<!ATTLIST seccion id ID #IMPLIED nombre (contenido | utilidad |

conceptos | ejercicios | errores | cuestiones | temporizacion )

#REQUIRED ref NMTOKEN #REQUIRED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT

lista - - (#PCDATA & item+)> <!ELEMENT item - - (#PCDATA & elemento* & relacion* &

glosario*)> <!ELEMENT elemento - - (#PCDATA , enlaces?)>

<!ATTLIST elemento id ID #IMPLIED dominio

NMTOKEN #REQUIRED
PALO 252
PALO 253

nombre NMTOKEN #REQUIRED categoria NMTOKEN

#REQUIRED atr-etiqueta NMTOKEN #IMPLIED atr-

contenido NMTOKEN #IMPLIED traza ( si | no )

#IMPLIED faq ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT relacion -

- (#PCDATA)>

<!ATTLIST relacion id ID #IMPLIED nombre NMTOKEN

#REQUIRED dominio NMTOKEN #REQUIRED sujeto NMTOKEN

#REQUIRED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED atrib NMTOKEN

#IMPLIED categoria NMTOKEN #IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT enlaces - - (#PCDATA

& elemento* & relacion*)>

<!ATTLIST enlaces id ID #IMPLIED> <!ENTITY lt "menorque"> <!ENTITY gt

"mayorque">

<!ENTITY amp "ampersand"> <!ENTITY quot "quote"> <!ELEMENT glosario - - (#PCDATA & referencia+) >

<!ATTLIST glosario id ID #IMPLIED categoria NMTOKEN #REQUIRED

dominio NMTOKEN #REQUIRED atr-etiqueta NMTOKEN #REQUIRED atr-

contenido NMTOKEN #REQUIRED traza (si|no) #IMPLIED orden

(alfabetico | secuencial) alfabetico>

<!ELEMENT referencia - - (#PCDATA) > <!ATTLIST referencia id

ID #IMPLIED nombre NMTOKEN #REQUIRED

dominio NMTOKEN #REQUIRED atr-contenido NMTOKEN

#REQUIRED >

<!ELEMENT paseo - - (#PCDATA & contenido-paseo) > <!ATTLIST paseo

id ID #IMPLIED nombre NMTOKEN #REQUIRED
traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED>
PALO 254
PALO 255

<!ELEMENT contenido-paseo - - (#PCDATA & talcual* & paseo*) > <!ELEMENT gestion - - (#PCDATA,

bdobjetos+ , bdtareas+ , metainformacion)> <!ELEMENT bdobjetos - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ATTLIST bdobjetos id ID #IMPLIED tipo (pruebas |

explotacion) #REQUIRED sgdb (mSQL | Oracle) #REQUIRED lugar

NMTOKEN #IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT bdtareas - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ATTLIST bdtareas id ID #IMPLIED tipo (pruebas |

explotacion) #REQUIRED sgdb (mSQL | Oracle) #REQUIRED lugar

NMTOKEN #IMPLIED>

<!ELEMENT metainformacion - - (contenido & copyright & instancia)> <!ATTLIST metainformacion id ID #IMPLIED tipo (dc |

ims | ieee) #REQUIRED cod (rfc2731) #REQUIRED> <!ELEMENT contenido - - (titulo & materia & descripcion & fuente & lenguaje &

relacionado & ambito)>

<!ELEMENT copyright - - (autor & editor & colaborador & derechos)> <!ELEMENT instancia - - (fecha & tipo &

formato & identificador)>

<!ELEMENT titulo - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT materia - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT descripcion - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT fuente - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT lenguaje - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT relacionado - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT ambito - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT autor - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT editor - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT colaborador - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT derechos - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT fecha - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT tipo - - (#PCDATA)>

PALO 256

<!ELEMENT formato - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT identificador - - (#PCDATA)>

PED
<!ELEMENT ped - - ((#PCDATA & lista* & talcual*), gestion , directorio, apartado+)>

<!ATTLIST ped id ID #IMPLIED nombre NMTOKEN #REQUIRED dir-uso

NMTOKEN #REQUIRED dir-correccion NMTOKEN #REQUIRED traza ( si | no )

#IMPLIED fecha NMTOKEN #IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT directorio - -

(objetivos,creditos,instrucciones,requisitos)> <!ELEMENT objetivos - - (#PCDATA & lista* & talcual*)>

<!ATTLIST objetivos id ID #IMPLIED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!

ELEMENT creditos - - (#PCDATA & lista* & talcual*)>

<!ATTLIST creditos id ID #IMPLIED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT

instrucciones - - (#PCDATA & lista* & talcual*)>

<!ATTLIST instrucciones id ID #IMPLIED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!

ELEMENT requisitos - - (#PCDATA & lista* & talcual*)>

<!ATTLIST requisitos id ID #IMPLIED traza ( si |

no ) #IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT talcual - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ATTLIST talcual id ID #IMPLIED

tipo (html | latex |
daylight |
PALO 257
PALO 258

jme ) #REQUIRED> <!ELEMENT tarea - - (((#PCDATA & talcual*) | elemento | simulacion ) & calificador* )>

<!ATTLIST tarea id ID #IMPLIED nombre

NMTOKEN #REQUIRED tipo (texto | latex

| test

| smiles

| fichero | simulacion) #REQUIRED traza (si

| no) #IMPLIED etiqueta NMTOKEN #IMPLIED puntuable (si|

no) #IMPLIED prerrequisito NMTOKEN #IMPLIED>

<!ELEMENT simulacion ((#PCDATA | talcual) | elemento | herramienta )> <!ATTLIST simulacion id

ID #IMPLIED nombre NMTOKEN #REQUIRED>

<!ELEMENT herramienta (#PCDATA | talcual)> <!ATTLIST herramienta id

ID #IMPLIED tipo (logica | fisica) #REQUIRED url

NMTOKEN #REQUIRED traza (si | no) #REQUIRED> <!

ELEMENT calificador - - (#PCDATA & lista*)>

<!ATTLIST calificador id ID #IMPLIED peso NMTOKEN #REQUIRED>

<!ELEMENT cuestionario - - (#PCDATA & lista* & talcual* & tarea+)>

<!ATTLIST cuestionario id ID #IMPLIED nombre NMTOKEN #REQUIRED etiqueta NMTOKEN #IMPLIED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!

ELEMENT apartado - - ((#PCDATA & lista* & talcual* & cuestionario* & elemento* & relacion* & tarea* & glosario*), subapartado+)>

<!ATTLIST apartado
PALO 259
PALO 260

id ID #IMPLIED nombre NMTOKEN #REQUIRED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!ELEMENT subapartado - - (#PCDATA & lista*

& talcual* & elemento* & relacion* & tarea* & glosario*)>

<!ATTLIST subapartado id ID #IMPLIED nombre

NMTOKEN #REQUIRED ref NMTOKEN #IMPLIED

traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED>

<!ELEMENT lista - - (#PCDATA & item+)> <!ELEMENT item - - (#PCDATA & elemento* & relacion* &

glosario* )>

<!ELEMENT elemento - - (#PCDATA , enlaces?)>

<!ATTLIST elemento id ID #IMPLIED dominio

NMTOKEN #REQUIRED nombre NMTOKEN

#REQUIRED categoria NMTOKEN #REQUIRED atr-

etiqueta NMTOKEN #IMPLIED atr-contenido NMTOKEN

#IMPLIED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED faq ( si | no )

#IMPLIED>

<!ELEMENT relacion - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ATTLIST relacion id ID #IMPLIED nombre

NMTOKEN #REQUIRED dominio NMTOKEN

#REQUIRED sujeto NMTOKEN #REQUIRED traza

(si | no) #IMPLIED atrib NMTOKEN #IMPLIED

categoria NMTOKEN #IMPLIED>

<!ELEMENT enlaces - - (#PCDATA & elemento* & relacion* & tarea* & cuestionario*)>

<!ATTLIST enlaces id ID #IMPLIED>

PALO 261
PALO 262

<!ENTITY lt "menorque">

<!ENTITY gt "mayorque">

<!ENTITY amp "ampersand">

<!ENTITY quot "quote">

<!ELEMENT glosario - - (#PCDATA & referencia+) > <!ATTLIST glosario id ID

#IMPLIED categoria NMTOKEN #REQUIRED dominio NMTOKEN

#REQUIRED atr-etiqueta NMTOKEN #REQUIRED atr-contenido NMTOKEN

#REQUIRED traza (si|no) #IMPLIED orden (alfabetico | secuencial)

alfabetico>

<!ELEMENT referencia - - (#PCDATA) > <!ATTLIST referencia id

ID #IMPLIED nombre NMTOKEN #REQUIRED

dominio NMTOKEN #REQUIRED atr-contenido NMTOKEN

#REQUIRED >

<!ELEMENT paseo - - (#PCDATA & contenido-paseo) > <!ATTLIST paseo id ID

#IMPLIED nombre NMTOKEN #REQUIRED traza ( si | no ) #IMPLIED> <!

ELEMENT contenido-paseo - - (#PCDATA & talcual* & paseo*) >

<!ELEMENT gestion - - (#PCDATA, bdobjetos+ , bdtareas+ , metainformacion)> <!ELEMENT bdobjetos - -

(#PCDATA)>

<!ATTLIST bdobjetos id ID #IMPLIED tipo (pruebas |

explotacion) #REQUIRED sgdb (mSQL | Oracle) #REQUIRED lugar

NMTOKEN #IMPLIED>

<!ELEMENT bdtareas - - (#PCDATA)>

PALO 263

<!ATTLIST bdtareas id ID #IMPLIED tipo (pruebas |

explotacion) #REQUIRED sgdb (mSQL | Oracle) #REQUIRED lugar

NMTOKEN #IMPLIED>

<!ELEMENT metainformacion - - (contenido & copyright & instancia)> <!ATTLIST metainformacion

id ID #IMPLIED tipo (dc | ims | ieee) #REQUIRED cod (rfc2731)

#REQUIRED>

<!ELEMENT contenido - - (titulo & materia & descripcion & fuente & lenguaje & relacionado & ambito)>

<!ELEMENT copyright - - (autor & editor & colaborador & derechos)> <!ELEMENT instancia - - (fecha & tipo &

formato & identificador)>

<!ELEMENT titulo - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT materia - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT descripcion - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT fuente - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT lenguaje - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT relacionado - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT ambito - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT autor - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT editor - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT colaborador - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT derechos - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT fecha - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT tipo - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT formato - - (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT identificador - - (#PCDATA)>

Links
• PALO Home Page [16]. This page contains links to papers and talks, demoes and software.

References
PALO
Rodriguez-Artacho M. "Una Arquitectura Cognitiva para el Diseño de Entornos Telemáticos de Ensñanza y
[2]
Aprendizaje", Ph. D. Thesis (In Spanish!), HTML
PALO 264

[3] [4]
• Overview of the PALO EML (IEEE Frontiers In Education FIE '99 Conference paper) HTML PDF
• Uses of PALO to build Educational Web-sites (IFIP 99) [HTML] (Building Electronic Educational Environments,
Kluwer Ac. Publishers, 1999) HTML [5]

• Ontologies for learning content modeling and their use with PALO Language [PDF] (TET '99 conference, Norway)
PDF [6]

• PALO Language uses for Higher Education (Computers and Ed. in the 21st Century. Kluwer Ac. publishers, 2000)
PDF [7]
[36]
• Constructivism & PALO Language (IEEE Frontiers in Education FIE '01 Conference) PDF
• Rodriguez-Artacho M. and Verdejo, M. F. "Modeling Educational Content: The Cognitive Approach of the
PALO Language", Journal of Educational Technology & Society (Vol. 7 # 3, 2004) PDF Preprint [8]
Other
• Mizoguchi, R. and Bourdeau, J. (2000). Using ontological engineering to overcome common AI-ED problems.
International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 11.
• Murray, T. (1996a). From story board to knowledge bases: The first paradigm shift in making CAI "intelligent".
In Proceedings of the ED-MEDIA 96 Conference, pages 509-514, Boston, MA.
 265
POME

POME
Draf

Definition
POME - "prepare - organize - monitor - evaluate" is a simple instructional design model that emphasis self-
regulation.

The model
Ley and Young distinguish four kinds of self-regulation activity categories that a course designer has to look at. That
means preparing self-regulation guidance activities for the learners.

Ley & Young POME model, modified and

reprinted with permission by Kathryn Ley

Prepare (environmental structuring)

... the learning environment to concentrate and attend the learning process.
• E.g. provide checklists of study environments and strategies to cope with distraction and overload through multi-
tasking.
Organize (organizing and transforming)
... the study material for studying or as part of the learning process.
• E.g. Advise students how to arrange or use learning materials, identify key points to learning, optimal learning
path, have them complete partial outlines.
Monitor (keeping records, monitoring, reviewing
tests) ... the learning process.
• E.g. Provide students with time needed for activities, detailed assignment tables (calendar), timely regular on-
line feedback and assessment. Evaluate (self evaluation) ... the learning outcomes.
• E.g. frequent ungraded quizzes, compare effort to learning, identify effective/ineffective learning strategies.
POME

Discussion
The authors make the point that self-regulation can directly or indirectly be taught, i.e. by providing guidelines on
how to plan, behave, etc. and also by engaging students into activities where they are brought to reflect.
 266
Links
[1]
Self-regulation strategies - P.O.M.E model Home page, including bibliography, copies of talks and other resources.

PDF Slides [2]

[3]
SRL for distance learning - PDF Slides

References
• Ley, Kathryn., & Young, D. B. (2001). Instructional principles for self regulation. Educational Technology Research
and Development, 49 (2), 93-103.pdf [4]

Peer-to-peer learning
Draf
There are several variants, e.g.
• (some forms of) collaborative writing
• Peer tutoring
• learning by teaching (reciprocal teaching) See also:
• Peer assessment
• When writing contributes to a larger collective body of knowledge whose elements can put in relation, we rather
refer to a knowledge building community approach, as for example in the CSILE project.

Peer tutoring and collaborative writing

"Peer-tutoring" writing consists in assisting the revision process through the intervention of a peer, following the
peer-tutoring assumption: Peer-tutoring is expected to enrich the production through the confrontation with other
learners, and by fostering processes like metacognitive awareness on their own productions, particularly epistemic
monitoring and reflexive thinking.
Peer tutoring is a process developed by Fantuzzo and his colleagues (Wolfe, Fantuzzo and Wolfe, 1986). It allows
each student to play the role of tutor and tutored. Reciprocal peer tutoring allows each student to benefit from
giving directions, evaluating and providing reinforcement for their partner. It creates mutual assistance and social
support among participants (Fantuzzo, Riggio, Connelly and Dimeff, 1989; Pigott, Fantuzzo and Clement, 1986).
Most of the time, research on peer tutoring provided evidence for its positive effects on performance, learning,
reduction of stress and anxiety and an increase in satisfaction with the progress ( Riggio, Fantuzzo, Connelly and
Dimeff, 1991). Still, little research has investigated the effects of peer tutoring for "writing to learn" activities
(Gielen, Dochy, Tops, Peeters, 2007).
Here is a conjecture map summarizing some elements and relationships that may constitute a little peer
collaborative writing activity that took place in a wiki.
Peer-to-peer learning
 267

Peer tutoring in collaborative writing,

Bétrancourt, Schneider, Gavota, & Richle (2008)

Mazur Peer Instruction Model

[1]
According to Beth Simon and Quintin Cutts (2012) , “in Peer Instruction, students gain preparatory knowledge
before class (for example, through textbook reading) and complete a pre-lecture quiz to both incentivize their
preparation and to give them feedback on whether they are ready to learn in a lecture format. During class, lecture
is interspersed with or largely replaced by multiple choice questions (MCQs) and discussion. MCQs are designed by
instructors to engage students in thinking about deep conceptual issues or common misconceptions. This is
instantiated via a four-part process: Students individually consider a question and select an answer (typically
reporting it via use of a Classroom response systemclicker. Students discuss in preassigned groups. Students vote
again on the same question. Classwide discussion follows led by student explanations and the instructor modeling
their way of understanding the problem.”

Links
• Web 2.0 and Emerging Learning Technologies/Learning Theory [2]

• Peer Tutoring [3] by the International Writing Centers Association (retrieved oct 2012). Includes a good annotated
Bibliography

References
• Bétrancourt, Mireille, Daniel Schneider, Monica Gavota et Urs Richle (2008), Project 2, dental assistants, in P.
Dillenbourg (ed.) (2008). DUAL-T: Technologies for Vocational Training, Rapport intermédiaire, Federal Office for
[4]
Professional Education and Technology. document pdf
• Fantuzzo, J. W., Riggio, R. E., Connelly, S., & Dimeff, L. A. (1989). Effects of reciprocal peer tutoring on academic
achievement and psychological adjustment: A component analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 173-
177.
• Gielen, S., Filip Dochy, Liesje Tops, Elien Peeters (2007) Effects of formative peer-assessment on writing
performance: What is the most beneficial role of the assessee in Proceedings of the 12th EARLI biennal
conference on Research on Learning and Instruction, Aug. 28 - Sept. 1, Budapest (Hungary)
• Höysniemi, J., Hämäläinen, P., & Turkki, L. (2003). Using peer tutoring in evaluating the usability of a physically
interactive computer game with children. Interacting with Computers, 15, 203-225.
• Johnson, R. T., & Johnson, D. W. (1988). Cooperative learning: Two heads are better than one. In Context. HTML
[5]
, retrieved 14:53, 20 May 2008 (UTC).
• Kear, K. (2004). Peer learning using asynchronous discussion systems in distance education. Open Learning,
19(2), 151-164. Retrieved October 4, 2007
Peer-to-peer learning
 268
• Pigott, H. E., Fantuzzo, J. W., & Clement, P. W. (1986). The effects of reciprocal peer tutoring and group
contingencies on the academic performance of elementary school children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
19, 93-98.
• Riggio, R. E., Fantuzzo, J. W., Connelly, S., & Dimeff, L. A. (1991). Reciprocal peer tutoring: A classroom strategy of
promoting academic and social integration in undergraduate students. Journal of Social Behavior and
Personality, 6, 387-396.
• Wolfe, J. A., Fantuzzo, J. W., & Wolfe, P. K. (1986). The effects of reciprocal peer management and group
contingencies on the arithmetic proficiency of underachieving students. Behavior Therapy, 17, 253-265.
• Outhred, T, & Chester, A. (2010). The Experience of Class Tutors in a Peer Tutoring Programme: A Novel
Theoretical Framework, Australasian Journal of Peer Learning, 3(1), 12-23. Available at: http:/ / ro. uow. edu. au/
ajpl/vol3/ iss1/ 3
• Simon, Beth and Quintin Cutts (2012). Peer Instruction: A Teaching Method to Foster Deep Understanding,
Communications of the ACM, Vol. 55 No. 2, Pages 27-29, DOI: 10.1145/2076450.2076459

Phoebe pedagogic planner

Draf

Definition
“Phoebe is a web application designed to provide inspiration and practical support for learning design.” (phoebe
application home page [1], retrieved 15:20, 29 January 2009 (UTC)
Looking at the phoebe welcome screen, it currently (jan 2009) has four functionalities:
1. Create or modify your learning designs: Build your own design or adapt an existing design.
2. View shared learning designs: Let Phoebe’s collection of shared designs inspire you.
3. Browse Phoebe’s teaching and technology guidance: Find out about different tools and the learning activities
they support.
4. Manage your design templates: Create and modify the templates from which you build your learning designs.

Context
Phoebe has been developed by a team from the Technology-Assisted Lifelong Learning unit (TALL) at Oxford
University and Oxford University Computing Services (OUCS) in partnership with Learning Technologies Group, and
with funding from the JISC Design for Learning programme.
• Marion Manton: Project manager
• David Balch: Web developer
• Liz Masterman: researcher & evaluation specialist
Phoebe pedagogic planner

Software
[1]
• Phoebe can be used through the online Phoebe Beta system
[2]
• It also can be installed on your server (PHP/MySQL). Code is available through tarballs or through a subversion
system.
 269
Links
• Phoebe Beta [1] (online system)
[3] [4]
• Phoebe Wiki . From this website you also can dowload presentations
[5]
• Project member's Bookmarks on delicious

Bibliography
• Masterman, Liz,(2008). Jisc Design For Learning Programme, Phoebe Pedagogy Planner Project, Evaluation
[6]
Report, Version 1.1. Available online: Evaluation report/PDF

Acknowledgement: This article or part of this article has been written during a collaboration with the EducTice [7]
[8]
group of INRP , which attributed a visiting grant to DKS in january 2009.

Problem-based learning
Draf

Introduction
Problem-based learning (PBL in this article) is defined by Finkle and Torp (1995) as, “a curriculum development and
instructional system that simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge
bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem solvers confronted with an ill-structured problem
that mirrors real-world problems”.

What is PBL?
Problem-based learning is an instructional design model and a variant of project-oriented learning. It is closely
related to inquiry-based learning.
Real-life problems seldom parallel well-structured problems; hence, the ability to solve traditional school-based
problems does little to increase relevant, critical thinking skills. Real-life problems present an ever-changing variety
of goals, contexts, contents, obstacles, and unknowns which influence how each problem should be approached. To
be successful, students need to practice solving ill-structured problems that reflect life beyond the classroom.
These skills are the goal of PBL. With Problem-Based Learning, students engage in authentic experiences.
PBL is inherently social and collaborative in methodology and teaches students essential "soft skills" as well as
domain specific content and skills. PBL is learner-centered and gives the learners progressively more responsibility
and independence in their education. It encourages life-long learning. In PBL, it is the problem that drives the
curriculum. It does not test a skill, it assists in the development of the skill itself. There is no one solution: the
problem is solved in an iterative process where the perception of the problem can change as do the solutions
found.
Problem-based learning 270

What Skills do Students learn?

Through PBL, students learn:
• Solving real-life problems: Learning to solve relevant and contextual problems congruent with workplace skills,
develop initiative, performance ability and enthusiasm.
• Efficient problem solving: Develop the ability to find and use appropriate resources for problem solving
• Independant learning: Employ effective self-directed and self-motivated learning skills and proactive thinking to
continue learning as a lifetime habit
• Self-monitoring: Continuously monitor and assess the adequacy of their own knowledge and of their problem-
solving skills, practice critical thinking (see also cognitive tools)
• Team work: Efficient collaboration as a member of a group, communication and leadership skills, social and
ethical skills.
[1] [2]
From the problem based learning initiative of the southern illinois university and the Stanford site on PBL

Historical Background
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) has become popular because of its benefits to student learning.
PBL can be thought of as a combination of cognitive and social constructivist theories, as developed by Piaget and
Vygotsky, respectively. The first application of PBL was in medical schools which rigorously test the knowledge base
of graduates. According to García-Famoso (2005), “PBL was first applied in the 60s, in the Faculty of Health Sciences
of McMaster University (Canada) and in the School of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University (United States).
The main objective was twofold: to develop problem solving skills and bring learning closer to real medical
problems.” After these first experiences, many medical and professional schools started to use some form of PBL,
for example, Harvard Medical School or, in Europe, Maastrich University. Many medical and professional schools, as
well as undergraduate and graduate programs, use PBL in some form. Over 80% of medical schools use the PBL
methodology to teach students about clinical cases, either real or hypothetical (Vernon & Blake, 1993, Bridges &
Hallinger, 1991).

Models of PBL, Designing PBL curricula

Models of PBL
There are many problem-based learning models. E.g. Edwin Bridges (1992) suggests that there are two versions of
PBL that have been implemented in the classroom, problem-stimulated PBL and Student Centered PBL. Problem
Stimulated PBL (PS PBL)
PS PBL uses role relevant problems in order to introduce and learn new knowledge.
PS PBL emphasizes 3 major goals:
• development of domain-specific skills
• development of problem-solving skills
• acquisition of domain-specific knowledge

Student Centered PBL (SC PBL)

SC PBL has the same goals as PS PBL, but includes one more: fostering life-long learning skills. Physicians are one
group of professionals who are required to stay current with new developments in their fields. The skills of a life-
long learner are particularly important for this group. Hence, several medical schools employ student centered PBL.
The major differences with PS PBL are in student responsibilities. In SC PBL:
• students themselves identify the learning issues they wish to explore
• students determine the content to be mastered
Problem-based learning 271

• students determine and locate the resources to be used

In short, students have self-defined learning issues. As is the case with PS PBL, students decide how to
appropriately use the newly acquired information and knowledge in order to solve the problem at hand.
Case-based PBL See learning by design. The typical sequence of activities in a Learning-by-Design unit has students
encountering a design challenge and attempting a solution using only prior knowledge. Students compare and
contrast their ideas, identify what they need to learn to move forward in addressing the design challenge, choose a
learning issue to focus on, and design and/or run a laboratory activity to examine that issue. Following this are
cycles of exploratory and experimental work.Kolodner, Crismond, Gray, Holbrook & Puntembakar (1998)

Designing PBL
Integrating PBL into a Curriculum Design
Considerations:
• How should PBL be incorporated into the curriculum?
• What problems should be used and how should they be presented?
• What are the instructional goals?
• How should small groups be formed?
• How much should each problem be prestructured?
• How to evaluate the program and the students?
• What resources should be available?
• How to prepare students and faculty for PBL? (Bridges, 1992).

Creating appropriate Problems

PBL problems should be created with :
• introduction
• content
• learning objectives
• resources
• expected outcome
• guiding questions
• assessment exercises
• time frame
(Bridges, 1992)
The best format for problems is unorganized, unsynthesized, and open-ended because this allows for student
processing. Students are motivated to use their reasoning skills and relate the content to their own context and
previous knowledge. Focus problems on current events, student lives, or relationships to actual occurrences.
Problems should be interdisciplinar and task oriented. It should not only focus on the large problem but also take
students through the objectives. (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993)
Novice learners require more structure and cues while more experienced students are self-directed learners.
Software can be used in the PBL curriculum, but avoid telling students when the solution is reached. This stops the
learning process. Point out inappropriate strategies. Complex problems usually require learners to exhibit
management, research, and thinking skills that help distinguish less expert from more expert performers. This
differentiation can help serve as a grading standards in the class.(Albanese & Mitchell, 1993)

Getting Started
• Anticipate and manage anxiety (Bernstein, Tipping, Bercovitz, & Skinner, 1995).
Explain to all involved what is happening and why.
• Tutors should receive training (Foley, Levy, Russinof, & Lemon, 1993).
Problem-based learning 272

•
• Students should be oriented to PBL.
• State the PBL goals.
• Randomly assign students to PBL (Mennin Friedman, Skipper, Kalishman, & Snyder, 1993).
According to Schmidt and Moust (1989), the student progresses through a series of steps, "The Seven Jump", during
the PBL process.
1. Clarify unknown terms and concepts in the problem description.
2. Define the problem(s). List the phenomena or events to be explained.
3. Analyze the problem(s). Step 1. Brainstorm. Try to produce as many different explanations for the phenomena as
you think of. Use prior knowledge and common sense. Student outcomes: activation of prior knowledge,
elaboration, restructuring of information, organization of information, intrinsic motivation (see also Flow theory,
Motivation).
4. Analyze the problem(s). Step 2. Discuss. Criticize the explanations proposed and try to produce a coherent
description of the processes that, according to what you think, underlie the phenomena or events.
5. Formulate learning issues for self-directed learning.
6. Fill in gaps in your knowledge through self-study.
7. Share your findings with your group and try to integrate the knowledge acquired into a comprehensive
explanation for the phenomena or events. Check whether you know enough now. Student outcomes:
restructuring, applying, problem solving.

Evaluation
Because instruction and learning is different in problem based settings than traditional instruction, many instructors
find student evaluation difficult.
PBL encourages development of meta-cognitive skills like group learning or research and communication skills and
aims transferring knowledge to novel situations. With such multiple purposes for PBL, it is important to consider a
variety of evaluation techniques:
• Written examinations: should be designed to ensure transference of skills to similar problems or subject
domains.
• Practical examinations: used to ensure that students are able to apply skills learned during the course.
• Concept maps: much of the learning that goes on during PBL is more than just a compilation of facts. As such,
written examinations may not be an adequate measure of student growth. Requiring students to generate
concept maps, in which they depict their knowledge through the creation of identified nodes and links, may
present another option to determine their cognitive growth.
• Peer assessment: because life outside the classroom usually requires working with others, peer assessment is a
viable option to measure student growth. Providing students with an evaluation rubric often helps guide the
peer evaluation process. This process also emphasizes the cooperative nature of the PBL environment.
• Self assessment: an important element of PBL is to help students identify gaps in their knowledge base in order
for more meaningful learning to result. Self assessment allows students to think more carefully about what they
know, what they do not know, and what they need to know to accomplish certain tasks.
• Facilitators/tutor assessment: the feedback provided by tutors should encourage the students to explore
different ideas. It is important that facilitators do not dominate the group and facilitate learning and exploration.
Tutor assessment may consist of how successful individuals interacted with their group and their cognitive
growth.
• Oral Presentations: because so much of work life revolves around presenting ideas and results to peers, oral
presentation in PBL provide students an opportunity to practice their communication skills. Presenting findings
to their group, the class, or even a real-life audience can help strengthen these skills.
• Reports: Written communication is another skill important for students. Requiring written reports allows
students to practice this form of communication.
Problem-based learning 273

Evaluation is an iterative process. Be prepared to make changes along the way based on experience (Bernstein,
Tipping, Bercovitz, & Skinner, 1995).

Ressources
Ensure resources and time are available for self-study. "If students are to be genuinely empowered with their own
learning, it is important to provide them with the necessary infrastructure." (Rangagachari, 1991). PBL students
study in the library more than conventional students and study more during the day than the evening. Increasing
the time spent instructing students decreases the time students spend in self-study (Williams, Saarinen-Rahikka, &
Norman, 1995). If students must learn basic science or similar material for national standardized examinations,
increase student access to self-assessment, provide practice examinations, allow additional examination
preparation time (Mennin et al., 1993).
See also Problem-based learning and electronic games

Roles in PBL

Instructor's Role
Teaching in PBL normally occurs within small discussion groups of students facilitated by a faculty tutor (Aspy, Aspy,
& Quimby, 1993, Bridges & Hallinger, 1991, Mayo, Donnelly, Nash, & Schwartz, 1993). Because the amount of direct
instruction is reduced in PBL, students assume greater responsibility for their own learning. The instructor's role
becomes one of subject matter expert, resource guide, and task group consultant. This arrangement promotes
group processing of information rather than an imparting of information by faculty (Vernon & Blake, 1993). The
tutor is most active in planning the PBL, the content and sequence of projects. He encourages student participation,
provides appropriate information to keep students on track, gives immediate and appropriate feedback, and
assumes the role of mentor, tutor or fellow learner (Aspy et al., 1993). The tutor acts as metacognitive coach,
serving as model, thinking aloud with students and practicing behavior he wants his students to use (Stepien and
Gallagher, 1993. He also evaluates the students.

Student's Role

The individual student in PBL

In PBL, students have responsibility for their own learning by identifying their learning issues and needs.
The students work with the following learning materials:
• the problem situation
• a list of objectives that the student is expected to master while working on the problem
• a reference list of materials that pertain to the basic objectives
• questions that focus on important concepts and applications of the knowledge base.
Time allotted to each project is fixed. Students work on the problem in project teams. Students are evaluated in
multiple ways by instructors, peers, and self, using questionnaires, interviews, observation, and other assessment
methods.

Groups in PBL
Students work in teams to complete the project, resolve the problem, and accomplish the learning objectives.
Groups usually consist of 5 to 7 students. Four roles are possible:
• project leader - proposes meeting agendas, suggests division of labor, and develops the overall project plan.
• facilitator - describes the process to be followed during the steps of the project plan, determines appropriate
time to proceed in plan, and suggests adjustments to the plan as needed.
• recorder - takes group notes of each meeting.
team member - takes individual notes, participates in discussion, and reviews resource materials.
Problem-based learning 274

•
Some PBL models include a mentor or tutor in the group (often a faculty member, or another student).
The team schedules its own activities and decides how to use the allotted time
See also Problem-based learning and social software

Discussion

Application of PBL: Advantages, Disadvantages

Advantages
Why is there an increase in scores resulting in PBL? Information theory links 3 conditions to subsequent improved
retrieval and use. Bridges & Hallinger (1991) report that students improve their comprehension because they:
1. are better at activating prior knowledge,
2. learn in a setting resembling their future context, and
3. elaborate more fully on the information presented.
Increased elaboration promotes mental processing, understanding, and recall. Because content is learned in
context, definitions, information, theories, correlations, and principles are learned and integrated with one another
(Mandin, Harasym, & Watanabe, 1995).
See also the learning level article.
[3]
The Buck Institute fro Education (BIE) sees PBL as a mean of developping what they call 21st century skills,
meaning
• ICT literacy
• cognitive skills like critical thinking, creativeness
• Interpersonal skills
• Self- and task-managment skills
• personal charcteristics like ethical sensibility, civic responsibility, accountability

Disadvantages
Introducing PBL means
• changing the Curriculum
• introducing higher costs
• higher time demands: PBL takes more time to teach the same content
• change of roles: Students have to change attitude and go from memorization of facts to an active searching for
information(Reithlingshoefer, 1992). Teachers have to shift from dissemination of information to a tutor's and
guide role.
• formulation of appropriate problems that encompass both a large goal and specific objectives
• setting up appropriate assessment
• facing a lack of extrinsic rewards for PBL teaching

Is PBL better?
When determining the value of PBL curriculum, the literature has focused on 4 components :
• Attitudes: Students enrolled in PBL courses appear to have a more favorable attitude toward their course than
students schooled in traditional instruction. Improved attitudes contribute to a variety of factors including
increased course enrollment, enhanced interest in major course of study, and positive feedback from faculty and
Problem-based learning 275

employers (Pincus, 1995); a reduced dropout rate (Bridges & Hallinger, 1991; Pincus, 1995); and an increase in
student comments concerning the advantages of PBL after their learning experience (Bernstein, Tipping,
Bercovitz, & Skinner, 1995). Schmidt, Henny, and de Vries (1992) conclude that "problem based curricula do
appear to provide a friendlier and more inviting educational climate."
• Basic knowledge: Test results seem split on basic knowledge comprehension. In the medical field, although it
was sometimes found that students schooled with PBL performed worse on standardized tests, they performed
better on clinical tests and equal on essay tests to conventionally-schooled students (Albanese, 1993). Not all
studies are favorable to PBL, but Albanese found that PBL knowledge is more deeply ingrained and less likely to
be forgotten.
• Problem solving ability: Reasoning and problem solving skills: The evidence appears supportive in finding PBL
students better than conventional students in analyzing atypical medical cases (Albanese, 1993), and in having
stronger problem solving skills (Gallagher, Stepien, & Rosenthal, 1992).
• Study habits: Team work Most PBL is done in small groups. Therefore it is not surprising to find that students
who learn in this context tend to be more oriented toward collaborative learning.

Examples and links

Examples
• Medicine Blends Computers and PBL
• Ace Training Ltd. A complete Case Study of Problem-based learning
[4]
• Examples of PBL from the Stanford Learning Laboratory.(find examples of PBL at university Level, in biology,
environmental sciences, high School level, economics, environmental sciences, history, ancient worlds and
english).
University level
[5]
• Biology

• Teacher Training in Science [6]

Sherman Rosenfeld and Yehuda Ben-Hur, PBL in Science and Technology: A Case Study of Professional
Development, Department of Science Teaching, Wizmann Institute of Science
[7]
• Problem-Based Learning at McMaster University (Canada).
High School Level
[8]
• History

• Ancient World [9]

Commercial PBL example cases
• Ace Training Ltd. A complete Case Study of Problem-based learning

Various links
• Problem-based learning and electronic games
• Problem-based learning and social software
[10]
• Problem-based Learning resources page with a comprehensive list of links of the technology for learning
consortium.
Problem-based learning 276

•
[11]
• Problem-Based Learning comprehensive site of the Illinois maths and science academy with description of
pbl, rersources, examples and more.
[12]
• Problem-based learning pages in the archives of the center for teaching, learning and scholarship from the
samford university, alabama, previously center for problem-based learning

• Problem-Based Learning [13] pages of the learning-theories.com site: knowledge base and webliography.
[14]
• pennsylvania state university and nasa wiki-like page on pbl

very complete pbl site [15] of the university of delaware.

[16]
• PBL pages of the maricopa center for learning and instruction MCLI, arizona with a searchable archive. •

resources site [17] from the queensland university Journals:

[18]
• The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning (IJPBL) is an open access journal that publishes
relevant, interesting, and challenging articles of research, analysis, or promising practice related to all aspects of
implementing problem-based learning (PBL).

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Programmed instruction
Draf

Definitions
• Although Skinners initial programmed instruction format has undergone many transformations, most
adaptations retain three essential features: (1) an ordered sequence of items, either questions or statements to
which the student is asked to respond; (2) the student's response, which may be in the form of filling in a blank,
recalling the answer to a question, selecting from among a series of answers, or solving a problem; and (3)
provision for immediate response confirmation, somtimes within the program frame itself but usually in a
different location, as on the next page in a programmed textbook or in a separate window in the teaching
machine. (Joyce, Weil & Calhoun, 2000:332)
• Programmed instruction is a method of presenting new subject matters to students in a graded sequence of
controlled steps. Students work through the programmed material by themselves at their own speed and after
each step test their comprehension by answering an examination question or filling in a diagram. They are then
Programmed instruction 280

immediately shown the correct answer or given additional information. Computers and other types of teaching
machines are often used to present the material, although books may also be used. (The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001-05 [1], retrieved 16:22, 16 August 2007 (MEST)).
• Programmed instruction consists of a network of statements and tests, which direct the student to new
statements depending on his pattern of errors. It is based on a particular tool which is called teaching machine.
(Cited from Encyclopedia.com ???).
Sometimes a distinction is made between programmed instructions and programmed learning. See also: Mastery
learning

Theory and history

There are various origins and flavors of programmed instruction. The most important to subcategories are:
• linear programs (in the Skinner tradition)
• branched programs (in the Crowder tradition)

Skinner's operant conditioning

See behaviorism for the theory.
• Programmed instruction is based on Skinner's "operant conditioning", a (behaviorist theory stating that learning
is change in behavior, i.e. the individual's response to events (stimuli). Behavior can be conditioned by rewarding
the right stimulus-response patterns.
[2]
According to Greg Kearsley :
1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping")
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary
conditioning

Skinner argued strongly against teaching that is based on punishment. According to Kristinsdóttir [3], “In a chapter
of his book 1968 Why teachers fail he argued that formal education is usually based on 'aversive control'. Teaching
rests on punishment and ridicule for unsuitable behavior rather than showing a consideration for the shaping and
reinforcement of responses to be learned. He also said that lessons and examinations are designed to show what
pupils do not know and cannot do, rather than to expose and build upon what they do know and are able to learn.
Therefore, he argued, teachers fail to shape their children's behavior sufficiently, leading to inappropriate learning
or to learned responses that are quickly forgotten (Skinner, 1968).”E. (Markle, S. (1969). Good Frames and Bad (2nd
ed.). New York: Wiley.)

The teaching machine

The first teaching machine was invented by Sydney L. Pressey in the 1920's,
Skinner in the 1950's introduced a concept of "teaching machine" that differed from Pressey's in some ways. “The
teaching machine is composed of mainly a program, which is a system of combined teaching and test items that
carries the student gradually through the material to be learned. The "machine" is composed by a fill-in-the-blank
method on either a workbook or in a computer. If the subject is correct, he/she gets reinforcement and moves on
to the next question. If the answer is incorrect, the subject studies the correct answer to increase the chance of
[4]
getting reinforced next time.” (learning technologies timeline , retrieved 16:22, 16 August 2007 (MEST))
Romiszowski (1997:16) cited by Kristinsdóttir defined the "core" of Skinner's stimulus-response model as “that
learning has occurred when a specific response is elicited by specific situation or stimulus with a high degree of
probability. The more likely and predictable the response, the more efficient the learning has been. These attempt
to shape human behavior by presenting a gradual progression of small units of information and related tasks to the
Programmed instruction 281

learner. At each stage the learner must actively participate by performing the set task. He is then immediately
supplied with feedback in the form of correct answer”
Skinner stated that the student should compose his response on his own, rather than choose it among a large range
of possibilities, because the responses should not be recognized but recalled. Moreover, according to Skinner, the
machine should present information in a designed sequence of steps. In programmed instruction, the subject is the
student itself, the aim is his/her understanding of the material and the reinforcement or punishment refers to
satisfaction or disappointment, resulting from the comparison of the student's answers with the E.answers given by
the computer.
Teaching machines did not allow students to proceed in their tasks unless they understood the materials. The
machines helped students to give the correct answer by "a logical presentation of material" (Skinner on
Programmed Instruction [5]) and by "hinting, prompting, suggesting, and so on, derived from an analysis of verbal
behavior" (Skinner, 1958).

Crowder's intrinsic or branching program

Norman Crowder, a contemporary of Skinner, was working independently for the armed services on programmed
instruction. He felt that a program was a form of communication between a programmer and a user. Like any
communication, the program must be directed to the individual. Unlike Skinner, Crowder was not working from a
psychological perspective, but from a communications point of view. In an intrinsic or branching program, each
frame presents more text than the average linear frame. After reading, the user responds to an adjunct question,
usually in a multiple-option format. Unlike Pressey's auto-instructional approach, which provides only confirmation
of the correctness or incorrectness of that response, branching style optional choices lead users to optional forms
of feedback, most of which is corrective. If the user makes a correct response, the program asserts the reasons why
she or he was correct and moves on to new material. If an incorrect response is made, the program, at the very
least, informs the user that an error was made and then branches the user back to the previous frame for another
try.
The primary purpose of feedback" is to determine whether the communication was successful, in order that
corrective steps be taken." (Crowder 288) Depending upon the complexity of the error committed, the programE.
may initiate a remedial sequence of instruction, a practice designed to eliminate the learning deficiency. Branching
instruction adapts the sequence of the program to a limited degree to fit the prior learning and processing
capabilities of the user. The term intrinsic refers to the fact that all program options are intrinsic to the program
and, therefore, not dependent on any external programming device. This approach is especially adapted to
machine presentation, which provides for greater levels of adaptability. Branching texts tend to be large and
confusing, especially when users try to access them in a manual way.
The primary difference between Skinner's conception of programming and Crowder's is in the function of the
response. To Skinner, learning results from making the correct response. Contrary to this response orientation,
Crowder believed that learning results from the realignment of the user's knowledge structure, and that the
response is simply a means for controlling the program or machine. The larger chunks of information need to be
assimilated and integrated with what the user already knows. The response, he believed, tests the level of
integration. This type of programming benefits the higher-ability user, who is more capable of higher-level
integration of ideas, more than it does the lower-ability user.
[6]
Portia Diaz-Martin (2001, retrieved 15:56, 14 August 2007 (MEST)).

Mastery learning
According to Davis & Sorrel (1995), "The mastery learning concept was introduced in the American schools in the
1920's with the work of Washburne (1922, as cited in Block, 1971) and others in the format of the Winnetka Plan."
It then was revived in the late 1950' with programmed instruction and brought to perfection by Caroll and Bloom's
work.

The architectures of programmed instruction

Programmed instruction 282

Programmed instruction has the following core elements:

• Contents are broken down into pieces of instructions called frames. A frame contains statements and questions.
• Learners then read the frame and immediately answer a question about the frame
• There is an immediate feedback about the correctness of the frame (usually in a different place) •
Instruction is self-paced and learners are active (in the sense of reactive)

Skinner variant
• Contents are very small, i.e. simple statements plus a question or direct questions
• Answers are usually filling in blanks
• Feedback is in the form of the correct answer
“Programmed instruction (PI) involved breaking content down into small pieces of information called frames. A PI
textbook might contain several thousand frames of information. Students would read a frame, then answer a
question about the frame. Then they would check their answer (get "feedback") and proceed to the next frame.
When PI was delivered by a "teaching machine" the possibilities for effective teaching seemed unlimited to many.
PI-style software is linear. Skinner argued that PI was more effective than traditional teaching methods, ”
[7]
(Programmed Instruction , retrieved 16:22, 16 August 2007 (MEST)) ... since learners have to receive thousands of
reinforcements, something a teacher can do.
Here is an example on programmed English (M.W Sullivan) presented by Joyce, Weil & Calhoun (2000:333):
1. Words are divided into classes. We call the largest class nouns. Nouns are a class of
________________________. words

2. In English the class of words called nouns is larger than all

the other
__________________ of words combined classes

Questions only
Daniel K. Schneider doesn't know where this comes from, but I can show an example. On my bookshelf I found a
book (Daniel P. Friedman,Matthias Felleisen, The Little LISPer, MIT Press ISBN 0-262-56099-2.) It teaches a
programming language and is only composed of questions in increasingly difficult order.
Is it true that this is an atom? Yes, atom because atom is a string of characters
beginning with the letter a.

Is it true that this is an atom? Yes, turkey because turkey is a string of characters
beginning with a letter.

Is it true that this is an atom? Yes, 1942 because 1942 is a string of characters
beginning with a digit

This strategy looks very Skinnerian, since the learner is supposed to learn from good answers.

Branching style
Branching is used with the idea that slower learners can be presented with additional information if they can't
respond well enough to a sequence of frames and that more advanced students can be exposed to more
challenging materials.
Programmed instruction 283

• Each frame usually presents more text than the average linear frame.
• After reading, the user responds to a question, usually in a multiple-option format (since this allows for easy
electronic treatment)
• Feedback then, can be corrective i.e. branch the user into a sequence that attempts to remediate the learner's
misconceptions or gaps in understanding.
Some versions of this model (i.e. Crowder's original) are more based on a (corrective) theory of communication
than a behaviorist learning theory.
Special forms of this model are so-called drill and practise programs where learners are supposed to develop basic
skills like arithmetics and keyboard operations by many repetitions. The program adjusts drill sequences according
to answers.

Mastery learning
Mastery learning refers to the idea that teaching should organize learning through ordered steps. In order to move
to the next step, students have to master at least 80% of the prerequisite step.

Additional topics

The role of the teachers in Skinner's thoughts

Even if in a chapter of his book “Why teachers fail”, Skinner argued that teachers fail to shape their students’
behaviour sufficiently, he stated (1954) that: “If the teacher is to take advantage of recent advances in the study of
learning, she must have the help of mechanical devices.” Concluding his analysis he also argued that mechanized
instruction should be integrated into all schools, not as a replacement for, but as an adjunct to the teacher. By
saying so, he did not deny the importance of the teacher in the learning process.
Many objections to Skinner’s programs have been raised during these years. The most important is that people
think that the answers given by the machine are only “indicators of success” which do not constitute a complete
learning program. However, students are obliged to determine on their own the success of their research and
problem-solving efforts. All this is considered to be minimal and the starting point of any problem. So, maybe, the
real benefit of programmed instruction is precisely the effort made by the student which can be seen as a sort of
grounding for developing the ability to think and to learn on his own. Ability that will be achieved only thanks to
the involvement of the teacher in class.
At the beginning, programmed instruction was thought for students particularly gifted, in order to prevent them to
waste their time by listening things they already knew, and that could be useless for their learning process. Those
who think (and are still thinking) that programmed instruction isolate students, must consider that the machine
brings them into contact with the people who composed the material and with a large number of other students.
Besides, computers prevent students from repeating the same material and facilitate the review of previous
lessons, so, each student can learn in accordance with his own level. But all this is only feasible in class, where the
role of teachers is once more important for stimulating discussion and improving the quality of education itself.
Moreover, the fact that the student is among his friends avoids the risk of socially isolating him as homeschooling
does.

Technological progress
It is important to bear in mind that "teaching machines" were much more similar to a mechanical tool than a
computer as we know it. If education accepted with great interest Skinner’s suggestions, it was not like that for
industry because companies thought that this machine could get out of production soon. For these reasons, the
materials concerning programmed instructions were mainly books, detracting the value of Skinner as a forerunner
of (behaviorist) e-learning.
Some time later, the programmed instruction movement presented the concept of interactive text and extended
this kind of instruction to all school subjects. So, computer-assisted instruction could assist students, by allowing
them to test their abilities and to mark their improvements, supplementing the activities in class and helping to
Programmed instruction 284

develop new skills independently. But, it was still economically difficult to put a system like that into place. As a
consequence, programmed instruction as a whole seemed to sink into oblivion. Of course, another reason was a
change in the understanding of learning (not discussed here).
Nowadays, the situation has changed a lot: thanks to technological progress, in particular Internet and various
learning platforms like learning management systems, one could implement Skinner’s theories and projects more
economically.

Open-contents and programmed instructional texts

One could use the technology of wikis that succeeded in creating Wikipedia. Wikitechnology offers a great deal of
opportunities based on the work of an increasing number of volunteers. In addition, the learning material can be
translated in many languages in order to let people consult it for free and at home.
The success of wikis and other open source softwares gave rise to several communities of learning, made up of
people who just want to 'share knowledgeE.' at all levels. The range of subjects has developed a lot, concerning
spelling, reading, arithmetic, foreign languages, psychology, physics and much more. Some programs enable
advancement only in a fixed order, others give additional information at the appropriate level whether a correct or
incorrect answer is given, providing an immediate feedback.(See [8]) See open educational resources.

References and links

• B. F. Skinner, works and life. Retrieved December 9, 2006 from [5]
• Bloom, B. (1971). Mastery learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
• Callender. P (1969) Programmed Learning
• Calvin, A. (1969). Programmed instruction: Bold new venture. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
• Carroll, J.B. (1989). The Carroll model: A 25 year retrospective and prospective view. Educational Researcher,
18(1), 26-31.
[9]
• Chen, I. (2006). An electronic textbook on instructional technology HTML , retrieved 16:22, 16 August 2007
(MEST).
• Cowder, N. A. (1964). On the difference between linear and intrinsic programing. In A. G. Grazia, & D. A. Sohn
(Eds.), Programs, teachers, and machines (pp. 77-85). New York, NY: Bantam Books.
• Crowder, N. A. (1959): Automatic tutoring by means of intrinsic programming. In E. Galanter (Ed.), Automatic
teaching: The state of the art, Wiley.
• Crowder, Norman (1969). "Automatic Tutoring by Intrinsic Programming. " In A. A. Lumsdaine and Robert Glaser,
eds., Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning. Washington, D.C.: National Education Assn., 1960.
• Diaz-Martin, Portia (2001). Computer-Assisted Instruction/Programmed Instruction, ESL 519 Selection,
Acquisition, and Management of Non-book Resources, HTML [10], retrieved 15:56, 14 August 2007 (MEST).
• Dodge, B. (1996). Distance Learning on the World Wide Web [Electronic Version]. In Computer Trainer’s Personal
Trainer’s Guide (chapter 12). Author: Brandon, B. Retrieved December 9, 2006 from [11]
[12]
• Eshleman, J. W., (1999). Pluses and minuses of programmed instruction, HTML , retrieved 16:22, 16 August
2007 (MEST).
• Fry, E.B. (1963). Teaching machines and programmed instruction. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
• Hanna, Michael S.; Gibson, James W. (1983): Programmed Instruction in Communication Education: An Idea
behind Its Time. Communication Education, 32, 1, 1-7.
• HighBeam Encyclopedia, & University of Columbia (2006). Programmed Instruction. Retrieved December 9, 2006
from [13]
• Joyce, B., Weil, M., Calhoun, E. : Models of teaching, 6th edition, Allyn & Bacon, 2000. ISBN 0205389279.
Programmed instruction 285

• Kashihara, A. (2003). Book review: The Knowledge Medium: Designing Effective Computer Based Learning
Environments, Author: Berg, G. A. (2003), Retrieved December 9, 2006 from [14]
• Kay, Harry et al. (1968). Teaching Machines and Programmed Instruction, Penguin Books Inc.
• Kulhavy, R. W.; Wager, W. (1993): Feedback in programmed instruction: Historical context and implications for
practice. In: J. V. Dempsey & G. C. Sales (Eds.), Interactive instruction and feedback, (pp. 3-20). Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
• Leshin, C., Pollock, J., Reigeluth, C. (1992). Instructional design strategies and tactics. New Jersey: Educational
Technology Publications.
• Lysaught, J. & Williams, C. (1963). A guide to programmed instruction. New York, NY: James Wiley and Sons.
• Maddux, C. D., Johnson, D. L., & Willis, J. W. (1997). Educational computing: Learning with tomorrow's
technologies. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
• Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) [2]
• Orlich, D. C., Harder, R. J., Callahan, R. C., & Gibson, H. W. (2001). Teaching Strategies: A guide to better
instruction. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company.
• Pearson Education, & University of Columbia (2006). Programmed Instruction. Retrieved December 9, 2006 from
[8]
• Phatidic in Culture (2004). Public Schools: Problems and Solutions. Retrieved December 9, 2006 from [15]
• Pigeon, Robert F. (1964). Programmed Instruction for Biology , BioScience, Vol. 14, No. 8, pp. 21-24.
[16]
doi:10.2307/1293173
[17]
• Programmed instruction, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05. HTML , retrieved 16:22, 16
August 2007 (MEST)
• Skinner, B.F. (1968). The Technology of Teaching. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

• Skinner on Programmed Instruction [5] (includes a short example)

• Sólrún B. Kristinsdóttir (2001). Programmed Instruction. Retrieved December 9, 2006 from [3]
• Thomas. L (1985). Self-Organized Learning
• University of Cyprus, & CBLIS Community. Sixth International Conference on Computer Based Learning in Science
(2003). Retrieved December 9, 2006 from [18]
• University of Southampton. School of Education. Retrieved December 9, 2006 from [19]

• Programmed instruction [20] (Wikipedia, just a stup on 16:22, 16 August 2007 (MEST))
[3]
• Programmed Instruction by Sólrún B. Kristinsdóttir.

• Programmed instruction [7]

• Behavioral Theories: Programmed Instruction [21] (includes screendumps of earlier PC programs).

[22]
• Programmed Instruction (WikiEd, CTER programme, Department of Educational Psychology, University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign..

Progressive project assignment

Definition
Programmed instruction 286

• Progressive project assignment is Leeper's (1989) instructional design model or method of designing projects
that are challenging and attainable for each student in a class.
This design for projects in computer courses can be applied to other contexts. It “ tends to enable all students in the
class to achieve their maximum potential. Each project is structured at three progressive levels of difficulty
corresponding to three prospective grades A, B, and C. The B-level is an extension of the C-level and the Alevel is an
extension of the B-level. Each student starts at the C-level and progresses as far as possible and is scored
accordingly” (Leeper, 1989, 88).

Architecture
Each assignment has three parts:
• Each project has a core part that includes all the principles the project intents to convey and each student is
expected to complete this part. A correct project gets a 'C' (US grading)
• A second part extens the project and requires a significant effort from students who elect to aim higher than 'C'.
Students who correctly finish this 'B' part and the 'C' part will get a 'B'.
• Same principle for a third 'A' part
It is important that projects are progressive. Otherwise, some weaker students may select 'A' and then get stuck,
which will lead to an 'F' (failure).
 287
Progressive project assignment

Evaluation
There are two steps:
1. Evaluation of each project type (A,B,C) is made with an appropriate grid.
2. The result is then multiplied with a "level factor". E.g. on a scale from 0 to 20
points:

18-20 = A
16-17 = B
14-15 = C
12-13 = D

Level factors:

A = 20/20
B = 17/20
C = 15/20

Evaluation example
Here is an example presented by Leeper (1989: 90) for teaching a computer class.
The grading system is patterened after Linda Rising (1987):
• Correctness
• Design
• Style
• Documentation
• Efficiency
“ A project is assigned a score of 0-4 points for each of these factors. These scores are totalled (maximum is 20)
then multiplied by the level factor that corresponds to the number of steps completed by the student for this
project. This result is rounded then converted to a letter grade. For example, suppose a student submits a B-level
project and the scores are as follows:” (Leeper, 1989:90):
• Correctness 3
• Design 4
• Style 4
• Documentation 3
• Efficiency 4
Total = 18
The level factor for project level B is 17/20. Multiplying the total score by this factor

18 x 17/20 = 15.3 (Rounded to 15)

Therefore, the final grade falls in the C range.

Progressive project assignment

Discussion
Leeper resports that this method resulted in significantly fewer "A" and "F" grades and significantly more "B", "C"
and "D" grades.
Project-based learning 288
This result should interest many teachers since the idea is to leave as few students as possible behind but also to set
high challenges for the best.

References
• Leeper, R. 1989. Progressive project assignments in computer courses. SIGCSE Bull. 21, 1 (Feb. 1989), 88-92.
Abstract [1] / PDF (Access restricted)
• Rising, Linda (1987). Teaching documentation and style in Pascal, ACM SIGCSE Bulletin, v.19 n.3, p.8-9,
[2]
September 1, 1987 Abstract / PDF

Project-based learning
Draf
This article provides a short introduction to project-based learning in the framework of more open-ended projects
that are typical of socio-constructivist approaches (based on Synteta, 2002). Please, see project-oriented learning
for a short general overview of all project-oriented approaches.
If you are interested in the history of project-based teaching, read Michael Knoll's The Project Method: Its
Vocational Education Origin and International Development [1].

Introduction
The notion of project is central to socio-constructivism and other related activity-based approaches. A project
allows learners to identify and formulate their own problems. The goals they set as well as the unexpected
discoveries they will make during their interaction with the environment serve as guides (Collins et al, 1989). It is
therefore important to divide scenarios into sequences and to divide problems into sub-problems so that learners
perform only one task at a time and that these tasks are flexible enough in order for learners to be able achieve
them whatever their basic level. Project-based learning is a model which distinguishes from traditional teaching
since the focus is put on the learner and his project. Learners have the opportunity to work more autonomously
and build their knowledge.
Projects as a methodology are not a new concept; in the United States pioneers were John Dewey (Dewey, 1966)
and William H. Kilpatrick (Kilpatrick, 1918).
The project method is a genuine product of the American progressive education movement. It was described in
detail and definitively delimited for the first time by William Heard Kilpatrick in his essay, "The Project Method,"
which became known worldwide (Church & Sedlak, 1976; Cremin, 1961; Kilpatrick, 1918; Röhrs, 1977).
[....]
Recently, however, historical research has made great progress in answering the question of when and where the
term "project"-"progetto" in Italian, "projet" in French, "projekt" in German, and "proekt" in Russian-was used in
the past to denote an educational and learning device. According to recent studies, the "project" as a method of
institutionalized instruction is not a child of the industrial and progressive education movement that arose in the
United States at the end of the 19th century. Rather it grew out of the architectural and engineering education
movement that began in Italy during the late 16th century (Knoll 1991a, 1991b, 1991c; Schöller, 1993; Weiss, 1982).
The long and distinguished history of the project method can be divided into five phases:
1590-1765: The beginnings of project work at architectural schools in Europe.
1765-1880: The project as a regular teaching method and its transplantation to America.
1880-1915: Work on projects in manual training and in general public schools.
1915-1965: Redefinition of the project method and its transplantation from America back to Europe.
 289
1965-today: Rediscovery of the project idea and the third wave of its international dissemination.

(Knoll, 1997 [1])

For over 100 years, educators such as John Dewey have reported on the benefits of experiential, hands-on, student-
directed learning. Most teachers, knowing the value of engaging, challenging projects for students, have planned
field trips, laboratory investigations, and interdisciplinary activities that enrich and extend the curriculum. "Doing
projects" is a long-standing tradition in American education. (Markham et al. 2003, 3).
In Europe, some of the known researchers are Makarenko (1888-1939), Freinet (1896-1966) and the (Groupe
Français d'Education Nouvelle, 1982)). In the 1990’s with the rapid growth of telematics, PBL is being revised and
redefined as it is an approach that supports many of the tasks that teachers face today such as incorporating
authentic assessment, infusing higher-order thinking skills, guiding students in life choices, and providing
experiences that tap individual student interests and abilities.

The context
These design ideas are based on various socio-constructivist schools of thought (Bruner, 1973), but can also be
found in other modern instructional theories (Ausubel, Novak and Hanesian, 1978 ; Reigeluth, 1999). We consider
socio-constructivism as an understanding of learning that stresses the importance of constructing knowledge based
on previous knowledge and interaction with the social environment, e.g. theories that have followed from
constructivism (Piaget), socio-culturalism (Vygotsky, 1962) and situated learning (Lave and Wenger, 1991). Secondly,
we perceive socio-constructivism as a set of pedagogies that use strategies like project-based learning (Thomas,
Mergendoller and Michaelson, 1999), problem-based learning, inquiry-based learning, case-based learning or
action learning. We call these new pedagogies « activity-based », since the students learn with interactive
technology (instead of from) and since the teacher has to design, to facilitate and to monitor student activities.
While each of these designs has different pedagogical objectives, we believe that all good pedagogical designs
should include somewhat structured pedagogical scenarios and that the teacher's role is crucial. In this perspective,
the modern teacher has to fulfill a triple role of facilitator, manager and « orchestrator » and he needs adequate
supporting environments since such designs can become very complex and costly.
“The reason that Dewey, Papert, and others have advocated learning from projects rather than from isolated
problems is, in part, so that students can face the task of formulating their own problems, guided on the one hand
by the general goals they set, and on the other hand by the 'interesting' phenomena and difficulties they discover
through their interaction with the environment” (Collins, Brown and Newman, 1989, p. 487). Powerful pedagogical
designs that aim at the development of general problem skills, deeper conceptual understanding and more
applicable knowledge include, according to van Merriënboer and Pass (2003, p. 3), the following characteristics :
“(1) the use of complex, realistic and challenging problems that elicit in learners active and constructive processes
of knowledge and skill acquisition ; (2) the inclusion of small group, collaborative work and ample opportunities for
interaction, communication and co-operation ; and (3) the encouragement of learners to set their own goals and
provision of guidance for students in taking more responsibility for their own learning activities an processes.”. See
also combined complex instructional design models like 4C/ID.
Project-based learning 290

Definition
Project Based Learning is a teaching and learning model (curriculum development and instructional approach) that
emphasizes student-centered instruction by assigning projects. It allows students to work more autonomously to
construct their own learning, and culminates in realistic, student-generated products. More specifically, project-
based learning can be defined as follows :
1. Focuses on the central concepts of a discipline
2. Engaging learning experiences that involve students in complex, real-world projects through which they develop
and apply skills and knowledge
3. Learning that requires students to draw from many information sources and disciplines in order to solve
problems
4. Learning in which curricular outcomes can be identified up-front, but in which the outcomes of the student's
learning process are neither predetermined nor fully predictable
5. Experiences through which students learn to manage and allocate resources such as time and materials
(Moursund, 2002; J. W. Thomas et al., 1999)
Rooted (at least it’s design of the curriculum, instruction and assessment) in various constructivist schools of
thought (Perkins, 1991; Piaget, 1969; Vygotsky, 1978), constructionism (Harel & Papert, 1991; Kafai & Resnick,
1996), cooperative or collaborative learning (Dillenbourg, 1999), and generally active learning, has strong
theoretical support for successful achievement. Still, we have to note that PBL is not a pure constructivist model but
uses also multiple methods of instruction, among them direct, explicit, (didactic) instruction (Moursund, 1999). PBL
can be found under the name of project method, project approach, knowledge in action, learning or education by
project, intentional learning (Scardamalia, Bereiter, McLearn, Swallow, & Woodruff, 1989), learning by doing, design
experiments (Brown, 1992), to name a few.

Main features
Although PBL is popular as an approach, it lacks from a universally accepted model or theory and one can find in
literature a diversity of defining features (W. J. Thomas, 2000a). In order to capture the uniqueness of PBL and to
screen out non examples of it, Synteta (2001) made the synthesis of the features described in literature (Reginald &
Laferrière, 1999; W. J. Thomas, 2000b), and ended in the following: PBL emphasizes activities that
• are central to curriculum,
• long-term (more than a couple of class days and up to semester),
• interdisciplinary,
• have a driving question that is challenging and constructive,
• are student-centered and
• are based on collaborative or cooperative group learning,
• are integrated with real world issues and practices,
• have productive outcomes,
• have an impact on “life skills” like self-management, group process, and problem-solving skills,
• and use cognitive tools, usually technology-based (Krajcik, Blumenfeld, Marx, & Soloway, 1994; Marx et al.,
1994).
According to these criteria, there are not PBL instances (Synteta, 2002):
• the projects that are not central to curriculum but serve as a complementary practice,
• projects that don’t have an intellectually challenging driving question,
• projects that can be carried out with already-learned information or skills,
• projects that are scripted (P. Dillenbourg, 2002),
• projects that focus on simulated and not realistic questions.
Project-based learning 291

Project vs Problem Based Learning

We have to clarify here, that with the abbreviation of PBL, we refer to Project-Based Learning and not to Problem-
Based Learning. They both have roots in constructivism, as they engage students in authentic student-centered
tasks to enhance learning, and the line between them is frequently blurred, as they can be used in combination and
play complementary roles, but they are not identical approaches (Camille Esch, 1998 cited in (Schneiderman,
Borkowski, Alavi, & Norman, 1998)).
Project-based learning focuses mostly on a production model. Students start by defining the purpose of creating the
end-product, identify their audience, they research the topic, design the product, do the project management,
solve the problems that arise and finish the product followed by a self-evaluation and reflection (Crawford, Bellnet
website, Autodesk website, Blumenfeld et al. cited in (Schneiderman et al., 1998)). So, the driving force is the end-
product, but the key to success is the skills acquired during it’s production.
Problem-based learning uses an inquiry model. Students start with a given problem, make a plan for gathering
information, pose new questions and summarize their research by presenting their conclusions (Duch, Delisle,
Hoffman and Ritchie, Stepian and Gallacher cited in (Schneiderman et al., 1998)). In this case, the driving force is
the problem given and the success is the solution of it (Vu, Van der Vleuten, & Lacombe, 1998).
In that sense, Project-Based Learning is a broader category than the Problem-based one (Moursund, 1999), as the
first includes always inquiry and might in cases address a specific problem but not the other way around.

Actors
Roles of actors are also particular in PBL. Project-based learning is a structure that transforms teaching from
"teachers telling" to "students doing". Students become active problem-solvers, decision and meaning-makers
rather than passive listeners, they collaborate or cooperate forming groups, organize their activities, conduct
research, solve problems, synthesize information, organize time and resources and reflect on their learning.
Teachers change their role “from sage on the stage to guide on the side” and assume the role of cognitive and
meta-cognitive coach (by asking, monitoring, probing, managing, group regulating, keeping moving) rather than
knowledge-holder and disseminator. Project serves as the initial challenge and motivation (appealing to be
explored, setting up the context of learning).

Identity
In addition, the concept of identity is essential to pbl. This means that the learner has the opportunity to try out
various identities while engaged in a project. The learner is also surrounded by other identities, those of the other
participants. Identities will vary by expertise which supports the learner's progress. The interaction of identities of
varying expertise in part comprises legitimate peripheral participation, as is found in communities of practice(Lave
& Wenger, 1991).

Assessment
Generally, with its innovative approach to learning, PBL also requires an innovative approach to assessment, which
is challenging. It requires varied and frequent assessment, including teacher assessment, peer assessment, self-
assessment and reflection. Using technology as a tool and constructivist learning as the methodology, assessment
of learning is not a separate process after learning has occurred, but rather learning and assessment are
coterminous (H. D. Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson, 1999).

Implementation Levels
Activity-based, collaborative, and construction-based pedagogies can be implemented at three levels: (1) the micro-
level, i.e. smaller pedagogical scenarios or projects which can be components for larger projects, (2) long term
projects, i.e. project-based classes and (3) the general study environment favoring student initiative and community
building on which we will come back later.While micro activities (lasting only over a single or a few lessons) can not
reach the same goals as true project-based teaching, they nicely can complement traditional instruction and are
often the only realistic alternative in today's organization of the school and university system.We now will examine
particular instructional design issues, first at the level of smaller scenarios and then for larger project-oriented
classes.
Project-based learning 292

See also: project-oriented learning for a wider discussion of different frameworks.

Efficiency, effectiveness and affordability

Researchers have investigated the impact of project-based learning (and related instructional approaches) in a wide
variety of educational contexts ranging from early childhood education to medical and legal education. They have
generally been shown to be effective in increasing student motivation by engaging them in their own learning, in
improving student problem-solving and higher order thinking skills (Stites, 1998). It promotes meta-cognition and
self-regulated learning by asking students to generate their own strategies for problem definition, information
gathering, data-analysis, and hypothesis-building and testing, comparing these strategies against and sharing them
with other students' and mentors' strategies. Teaching with the project-based method enables students to work
cooperatively with peers and mentors in a student-centered environment where learners are encouraged to explore
various topics of interest. "The collaborative nature of the investigation enhances all of these valuable
experiences ... as well as promotes a greater appreciation for social responsibility (Scott, 1994)". Hence, it also
provides opportunities for interdisciplinary learning by engaging students in applying the content of different
subject areas during the various phases of the project. PBL helps students develop real world skills like the ability to
collaborate well with others, make decisions and take initiative, and face complex problems. After completing a
project, if students are asked to create a self-evaluation of the project, like writing a meta-report, this enables the
students to focus on their learning process and allows them to see their progress. Self-evaluation gives students a
sense of accomplishment and further instills responsibility for learning. And by documenting the learning process it
also makes it easy to distribute results to bigger audiences, with all the obvious advantages.
The most complete research on PBL effectiveness has been done from (W. J. Thomas, 2000b)) in the framework of
his dissertation that concludes that: a) PBL is challenging to plan and enact, b) PBL depends a lot on the scaffolding
provided to students to learn how to learn, c) there is indirect and direct evidence that PBL is a more popular
method than other instructional strategies, as both students and teachers believe that is beneficial and effective, d)
there is some evidence that PBL compared to other learning methods, enhances the quality of students’ learning,
increasing their capability for applying what is learned in novel problems, e) finally, there is ample evidence that
PBL is effective for teaching students complex processes like planning, communicating, problem solving and
decision-making, but there is no comparison with other methods.
Unfortunately, there is only evidence for most of the advantages mentioned above, given the complexity of PBL
coupled with the diversity of defining features and the lack of a universally accepted model or theory. In addition, it
is difficult to isolate the effects of it. Some of the reasons are, that it is applied most of the time with other
strategies, limits with other similar approaches are blurred (like problem-based learning), it is implemented
differently in different contexts and most of all, standard achievement tests cannot measure the higher order
thinking skills developed (Stites, 1998).

Difficulties
Although PBL is considered to be a profitable learning strategy, its implementation faces several challenges (Kehoe,
Guzdial, & Turns, 1998; Means & Olson, 1995; Synteta, 2001; W. J. Thomas, 2000b; Synteta, 2003) as projects are
complex endeavours involving many different activities. In particular, Students have difficulty to:
• Initiate inquiry; have coherent research questions,
• Define a research project; good research design and appropriate methodology,
• Direct investigations; find resources,
• Manage complexity and time; keep deadlines, estimate time needed to do a task,
• Collaborate and give feedback; articulating the work of others and give regular feedback. Known problems
concern planning, operationalisation and monitoring (J. van der Veen, B. Collis, & Jones, 2001),
• Follow-up the project; revise products, thing that requires critical thinking skills and cognitive self-awareness
(Schneiderman et al., 1998).
In addition to the difficulty of setting clear goals for various phases, students have trouble relating data, concept
and theory. A teacher should orchestrate a project into several more or less sequential scenarios who in turn can be
Project-based learning 293

broken down to smaller phases. This will insure that learners will focus on smaller sub-problems, will do things in
the right order (e.g define research goals in the beginning of the project and not in the middle).
On the other hand, teachers have difficulty to:
• Design a PBL course; design projects that support learning of specific concepts and skills and sustain such highly
demanding pedagogical approaches like PBL,
• Follow-up several projects; monitor progress, give feedback and support where and when is needed and
generally classroom management,
• Use technology especially as a cognitive tool; incorporating technology is challenging, • Design
assessment; assessment that require students to demonstrate their understanding.

Interventions and the role of technology

Many researchers believe that PBL is a beneficial learning model and in order to remediate it's pitfalls have run
intervention research proposing various strategies to support and improve it.
(Krajcik et al., 1998) and (M Guzdial, 1998) use the term “scaffolding” and (Scardamalia et al., 1989)) the term
“procedural facilitation” to refer to their intervention strategies.
(Barron et al., 1998)), propose to introduce explicit design requirements within the project that prompt students to
generate and pursue productive questions. (Blumenfeld, 1991)), propose to help teachers develop “driving
questions” that will ensure that student will encounter with complex concepts and principles and develop CSILE, a
computer-supported intentional learning environment to provide temporary support for young learners who were
observed to face difficulties asking questions and directing their inquiries.
(Hmelo, 1998)), focuses on providing scaffolds for collaborative group work and (Barron et al., 1998) on providing
scaffolds for student self-assessment. (W. J. Thomas, 2000b)) in the conclusions of his dissertation, says that there is
evidence that PBL is relatively challenging to plan and enact so teachers will benefit from a supportive context for
it’s administration. According to (Kehoe et al., 1998)), the combination of supporting learning and doing is critical to
successful PBL.
Among the intervention strategies that have been proposed, the use of technology was central :
(Blumenfeld, 1991; Means & Olson, 1995). Evaluations of K-12 instruction have shown strong evidence of learning
gains associated with PBL plus technology (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV), 1992). (Kehoe et
al., 1998) also clearly state that “… technology can play an important role in structuring and supporting effective
project-based learning …” after long experience with “Team Facilitator” (team planning through web), CaMILE
(Collaborative and Multimedia Interactive Learning Environment), Reflective Learner (web environment that
supports students in writing learning essays using prompts) and STABLE (SmallTalk Apprenticeship-Based Learning
Environment, a web-based case library of exemplary projects). (Brown & Campione, 1996), say that technology has
also the value of making the knowledge construction process explicit, thereby helping learners to become aware of
that process. (H. D. Jonassen et al., 1999), state in their manifesto that tools that meaningfully engage the learners
should support constructivist environments and that technology-based environments can effectively support these
activities. (Krajcik et al., 1994), state that technology makes the environment more authentic to students, because
among others the computer provides access to data and information and expands interaction and collaboration
with others via networks. A long technical report (USA department of education, 1995) concludes that: “… some
aspects of the model (PBL) maybe directly stimulated by technology – notably an increased level of collaboration,
heterogeneity of roles, and greater complexity and authenticity in assigned tasks. Other tasks …are often reinforced
by technology use. …”.
But technology-based learning environments can and should support advanced knowledge acquisition. And that
can be done by providing environments and thinking tools that engage constructivist conceptions of learning
(Kommers, Jonassen, & Mayes, 1992). Thinking tools are technology systems or applications that extend the
intellectual functionality of the learner by engaging the learner to tasks that facilitate knowledge construction (e.g.
semantic network software, expert systems, databases and microworlds). Even simpler Internet tools add critical
and valuable dimensions to a PBL experience. The management issues, for a start, that a teacher can face as the
classroom-learning manager of a networked project can be dealt with easier than the ones on an "old-fashioned,
low-tech" project (in case that teachers cannot meet the students frequently). Another advantage is that the
Project-based learning 294

dissemination of the projects is open to bigger and different audiences. More specifically, students have the
opportunity to peer, review and browse other similar projects, motivating them and supporting them in the
accomplishment of their own project. Most important, the web can be used as a communications and collaboration
medium to build ongoing dialogs between the project authors and their audience, especially their teachers. These
“author-mentor” dialogs can be planned and organized to motivate students and establish increasingly high
standards. A networked project typically involves students in distant locations cooperating to research, exchange
information, and learn from one another, although the distant partners may include experts. Students may conduct
research, perform experiments in their own community, and report their findings. They may pose questions to
experts or exchange information with their peers. (J. van der Veen et al., 2001) focuses also on the important
support that telematics (as they call them) can provide to group-based learning. All the above advantages of a
networked project are not without cost. We shouldn’t forget the disadvantage of it’s distant nature compared to
face-to-face communication. To remedy, teachers have to put special attention on details such as meeting deadlines
(e.g., using reminders), regular animating the course, and finally, being ready to help and being flexible. Students on
the other hand, in order to conclude their projects and enhance their learning, it is important to be able to share
project results, to be able to reflect on their work, and stay in touch. In the directions of (W. J. Thomas, 2000b) for
future research in PBL, we distinguished two needs, a new theory of learning and instruction that will provide
principles for guiding authentic inquiry, knowledge construction and autonomous learning and models for designing
efficient and productive projects. In conclusion, for PBL success we have to focus on the following points: careful
management and orchestration of instruction, multiple scaffolds during students inquiries, careful and continuous
monitoring. Technology can help, as it supports very well features that are important in PBL, like student-autonomy,
group work, scaffolding on-demand, and many others.

Scenarization
Effectiveness is not guaranteed if the teacher simply asks students to do projects, to engage in writing activities, to
learn together or at least to profit from each other's ideas. We assume that the risk is quite high to observe that
students cannot start, get lost or are otherwise unproductive. We therefore suggest to create semi-structured
pedagogical scenarios that define an orchestrated sequence of learning activities. Such a scenario is often called a «
script » in the literature, and in particular, in the field of Computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) that
Dillenbourg, Schneider and Synteta (2002) define as a story or scenario that the students and tutors have to play
just in the same way as actors play a movie script. Such pedagogical scripts can become very sophisticated : for
each phase, the script specifies the tasks that students have to perform, the composition of the group, the way that
the task is distributed within and among the groups, the mode of interaction and the timing of phase. Phases are
ordered and connected, i.e. outputs of one phase become inputs of the next phase.
Pedagogical scripts are mostly sequential, at least from the student's perspective. However, it does not mean that
these are merely instructions that the learners have to follow. Tasks can and should often be defined as mere goals,
e.g. that at some point the teacher can ask students to hunt out and to formulate definitions of the objects they will
have to study although the way they do it is left open. In other words, when designing and executing pedagogical
scenarios the teacher has to respect a harmonious equilibrium between the freedom left to students that is
necessary for intellectual development and motivation on one hand, and certain guiding principles on the other
hand.

Scenarization of project components

Structured activity-based teaching involves sequencing scenarios and therefore breaking the « problem » into parts
so that the students are challenged to master as many tasks as they are ready to handle. From a more abstract
perspective, scenarios evolve in cycles, e.g. a typical teaching/learning phase has more or less the following
elements (in whatever order) :
1. Do
2. Deposit 3. Look
4. Discuss
Resources, tools and products play an important role. Each time a student does something, there should be a
product (even as small as a little message) that is deposited somewhere and that can be looked at and discussed.
Below is an alternative but very similar loop showing that there are variants of the same principle: Things are
Project-based learning 295

looked at, things are produced and discussion happens. It is the principle of information seeking, production and
interaction that counts.
1. Look (discovery)
2. Discuss (interaction)
3. Do (production)
4. Deposit (sharing)
5. Feedback (discussion of results)
The teacher's manager role is to make sure that such loops are productive, e.g. that the students produce
something, that it is task related, that they engage themselves in meta-reflection (look critically at their own work)
and that they discuss and share with others. The teacher's facilitator role is to help students with their tasks, e.g.
help them to select resources and tools, explain difficult concepts and procedures, "debug" when they are stuck
etc. The teacher's orchestrator role is to implement (or most frequently also to create) the scenarios or scripts as
they are also called. This means basically to define a scenario as a sequence of clearly identifiable phases in a way
that learners focus on a smaller amount of tasks at the same time and that these tasks are not too difficult to be
solved at some point.
Let's have a look at a simple example. Imagine that for a given purpose, students need references for a project. We
can turn this into a pedagogical activity with a scenario that includes the following steps:
1. The teacher introduces the theme, gives clues and asks students to consider the different aspects of the subject
(Discuss).
2. Students search the web with various search engines and bookmark the links they find interesting (Look,
Deposit).
3. Students then try to work out a certain amount of categories and sub-categories for this theme (Look, Do,
Deposit).
4. The results are put in common and a hierarchy is worked out (Look, Do, Discuss).
5. The approved categories are entered in a common space (e.g. the classroom wall, a sheet of paper or an
electronic links management system) (Deposit).
6. Students classify, enter and describe their links (Do, Deposit).
7. Teacher provides an evaluation (Discuss).
More such scenarios are suggested for example in the TECFA SEED Catalog in terms of scenarios (activities), its
constituant elementary activities and supporting technology. As we said before, scenarios should not be "over-
scripted", the student should in general be its own master of the tasks and tasks should have some flavor of
authenticity. Along similar lines, the teacher should not directly interfere with student's products, but only give
feedback and evaluation and let the student fix things himself. Defining a scenario therefore is a workflow design
problem, but with the idea that pedagogical workflows are different from the ones in industry. In industry the goal
is the product, in education the goal is apprenticeship, i.e. what the student has learnt from performing a set of
activities

Global Story-boards
Global story boards are quite different according to level of education, field, total time, duration, etc.
Here is one possible blueprint of the scenario the students are confronted with:
1. Familiarization with the project(s) content
2. Familiarization with pedagogical goals (including content area(s), methodology-related know-how, higher-order
skills, ...)
3. Familiarization with (rough) timeline (i.e. deadlines for audits, sharing activities)
4. Exploration/discussion of subjects and team-building
• At the same time the working environment is introduced.
5. Definition of individual (or group) projects including planning.
• This usually requires at least 3 iterations
Project-based learning 296

6. Audits and sharing activities, for example:

• students have to present literature reviews at the start and exchange links
• constitution of a common dictionary
• make comments to other projects
7. Presentation of results
8. Evaluation
Global problem-based learning models:
• C3MS project-based learning model
• Moursund project-based learning model

The role of Tools

As the above example shows, most activity-based, constructive and collaborative pedagogies do not necessarily
need any special tools, but work can be made more efficient (after some adaptation period) and certainly more
powerful by adopting some support technology. Walls in a classroom run out of space, paper is lost and
collaboration within the classroom is under heavy time constraints and "home work" lacks the sort of support that
classroom activities have. Content needs to managed, knowledge exchange must be organized, discussion tools
must favor exchange of arguments, projects must run, and generated knowledge must be managed. What kinds of
productions could typically happen in such a workflow approach?
1. Gathering and distribution of information : teachers and learners share resources and the activities are designed
to help them gather information and make it available to all.
2. Creation of collaborative documents : here the students can write definitions, analyze cases, solve problems,
write documents and create illustrated documents together around specific themes.
3. Discussion and comments about the productions : learners identify together facts, principles and concepts and
clarify complex ideas. They formulate hypotheses and plan solutions, make links between ideas, compare
different points of view, argue, evaluate... ?
4. Project management related activities : learners can decide work plans, share tasks and form groups, decide a
schedule and so forth. Teachers can distribute and regulate tasks.
Internet technology supports most open-ended, creative and active pedagogies, as long as students can also be
producers (not just readers and exercise button pushers). While there is an interesting number of enabling software
and while activity-based (e.g. project or problem-based) scenarios are quite popular (Reigeluth, 1999 ; Wilson and
Lowry 2001), they are not supported by the same number of technologies as the scenarios inspired by more
traditional instructional design are. Exceptions like the Knowledge Forum System are rare. Besides commonly used
tools like HTML pages and forums, there exist quite a number of interesting tools like participatory content
management systems (e.g. Weblogs), and collaborative hypertexts in various forms (e.g. Wikis). However, we like to
push one step further, i.e. provide teachers with a fairly integrated configurable platform of tools. Technical
requirements for active and rich pedagogies are not extremely demanding, but interesting results could already be
obtained by providing the following sort of functionalities :
1. Access to rich information sources (not just stream-lined e-learning blocks) by various means, e.g. browsing,
searching by categories or popularity, searching by keywords.
2. Affordable interaction with various types of information contents (including annotation).
3. Rich interactions between actors, that are facilitated by awareness mechanisms (who did what, what is new,
etc.)
4. Simple integration of these activities through a « place ».
Activity-based pedagogies assign a better diverse role to documents used. Learners generally select by themselves
the documents they need from a larger choice (which includes the whole Internet). More importantly, they actively
participate in the production of documents, some of which can be reused later on. Ideally, they also should be
allowed to annotate documents, i.e. enrich them by their own experience. Writing in this perspective concerns
producing short texts in various genres (questions, arguments, links, definitions, etc.). These learner productions
plus interactions are meant to provoke various meta-cognitive mechanisms beneficial to learning e.g. conceptual
change and deeper understanding (Klein 1999). In general terms, activity-based teaching needs mainly a computer
Project-based learning 297

as a facilitating structure, a thinking, working and communication tool instead of a content transmission device.
Accordingly, most student and teacher activities should be supported by computational tools and lead to new «
contents ». Within this perspective we can see that activities and roles are defined in a collaborative expressive
digital media framework.
• See: C3MS as a way to implement this sort of design. We advocate either Portals (of the C3MS kind) or a
combination of web 2.0 applications (see the list of web 2.0 applications, personal learning environments,
webtops etc.)
Other tools:

• NoteStar [2] Assist students with collecting group notes and citations for papers.
[3]
• PBL CheckList
[4]
• Think Tank is designed to help students (grades 3-8) develop a Research Organizer (a list of topics and
subtopics) for reports and projects
[5]
• Project Foundry A project-based learning management tool for students and teachers

The general study environment

The community factor is particularly important in open and distance learning situations. As formulated by e-
learning practitioner Gilroy (2001) « E-learning should be first and foremost about creating a social space that must
be managed for the teaching and learning needs of the particular group of people inhabiting that space ». While a
large part of our knowledge comes indeed from formally planned learning scenarios, people learn a lot from
informal exchange with fellow learners, with professors, experts, i.e. from exchange within tightly or loosely defined
communities (Lave and Wenger, 1991).
It is very important that teaching should generate enthusiasm, enhance concentration and favor creativity, which
are very distinct, but somehow interconnected phenomena. Rieber Smith and Noah (1998) convincingly argue that
learning process itself -and not just the result- should be interesting, if one seeks higher motivation among learners.
« Serious play » or « hard fun » are intense learning situations where learners are investing a lot of « energy » and
time, that provide equally intensive pleasure at certain moments which have been identified as « flow » or «
optimal experience » by Csikszentmihalyi
According to Feldman, Csikszentmihalyi and Gardner (1994), creativity should be studied and therefore facilitated
by the teacher at three different levels : (1) the social field, e.g. a network of people who provide cognitive and
affective support, instruction, evaluation, recognition, etc. ; (2) the domain (symbol systems of knowledge) ; and (3)
the individual, i.e. intellectual traits, personal traits and cognitive structures. It is clear that education cannot
influence all variables, but pedagogical design certainly can have a positive influence on individual dispositions that
already exist. It can act upon conditions, i.e. on educational tasks and the general learning environment like the «
class spirit » with the help of specially designed technology that we will introduce later on. By exposing students to
open-ended, challenging, authentic and partly self-defined projects on one hand and by providing scaffolding and
support on the other hand, the teacher does create situations where individual traits can be exposed and
developed.
By taking into accout input from community of practice, flow theory, creativity theory etc. we can define a few
desiderata for the design of portals as holistic learning environments:
First, the portal should be a rich information space for « domain support » and it should encourage students to add
their own contribution. Such a space also encourages exploration. The typical tools used are links managers, Wikis,
news engines and RSS feed that keep users up-to-date about articles posted to other interesting portals or
individual Weblogs. Intellectual support is provided via forums, annotations and articles. Student productions are
always accessible to all (including visitors) and therefore provide for recognition. In our experience, it has been
shown that students are more likely to contribute to an environment if they own an identity. In the student's partly
automatically generated home page on the portal one can see their contributions, read public parts of their
personal Weblog and conversely each production in the portal is signed with a clickable link to the author. In
addition, we developed a tool that allows to list and display in detail all student productions throughout the various
Project-based learning 298

tools. A successful teaching by projects pedagogy needs to provide strong emotional support and it is therefore
important to encourage spontaneous, playful interaction and corners for humor that will augment quality of on-line
life and contribute to class spirit. Tools like the shoutbox or a little quotation box can do wonders. Last, but not
least, a personal Weblog (diary) can stimulate meta-reflection, in particular if the teacher requires that students
write an entry after the completion of each activity.
Our observations lead us to conclude that pedagogical portals should also be designed in the spirit of true virtual
environments that have drawn a lot of attention in the last decade. A pedagogical virtual environment (VE) consists
in a constructed virtual information space built with the appropriate tools as outlined above. A virtual environment
(VE) is also a social space, where pedagogical interactions take place.

Example cases of project-based learning

• High school project
• Junior High school project
• Elementary school project

References
• Apel, H.J. & M. Knoll( 2001). Aus Projekten lernen. Grundlegung und Anregungen. München: Oldenbourg.
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Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
• Bruner, J. (1973). Going Beyond the Information Given, New York, Norton.
• Church, R. L., & Sedlak, M. W. (1976). Education in the United States: An interpretative history. New York: Free
Press.
• Class, Barbara et Mireille Bétrancourt (2004) Un portail en éducation à distance : vers quelle ergonomie
pédagogique ? / Ergonomics, community portal and distance learning : some pedagogical issues", Actes Ergo'IA
2004 [1]
• Collins, A., J.S. Brown and S.E. Newman (1989). « Cognitive apprenticeship : Teaching the crafts of reading,
writing, and mathematics », in L.B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, Learning, and Instruction : Essays in Honor of Robert
Glaser, Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p. 453-494.
• Cremin, L. A. (1961). The transformation of the school: Progressivism in American education, 1876-1957. New
York: Knopf.
• Dillenbourg, P., D. Schneider and V. Synteta (2002). « Virtual learning environments », in Proceedings of The 3rd
Congress on Information and Communication Technologies in Education, Rhodes, Kastaniotis Editions, p. 3-18.
• Feldman, D.H., M. Csikszentmihalyi and H. Gardner (1994). Changing The World, A Framework for the Study of
Creativity, Westport, Praeger.
• Häkkinen, P. (2002), Internet-based learning environments for project-enhanced science learning, Journal of
Computer Assisted Learning, Volume 18 Page 233 - June 2002, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2729.2002.t01-1-00230.x

• Kilpatrick, W. H. (1918). The project method. Teachers College Record,19, 319-335. (HTML [6]])
• Kilpatrick, W. H. (1925). Foundations of method: Informal talks on teaching. New York: Macmillan.
• Kilpatrick, W. H. (1927). School method from the project point of view. In M. B. Hillegas (Ed.), The Classroom
Teacher (pp. 203-240). Chicago: Teacher Inc.
• Knoll, Michael (1988). Calvin M. Woodward und die Anfänge der Projektmethode: Ein kapitel aus der
amerikanischen erziehungsgeschichte, 1876-1900. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 34, 501-517.
• Knoll, Michael (1989). Transatlantic influences: The project method in Germany. In C. Kridel. (Ed.), Curriculum
history: Conference presentations from the society for the study of curriculum history (pp. 214-220). Lanham:
University of America Press.
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• Knoll, Michael (1991a). Europa-nicht Amerika: Zum ursprung der projektmethode in der pädagogik, 1702-1875.
Pädagogische Rundschau, 45, 41-58.
• Knoll, Michael (1991b). Lernen durch praktisches problemlösen: Die projektmethode in den U.S.A., 1860-1915.
Zeitschrift für internationale erziehungsund sozialwissenschaftliche Forschung, 8, 103-127.
• Knoll, Michael (1991c). Niemand weiß heute, was ein projekt ist: Die Projektmethode in den vereinigten staaten,
1910-1920. Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche Pädagogik, 67, 45-63.
• Knoll, Michael (1992). John Dewey und die projektmethode: Zur aufklärung eines mißverständnisses. Bildung
und Erziehung, 45, 89-108.
• Knoll, Michael (1993a). Die projektmethode-ihre entstehung und rezeption: Zum 75. Jahrestag des Aufsatzes von
William H. Kilpatrick. Pädagogik und schulalltag, 48, 338-351.
• Knoll, Michael (1993). 300 Jahre Lernen am Projekt: Zur Revision unseres Geschichtsbildes. Pädagogik, 45, H.
7/8, 58-6. (and English version is just below).
• Knoll, Michael (1997). The Project Method: Its Vocational Education Origin and International Development,
Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 43 (3).
• Lave, J. and E. Wenger (1991). Situated Learning : Legitimate Peripheral Participation, Cambridge, UK, Cambridge
University Press.
• Laffey,James, Tupper,Thomas, Musser,Dale, Wedman,John, A computer-mediated support system for project-
based learning, Educational Technology Research and Development, 46, 1, 3/18/1998, Pages 73-86, DOI
[7]
10.1007/BF02299830 (Access restricted)
• Land,Susan, Greene,Barbara, (2000) Project-based learning with the world wide web: A qualitative study of
resource integration, Educational Technology Research and Development, 48, 1, 3/28/2000, Pages 45-66, DOI
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10.1007/BF02313485 (Access restricted)
• Mergendoller, John R. and John W. Thomas, Managing Project Based Learning: Principles from the Field (2003) ,
[9]
The Buck Institute for Education, PDF

• Morsund, David (2002) Project-based learning: Using Information Technology, 2nd edition, ISTE. ISBN 1-56484-
196-0
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14, pp. 6-11 HTML [10]
• Reigeluth, C.M. (1999) (Ed.). Instructional-Design Theories and Models : A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory,
Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Note: It seems that a new volume is under preparation ( DSchneider
12:45, 13 May 2006 (MEST)).
• Rieber, L.P., L. Smith and D. Noah (1998). « The value of serious play », Educational Technology, 38(6), p. 29-37.
HTML [11]
• Röhrs, H. (1977). Die progressive erziehungsbewegung: Verlauf und auswirkung der reformpädagogik in den
USA. Hannover: Schroedel.
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high school teachers. Novato, CA: The Buck Institute for Education.
• Markham, Thom et al. (2003), Project Based Learning Handbook, Buck Institute for Education, ISBN 0974034304

• Thomas, J. W. (2000). A review of research on project-based learning. PDF [12] - PDF [13] - HTML Summary [14]
• Schneider, Daniel. (2005) "Gestaltung kollektiver und kooperativer Lernumgebungen" in Euler & Seufert (eds.), E-
Learning in Hochschulen und Bildungszentren. Gestaltungshinweise für pädagogische Innovationen, München:
Oldenbourg. Preprint in PDF [10]

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and implementation of rich pedagogical scenarios through collaborative portal sites: clear focus and fuzzy edges.
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ICOOL International Conference on Open and Online Learning, December 7-13, 2003, University of Mauritius.
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[2]
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PhD proposal (Accepted oct, 2002), University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
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the portal. Studies in Communication, New Media in Education. pp. 263-269.
• van Merriënboer, J.G. and F. Pass (2003). « Powerful learning and the many faces of instructional design :
Toward a framework for the design of powerful learning environments », in E. De Corte, L. Verschaffel, N.
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Notes
This is more or less copy/paste text from Schneider & Synteta (2005 and our TecfaSeed Catalog. A better version will
be written once we are done with describing other project-oriented / activity-based designs. DSchneider 12:45, 13
May 2006 (MEST)
Project-based science model 301

Project-based science model

Draf
The project-based science (PBS) model is a project-oriented instructional design model from the Project-Based
Science (PBS) project, an effort that began in 1991 at the University of Michigan School of Education.
According to Lin & Fishman (2006), “ the five design principles for PBS curriculum units (Singer, Marx, Krajcik, &
Chambers, 2000) are: (1) establish meaningful context; (2) engage in scientific inquiry; (3) collaborate to
share/refine understandings; (4) utilize learning tools; and (5) create class/individual artifacts.” See the PIViT
software (also a PBS project).

The model
The design principles of project-based science curricula are according to Lin & Fishman (2006)'s interpretation of
Singer et. al 2000):
Name Description Examples

Establish meaningful context Meaningful, defined problem space that provides intellectual challenge for the Driving question and
learner. sub-questions
Anchoring event

Engage in scientific inquiry A set of interrelated processes by which scientists and students pose questions Asking questions
about the natural world and investigate phenomena Data collection and
analysis
Communicating data

Collaborate to share/refine Interaction among students, teachers, and community members to share Small-group design
understandings information and negotiate meaning meetings
Think-pair-share learning
strategy
Group presentations

Utilize learning tools Tools that support students in intellectually challenging task Data collection
Communication
Modeling

Create class/individual Representations of ideas or concepts that can be shared, critiqued, and revised to Concept maps
artifacts enhance learning Scientific models
Lab reports

In an earlier publication Soloway, Krajcik and Finkel (1995) link the model to learning theoretical issues. Below we
reproduced the original table with minor modifications and annotated with some annotations in the column to the
right.
Learning Theory Project-based Science Feature

Authentic Problems: Investigations should concern non-trivial problems that involve Driving Questions that serve to organize and drive
activities like asking and refining questions, debating ideas, making predictions, designing activities. Students or teachers can create questions
plans and/or experiments, collecting and analyzing data and/or information, drawing and activities. In any case, students must have enough
conclusions, making inferences,communicating their ideas and findings to others, and room to develop their own approach to answer
asking newquestions. questions.
Contextualized Real-world
Important Nontrivial
Complex Worthwhile
Meaningful (interesting, valuable, ...) Science content
feasible
Project-based science model 302

Understanding Investigation
Active construction Artifact development: Activities should lead to
artifacts or products that represent student's solutions
Multiple representations
and implicitly represent their emergent state of
Applying information knowledge. In addition these artifacts allow actors to
Situated share and to reflect.

Using strategic thinking

Community of learners [Collaborative learning]]

Collaboration Students, teachers, society members as a community.
Social context Establish norms
Negotiated meaning Sustain focus
Distributed expertise Hold students accountable

Cognitive tools Technology: based on user-centered design principles.

Teachers/students use: to collaborate, to investigate,
and to develop artifacts

Soloway, Krajcik and Finkel Framework of Project-based Science

Tools
• Collaborative hypertexts, such as wikis
• Inquiry learning environments like WISE or BGuILE and other kinds of microworlds.
• Any sort of CMC tools
• Concept maps

Example
According to Timmerman et al. (2006:11), such instructional design models are appropriate for more abstract topics
and/or those where students tend to have well-developed prior ideas (misconceptions): “ Thus, when faced with
limited time or resources for curriculum reform, we agree with Wandersee et al. (1994) that conventional teaching
is sometimes sufficient and our data suggest that more "high-powered" methods such as inquiry-based curriculum
reform should focus on more abstract topics or those known to be resistant to conceptual change. Indeed, we
would hypothesize that it is nearly impossible to change students' conceptions of abstract topics such as evolution
using only didactic methods and that inquiry-based methods which allow students to confront their prior
conceptions are required for meaningful learning to occur in these areas.”
Timmerman et al (2006: 12) provided comparison of inquiry and "didactic curricula" regarding "evolution" that we
slightly modified.
Elements Design Principle Reformed inquiry-based curriculum Traditional, didactic curriculum

Content Topics Evolution Plant and Animal Anatomy and Physiology

Biodiversity

Context Emphasizes scientific inquiry skills and application of knowledge Emphasizes reiteration or verification of ideas

Inquiry Science inquiry skills explicitly a goal Focused on factual content

Explicit use of primary literature knowledge No primary literature No
Explicit, formalized peer review (emphasized as an inquiry skill, not just a peer review.
process)

Collaboration Mostly collaborative; group work common Mostly individual

Project-based science model 303

Assessments Summative assessments based on open-ended projects and authentic Weekly quizzes, factually oriented (multiple
performances (oral presentation, written reports) - Multi-week choice or fill-in-blanks) with a practical exam at
assignments - end of term.
Formative feedback provided Single lab activities with the exception of the rat
dissection
No formative feedback

Learning Beguile-like environments Interactive dissection video and images

Technologies

Links
[1]
• BGuiILE Website , Biology GUided Inquiry Learning Environments], Brian J. Reiser et al., Northwestern
University. Includes software like the Galapogos Finches [2].
• http:/ /www.biol. sc.edu/~timmerman/ misconceptions. pdf

• Science Diverse Learners Research Reviews [3].The purpose of the Content Network's review tables is to organize
the review teams' information regarding science research studies.

References
• Hsien-Ta Lin and Barry J. Fishman (2006). Exploring the Relationship between Teachers' Experience with
[4]
Curriculum and Their Understanding of Implicit Unit Structures, AERA 2006. PDF
• Singer, J., Marx, R. W., Krajcik, J., & Chambers, C. J. (2000). Constructing extended inquiry projects: Curriculum
[5]
materials for science education reform. Educational Psychologist, 35(3), 165-178. Abstract/PDF (Access
restricted).
• Timmerman, Briana E. , Denise C. Strickland, Susan Carstensen & Jonathan E. Singer (2006), Evolution Should
Be A Priority For Biology Curriculum Reform, Proceedings of the NARST 2006 Annual Meeting (San Francisco, CA,
[6]
United States). PDF

To move elswhere
(e.g. either inquiry learning, change management, teacher development)
• Joseph Krajcik, Ron Marx, Phyllis Blumenfeld, Elliot Soloway, Barry Fishmann, Reforming Science Education
[7]
through University and School District Collaborations. PDF . Online paper, School of Education, University of
Michigan (retrieved 16:17, 17 July 2006 (MEST)).
• Ball, D. L. and D. K. Cohen (1996). Reform by the book: What is - or might be - the role of curriculum tmaterials in
teacher learning and instructional reform? Educational Researcher 25: 6-8.
• Blumenfeld, P. C., J. S. Krajcik, et al. (1994). Lessons Learned: How collaboration helped middle grade science
teachers learn project-based instruction. The Elementary School Journal 94(54): 539-551.
• Fishman, B., S. Best, et al. (2000). Professional development in systemic reform: Using worksessions to foster
change among teachers with diverse needs. New Orleans, LA, National Association of Research in Science
Teaching.
• Krajcik, J., P. Blumenfeld, et al. (2000). Instructional, curricular, and technological supports for inquiry in science
classrooms. Inquiring into inquiry learning and teaching in science. J. Minstrell and E. H. v. Zee. Washington, D.C.,
American Association for the Advancement of Science.
• Krajcik, J. S., P. Blumenfeld, et al. (1998). Inquiry in project-based science classrooms: Initial attempts by middle
school students. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 7(3 & 4): 313-350.
Project-based science model 304

• Krajcik, J. S., P. C. Blumenfeld, et al. (1994). A collaborative model for helping middle grade science teachers learn
project-based instruction. The Elementary School Journal 94(5): 483-497.
• Krajcik, J. S., C. M. Czerniak, et al. (1998). Teaching children science: A project-based approach. Boston, MA,
McGraw-Hill.
• Marx, R., P. Blumenfeld, et al. (1997). Enacting project-based science. Elementary School Journal 97(4): 341-358.
• Soloway Elliot, Joseph Krajcik, and Elizabeth A. Finkel (1995), The Investigators' Workshop Project: Supporting
Modeling and Inquiry via Computational Media and Technology, conducted at the annual meeting of the
[8]
National Association for Research on Science Teaching, April 1995, San Francisco, CA. HTML

Project-methodology-based learning
Draf

Definition
• We define Project-methodology-based learning as designs were students have to use a specific project
methodology (or set of). This is typically the case in engineering curricula.

Technology
• Project management software
• Simpler CMC tools like:
• Wikis
• Groupware (that include at least file upload/download and a forum).

Examples
• See Instructional design methods, e.g. MISA
• Todo: Software engineering methods like IBM's RUP and some UML-based things.
 305
R2D2

R2D2
Draf

Definition
• R2D2 (Recursive Reflective Design and Development) is a constructivist instructional design model and
Instructional design method developed by Willis.

The model
According to Willis (1995) defines the following characteristics of a typical constructivist-interpretivist instructional
design model
1. The ID process is recursive, non-linear, and sometimes chaotic.
2. Planning is organic, developmental, reflective, and collaborative.
3. Objectives emerge from design and development work.
4. General ID experts don't exist.
5. Instruction emphasizes learning in meaningful contexts.
6. Formative evaluation is critical.
7. Subjective data may be the most valuable
In contrast to many instructional systems design models, Willis claims in particular that objectives do not guide
lesson development, rather that they emerge during development. The main components of his development
method are:
• Define
• Design
• Develop
• Disseminate
Botturi et al. summarize the R2D2 overarching principles as follows:
1. Recursion: the steps/elements are revisited at different times and decisions can be made anew.
2. Reflection based on feedback and ideas from many sources, which is contrasted with the linear design
rationality of linear models.
3. Non-linearity, focal points instead of steps (e.g. a bit like the Kemp design model.
4. Participatory design: the whole idea behind this model is that the ID process is not only the designer's job, but
rather team work, in which different people collaborate. Communication and negotiation acquire a primary role
here.
R2D2

Links
• Summary of Willis (1995) [1] by K. Song and L. Brunner.

References
 306
• Botturi, L., Cantoni, L., Lepori, B. & Tardini, S. (2007). Fast Prototyping as a Communication Catalyst for E-
Learning Design. In M. Bullen & D. Janes (eds), Making the Transition to E-Learning: Strategies and Issues.
Hershey, PA: Idea Group, pp. 266-283. PDF Preprint [2]
• Chen, Hui-Hui (2005), Selecting Computer Mindtools: Usability Of A Web Tool For Constructiivist Learning - A
[3]
Qualitative Perspective, PhD. Dissertation, Texas Tech University. PDF
• Karagiorgi, Y., & Symeou, L. (2005). Translating Constructivism into Instructional Design: Potential and
[4]
Limitations. Educational Technology & Society, 8 (1), 17-27. PDF
• Tam, Maureen (2000), Constructivism, Instructional Design, and Technology: Implications for Transforming
[5]
Distance Learning, Educational Technology & Society 3(2) ISSN 1436-4522 PDF
• Willis, J. (1995). A recursive, reflective instructional design model based on constructivist-interpretist theory.
Educational Technology, 35(6), 5-23
• Willis, J. (1998). Alternative instructional design paradigms: What's worth discussing and what isn't. Educational
Technology, 38 (3), 5-16.

Sandberg learning environment functions

Draf
In discussing the role of technological support in education, [Sandberg, 1994, 225,] identifies the components of a
(technologically rich) learning environment. These components must all be there in order to optimize learning.
However, they can be ``implemented in many different ways. Each component has functionalities that we should
insure:
1. Teacher component: Its role is to provide something between loose guidance and direct instruction. It can be a
human agent (present or distant), an intelligent agent, instructions like some text books provide, etc. This
component provides information from the syllabus to the task level.
2. Monitor component: Ensures that something is learned. A role taken by either the human teacher, the learner
(self-control) or by some program.
3. Fellow learners component: Improves the learning process by collaborative learning principle
4. Learning material: Contains what has to be learned in a very broad sense (knowing what, knowing how). It can
be computational in various ways (exploratory hypertext, lesson and task oriented hypertext, simulation
software, task solving environments, etc.).
5. External information sources: All kinds of information which is not directly stored in the learning material (e.g.
the Internet as a whole, a web site, additional materials, handbooks, manuals, etc.).
6. Tools: Everything which may help the learning process other then the learning material (e.g. calculators,
communication software, etc.)
7. School [a category we added]: Something that provides a curriculum.
Sandberg learning environment functions
 307

References
• Sandberg, J. A. (1994). Educational paradigms: issues and trends. In Lewis, R. Mendelsohn, P., (ed.), Lessons
from Learning, (IFIP TC3/WG3.3 Working Conference 1993), pages 13--22, Amsterdam. North-Holland.

Scaffolded knowledge integration

Draf

Introduction
• Scaffolded knowledge integration (SKI) or scaffolded knowledge integration framework is an instructional design
[1]
model to enhance science teaching in school classrooms. It was developped by Marcia C. Linn (and
collaborators) at University of California, Berkely.
“ In the SKI framework, learners are viewed as adding to their repertoire of ideas and reorganising their
knowledgeweb about science. Students sort out their ideas as a result of instruction, experience, observation, and
reflection (Linn & Hsi, 2000). The framework is organised around four principles to promote knowledge integration:
(a) making science accessible for students, (b) making thinking visible for students, (c) providing social supports for
students, and (d) promoting lifelong science learning.” (Williams & Linn, 2002: 416).
“The Scaffolded Knowledge Integration framework offers guidelines to help designers create materials that promote
integration. Scaffolded Knowledge Integration builds on results from related research (Linn and Hsi 2000, Hawkins
and Pea 1987, Mokros and Tinker 1987, Bransford et al.1990, Hawkins 1991, Pea and Gomez 1992, Pea and Gomez
1993, Gordin et al.1994, Means et al. 1996, Means and Coleman, ).To promote knowledge integration, Scaffolded
Knowledge Integration has four main tenets: making science accessible for all students; making thinking visible so
students understand the process of knowledge integration; helping students to listen from each other; and
promoting life long science learning.” (Linn, 2000: 784)
See also: socio-constructivism, inquiry-based learning, Project-based science model, project-oriented learning, ...
Scaffolded knowledge integration
 308
The model
(1) Instruction should connect science to personally relevant problems and prior knowledge, i.e. to make a linkbetween
instructed and spontaneous concepts.
(2) Students and teachers are encouraged to “ make their thinking visible, describing how they recognise new ideas,
and reorganise and connect new and prior ideas. Students explore events and phenomena first hand and develop
from those observations important concepts and ideas. Technological supports such as visualisations, films, models,
and simulations can also make thinking visible.We ask students to make predictions, drawinferences, and construct
generalisations” ((Williams & Linn, 2002: 417)
(3) Based on Vygotsky's concept zone of proximal development - a foundation of most socio-constructivist designs, the
SKI “ [...] emphasises that providing students with social supports in a science classroom can promote knowledge
integration. Collaborative learning situations such as discussions and debates can be designed so students offer
explanations, interpretations, and resolutions supported by a peer or a scientist.” (Williams & Linn, 2002: 418)
(4) Promote autonomy for lifelong science learning: “ To prepare students to integrate the ideas they learn in science
and revisit them once they have completed a science course, WISE software supports questioning, analysing, and
reflecting. [...] Students are asked to identify weaknesses in arguments and question the validity of the scientific
information presented. These activities allow students to link their real world experiences with scientific concepts
taught in school and prompt students to make the links between spontaneous and instructed ideas. [...] In addition,
the WISE software features "Amanda the Panda", an electronic guidance tool that supplies students with hints
regarding salient aspects of Internet evidence and also reminds students of the purpose of a project activity. These
forms of guidance make the computer a learning partner in the classroom, encouraging students to link their real
world experiences with scientific concepts.” (Williams & Linn, 2002: 418)

Examples
• See the article about the WISE project

References
• Linn, M. C. (1995). Designing computer learning environments for engineering and computer science: The
scaffolded knowledge integration framework. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 4(2), 103-126.
[2]
Abstract/PDF (Access restricted)
• Bransford, J. D., Sherwood, R. D., Hasselbring, T. S., Kinzer, C. K. and Williams, M. (1990) Anchored instruction:
why we need it and how technology can help. In D. Nix and R. Spiro, Cognition, Education and Multimedia
(Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates), 115- 142.
• Gordin, D. N., Polman, J. L. And Pea, R. D. T. (1994) The Climate Visualizer: Sense-making through scientific
visualization. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 3(4), 203-226.
• Hawkins, J. (1991) Technology-mediated communities for learning: designs and consequences. In V. M. Horner
and L. G. Roberts, Electronic links for learning: The annals of the American Academy of Political and Social
Science (Newbury Park: Sage), 514, 159-174.
• Hawkins, J. And Pea, R. D. (1987) Tools for bridging the cultures of everyday and scientific thinking. Journal for
Research in Science Teaching, 24, 291- 307.
• Linn, M. C. and HSI, S. (2000) Computers, Teachers, and Peers: Science Learning Partners, (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates)
• Means, B. And Coleman, E. (in press) Technology supports for student participation in science investigations. In
M. J. Jacobson and R. B. Kozma, Learning the Sciences of the 21st Century: Theory, Research, and the Design of
Advanced Technology Learning Environments (Hillside, NJ: Erlbaum).
Scaffolded knowledge integration

• Note: This ref is wrong.

 309
• Mokros, J. R. and Tinker, R. F. (1987) The impact of microcomputer-based labs on children’s ability to interpret
graphs. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 24(5), 369-383.
• Pea, R. And Gomez, L. (1992) Distributed multimedia learning environments: why and how? Interactive Learning
Environments, 2, 73-109.
• Pea, R. D. And Gomez, L. (1993) Distributed multimedia learning environments: the collaborative visualization
project. Communications of the ACM, 36(5), 60- 63.
• Williams, M. & Linn, M. C.(2002) WISE Inquiry in Fifth Grade Biology.Research in Science Education, 32 (4), 415-
[3]
436. Abstract/PDF (Access restricted).

Science writing heuristic

Definition
• The science writing heuristic (SWH) is a writing-to-learn model for learning from laboratory activities in
secondary science and can be used by teachers as a framework from which to design classroom activities.
• "The science writing heuristic (SWH) is a tool to guide both teachers and students in productive activities for
negotiating meaning about laboratory investigations." (Keys et al., 1999: 1067).

The science writing heuristic

The Science Writing Heuristic has been developed by Carolyn Keys, Brian Hand, Vaughan Prain and Susan Collins
(Keys et al, 1999). This " ... heuristic is intended to help students construct understanding during practical work.
Students are required to produce written explanations of the processes involved in the activity through completion
of a template, with particular emphasis placed on claims, evidence and reflection" (Hand et al. 2002: 20).
"There is evidence that use of the science writing heuristic facilitated students to generate meaning from data,
make connections among procedures, data, evidence, and claims, and engage in metacognition. Students' vague
understandings of the nature of science at the beginning of the study were modified to more complex, rich, and
specific understandings." (Keys 1999:1065).
The heuristic is a instructional design model consisting of 2 parts: one for the teacher actions and for student
activities. Keys et. al, (1999:1067-1069) and also Hand, Prain and Wallace (2003:20-22) provide the following
definitions (from which the lists are quoted entirely).

Teacher template component

(The Science Writing Heuristic, Part I)
This template contains a series of suggested activities to involve students in meaninful learning activitivies. More
precisely, we can defined it as socio-constructivist pedagogical scenario to promote laboratory understanding.
Teacher's are of course encouraged to adapt it to their local context.
1. Exploration of pre-instruction understanding through individual or group concept mapping.
2. Pre-laboratory activities, including informal writing, making observations, brainstorming, and posing
questions.
3. Participation in laboratory activity.
4. Negotiation phase I - writing personal meanings for laboratory activity. (For example, writing journals.)
5. Negotiation phase II - sharing and comparing data interpretations in small groups. (For example, making
group charts.)
Science writing heuristic
 310
6. Negotiation phase III - comparing science ideas to textbooks for other printed resources. (For example,
writing group notes in response to focus questions.)
7. Negotiation phase IV - individual reflection and writing. (For example, creating a presentation such as a
poster or report for a larger audience.)
8. Exploration of post-instruction understanding through concept mapping.
Hand, Prain and Wallace (2003:20)

The student compontent

(The Science Writing Heuristic, Part II)
In order to scaffold student's knowledge construction process, they are asked to complete a number of questions
within a template format including the focus of their question, their claims and their evidence. These written
explanations are also based on peer discussion and text reviews. Therefore students can use the templates as
individuals but also in small groups. Again, the heuristic may be used as is or be tailored by the teacher to specific
investigations.
1. Beginning ideas - What are my questions?
2. Tests - What did I do?
3. Observations - What did I see?
4. Claims - What can I claim?
5. Evidence - How do I know?Why am I making these claims?
6. Reading - How do my ideas compare with other ideas?
7. Reflection - How have my ideas changed?0
Hand, Prain and Wallace (2003:21)

References
• Hand Brian, Vaughan Prain and Carolyn Wallace, (2002). Influences of Writing Tasks on Students' Answers to
Recall and Higher-Level Test Questions, Research in Science Education 32, 19-34.
• Keys Carolyn W., Brian Hand, Vaughn Prain, Susan Collins, (1999). Using the Science Writing Heuristic as a
Tool for Learning from Laboratory Investigations in Secondary Science, Journal Of Research In Science Teaching,
36 (10) 1065-1084. [1]
• Keys Carolyn W. (1997). Revitalizing instruction in scientific genres: Connecting knowledge production with
writing to learn in science, Science Education, 83 (2), 115 - 130.
Self-regulated strategy development model

Self-regulated strategy development model

Draf

Definition
The Self-Regulated Strategy Development Model (SRSD) is an implementation model for Cognitive strategy
instruction.
The model is based on research work by Graham, Harris, Read, Ryan, Short et al. According to Read (2005) “ The
goal of SRSD is to make the use of strategies habitual, flexible, and automatic. This can take a lot of time, practice,
and effort.The SRSD model is very comprehensive. This ensures that crucial steps are not overlooked.”
 311
The model
Stage 1: Develop and Activate Background Knowledge
Stage 2: Discuss the Strategy
Stage 3: Model the Strategy
Stage 4: Memorize the Strategy
Stage 5: Support the Strategy
Stage 6: Independent Performance

Example
[1]
See the [Story grammar (PDF) ] (according to Short and Ryan, 1984),

Links
• Resources from the Cognitive Strategy Instruction Web Site:
• http://www. unl.edu/csi/ Pdfs/ sgrammar. pdf [Story Grammar]
• http://www. unl.edu/csi/ Pdfs/ scrolcsi. pdf [SCROL]
• http://www. unl.edu/csi/ Pdfs/ lplan.pdf [Lesson plan guide, PDF]
• http://www. unl.edu/csi/ srsdworksheet. rtf [Lesson plan guide, RTF]

References
• Graham, S., Harris, K.R., & Reid, R. (1992). Developing self-regulated learners. Focus on Exceptional Children, 24
(6), 1-16.
• Reid, R., Schmidt, T., Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (1997). Cognitive strategy instruction: Developing self-regulated
Learners. Reclaiming Children and Youth 6, 97-102.
• Graham, S., Harris, K. R., Loynachan, C. (1994). The spelling for writing list. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27,
210-214.
[2]
• Read, Bob (2005). Cognitive Strategy Instruction, UNL, University of Nebraska. retrieved from HTML (15:40, 25
May 2006 (MEST)).
• Harris, K. R. & Schmidt, T. (1997). Learning self-regulation in the classroom. ADHD Report, 5(2), 1-6.
• Harris, K. R. & Schmidt, T. (1998). Developing self-regulation does not equal selfinstructional training: Reply to
Braswell. ADHD Report, 6(2), 7-11.
Self-regulated strategy development model

• Harris, K. R. & Pressley, M. (1991). The nature of cognitive strategy instruction: Interactive strategy construction.
Exceptional Children, 57, 392 - 404.
• Short, E.J., & Ryan, E.B. (1984). Metacognitive differences between skilled and less skilled readers: Remediating
deficits through story grammar and attribution training. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 225-235.

Shuell model of learning functions

Draf
 312
“According to Thomas Shuell "meaningful learning" is a cognitive, metacognitive & affective activity, which is
typified by five characteristics: active, cumulative, goal-oriented, constructive and self-regulated (Shuell 1992: 23-
5.). The characteristics mentioned above are triggered when the learner engages certain ‘psychological processes’,
called ‘learning functions’2. The functions are in turn activated by learning tasks, which can be learner- or tutor-
initiated.” (Grogan, 2005 [1]).
This view can be compared to other constructivist models, e.g. Jonassen's meaningful learning.

The list of learning functions

Source: Casey & Brosnan (2004:27-28). I have no clue of this is the "true" list. Have to get myself a copy of the
original at some point, rewrite the list and tie it to the five characteristics - Daniel K. Schneider 16:58, 27 February
2009 (UTC).
Define Learning Expectations
the learner has some idea of what he or she is trying to accomplish
Motivation
willingness to persist and contribute effort to the task in which he or she is engaged Prior Knowledge Activation
ensure that both cognitive and affective prerequisites (including the needs, goals, and everyday experiences of the
learner) are available for use by the learner Attention important for the leamer to pay attention to important
features of the instructional task and to ignore features that are irrelevant Encoding
the process by which information is prepared so that it can be manipulated in short-term or working memory
Comparison in order to acquire a body of knowledge involves understanding rather than rote memorization, the
learner must compare facts and concepts in a search for similarities and differences that permit the formation of
those higher-order relationships that comprise understanding Hypothesis Generation the active, constructive
nature of meaningful learning requires the learner to generate various hypotheses as he or she seeks a more
adequate understanding of the material being learned Repetition it takes time, and multiple exposures, to find
meaningful ways of relating the various parts of a complex body of knowledge Feedback

Shuell model of learning functions

for the learner to determine if he or she is on the right track, feedback must be received on the accuracy and/or
appropriateness of what was done â either overtly or covertly Monitoring
an effective learner keeps track of the progress being made toward achieving the instructional goal Evaluation
simply receiving appropriate feedback is not sufficient; the learner must interpret and evaluate the feedback and
determine how it can best be used in the learning process
Combination, Integration, Synthesis (CIS)
As information is acquired, the more-or-less isolated pieces must be combined in ways that permit the learner to
integrate and synthesize information from several sources. Meaningful learning,

Links
[2]
• Thomas J. Shuell Home page.

Bibliography
• Goodyear, P. (2000). Effective networked learning in higher education: notes and guidelines . Lancaster:
University of Lancaster.
 313
• Grogan, Gerry (2005). Can asynchronous online discussions be designed to produce meaningful learning?,
[1]
elearningeuropa.info, retrieved 16:58, 27 February 2009 (UTC). HTML
• Shuell, T. (1992). Designing instructional computing systems for meaningful learning. In M. Jones & P. Winne
(Eds.), Adaptive Learning Environments . New York: Springer.
• Shuell, T. (1988). The Role of the Student in Learning from Instruction, Contemporary Educational Psychology, 13
(3) p276-95.
• Shuell T J (1990) Phases of meaningful learning Review of Educational Research 60 4, 531â547.
• Shuell, T. J. (1993). Toward an integrated theory of teaching and learning. Educational Psychologist, 28, 291-311
• Casey, John & Kevin Brosnan (2004). Some Potential Benefits of Sharing Graphical and Dynamic
Representations of Pedagogic Strategy for Learning Support, Learning Technology newsletter, Vol. 6, Issue 3, July
2004, pp 26- PDF [3]

• Jonassen, D.H.; Peck, K.L.; & Wilson, B.G. (1999). Learning with Technology: A Constructivist Perspective . Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Publishing.
Simulation

Simulation
Draf

Definition
• A simulation is an imitation of some real device, state of affairs or process. Simulation attempts to represent
certain features of the behavior of a physical or abstract system by the behavior of another system (
Wikipedia:Simulation)
• Most often, simulations are fully or partially implemented with a software program that allows the user to learn
something about a given object of interest by "playing" with parameters of a model ("What happens if I do
this" ? ... and later, "why did this happen ?").
According to Mergendoller et al. (2004): Randel, Morris, Wetzel, and Whitehill (1992) examined 68 studies on the
effectiveness of simulations and found that students engaged in simulations and games show greater content
retention over time compared to students engaged in conventional classroom instruction.
Simulation types:
• Computer simulations
• Computer games, e.g. serious games
• Microworlds, e.g. systems like AgentSheets
• Simulation and gaming (including role play simulation and computer supported simulation and gaming)
In some pedagogical scenarios, learners have to build their own simulation with modeling software. Of course,
some microworlds also have students model.

Links
• Textbooks and General References [1]. Good bibliography, contains on-line papers.
[2]
• Resources for Higher Education . Includes Virtual Worlds large scale resources that will challenge first year
economics undergraduates. The Virtual Learning Arcade encompasses a series of simulations, such as the inter-
 314
relationships between markets, and the Virtual Farm game, where students can run a business over a ten year
period. (not test - DKS).

References
• Gibbons Andrew S., Jon Nelson and Rober Richards, The Architecture of Instructional Simulation: A Design for
Tool Construction, Technical Report produced for the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory
(INEEL). PDF [3], retrieved 14:41, 18 October 2006 (MEST).
• Gokhale, Anu A. (1996), Effectiveness of Computer Simulation for Enhancing Higher Order Thinking, Journal of
[4]
Industrial Teacher Education, Volume 33, Number 4. HTML .
• Mergendoller, J., Markham, T., Ravitz, J. & Larmer, J. (2004). Standards-Focused Project Based Learning: An
Online Teacher Preparation Program and Website. In C. Crawford et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for
Information Technology and Teacher Education International Conference 2004 (pp. 2495-2500). Chesapeake, VA:
AACE. [5]
• Randel, J.M., Morris, B.A., Wetzel, C.D. & Whitehill, B.V. (1992). The effectiveness of games for educational
purposes: A review of the research. Simulation and Gaming, 25, 261-276.
• Repenning, A. and A. Ioannidou 2005. Mr. Vetro: A Collective Simulation Framework. ED-Media 2005, World
Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia & Telecommunications, Montreal, Canada, Association for
Simulation

[6]
the Advancement of Computing in Education. PDF
• Repenning, A., Ioannidou, A., & Zola, J. (2000). AgentSheets: End-User Programmable Simulations. Journal of
Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 3(3) HTML [7]
• Rieber,Lloyd, Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning environments based on the blending of
microworlds, simulations, and games, Educational Technology Research and Development, 44, 2, 6/18/1996,
Pages 43-58, DOI 10.1007/BF02300540 [8] - PDF [9] (Access restricted)
• Windschitl,Mark, Supporting the development of science inquiry skills with special classes of software,
Educational Technology Research and Development, 48, 2, 6/28/2000, Pages 81-95, DOI 10.1007/BF02313402
[10] [11]
- PDF (Access restricted)
• Mayer,Igor, de Jong,Martin, Combining GDSS and Gaming for Decision Support, Group Decision and Negotiation,
[12]
13, 3, 5/7/2004, Pages 223-241, PDF Reprint

Super motivation
Draf

Definition
Super motivation (here) refers to an instructional design model defined by Dean R. Spitzer (1996).

The model
According to Sonvilla-Weiss (2004), the Spitzer model can be summarized as:
• Action: Active participation in the learning process. Activity can be both physical and mental nature.
 315
• Fun: Humorous and surprising elements as part of the learning system can evoke a playful and encouraging way
of using learning systems.
• Variety: Use of different media, resources and activities. Choice Learners should be able to do their own
selection of media, contexts and learning paths.
• Social interaction: group-discussion, work in teams or consultation by instructors play an important motivational
function.
• Error tolerance: Learners do mistakes, and this is an important factor when learning.
• Measurement: The focus is on personal improvement.
• Feedback: should be positively formulated. Spitzer recommends suggestions on improvement instead of
pointing out the errors.
• Challenge: Tasks that can be mastered should not be trivial, but represent a sufficient challenge. Particularly
recommended are learning goals by the learner themselves.
• Recognition: The motivation can be increased, if the learning progress is recognized by the system, other
learners or teachers.
According to Spitzer's super motivation most effective in complex multimedia learning environments is Challenge,
Choice, Action and also Fun, since most interactive media bear a highly explorative potential of learning goals.
Here is another summary in German by Tellenbach et al. (someday both should be merged ...- DKS)
• Action (Aktion) Dieser Aspekt wird vor allem auch durch die Interaktivität unterstützt, da sie den Lernenden zu
aktiver Mitarbeit ermuntert, was eine Grundvoraussetzung für einen Lernerfolg ist.
• Fun (Spaß) Oftmals wird diese Komponente als Motivation missverstanden. Tatsächlich kann Spaß am Lernen
tatsächlich die Motivation verstärken, es besteht jedoch die Gefahr, dass vermeintlich humoristische Elemente
nicht so wirken wie es der Autor beabsichtigte, daher sollte man damit sorgfältig und sparsam umgehen.
Super motivation

• Variety (Abwechslung) Dies soll vor allem durch eine abwechslungsreiche Verwendung der verschiedenen
Medien erreicht werden, so dass die Aufgabe nicht allzu monoton erscheint.
• Choice (Auswahl) Da nicht alle Lernenden die gleichen individuellen Lernstile haben, empfiehlt es sich, dem
Lernenden die Wahl zumindest teilweise zu überlassen, welche Medien er bevorzugt. Um der Gefahr der
sozialen Isolation zu begegnen - ein Vorwurf, der
• Social Interaction (Soziale Interaktion) elektronischen Lernsystemen immer wieder gemacht wird - ist es wichtig,
Kommunikationswerkzeuge in die Lernumgebung zu integrieren, hier sind einerseits Werkzeuge zur
Gruppenunterstützung denkbar, wie auch solche, die die Kommunikation und Betreuung durch den Dozenten
ermöglichen. Da es zum Lernen gehört, Fehler zu machen, ist es wichtig, das Lernsystem so
• Error Tolerance (Fehlertoleranz) zu konstruieren, dass der Lernende keine Angst und damit Scheu vor Tests und
verbundenen Bestrafungen entwickelt. Die Erfolgsmessung sollte hier vorzugsweise positiv erfolgen, sprich nicht
die
• Measurement (Erfolgsmessung) Fehler sollen bewertet werden, sondern der tatsächliche Lernfortschritt.
Ähnlich wie die Erfolgsmessung sollte auch das Feedback positiv orientiert
• Feedback (Rückmeldung) sein, also nicht nur auf Fehler hinweisen, sondern hilfreiche Tipps geben und
Vorschläge liefern. Allzu leichte Aufgaben wirken auf den Lernenden nicht motivierend, da das
• Challenge (Herausforderung) betrachtete Problem allzu schnell als trivial angesehen wird. Da jedoch nicht alle
Lernenden die gleichen Fähigkeiten mitbringen, müssen die Aufgaben/Ziele an den jeweiligen Fähigkeiten
ausgerichtet werden. Dies kann zum Beispiel anhand eines Eingangstests erfolgen. Erkennt der Lernende, dass
seine Fortschritte durch das System, den
• Recognition (Anerkennung) Lehrenden oder Mitlerner bemerkt werden, so kann dies auch weitere Motivation
schaffen

Other application areas

 316
Spitzer (1990) also developed a model for motivation in the workplace (and that is better known). He also analyzed
de-motivators.

References
• Spitzer, D. R. (1996): Motivation: The Neglected Factor in Instructional Design. Educational Technology 63(3), 45-
49.
• Spitzer, D.R. (1990). Super-motivation: A blueprint for energizing your organization from top to bottom. New
York: AMACOM.
• Sonvilla-Weiss, Stefan (2004). Learning Objects - a didactical model, ICON - Identity formation in contextual
media culture a research project supported by the European Commission, University of Art and Design Helsinki,
PDF [1]

• Tellenbach Bernhard, Hendrik Madsen and Alexander Nikolopoulos (????), Multimediale Aufbereitung einer E-
Learningeinheit, Lecture Notes, Universität Karlsruhe, PDF [2]

Links
• Super Motivation: Dean Spitzer [3]
Taba teaching strategy model 317

Taba teaching strategy model

Draf

Definition
The Taba teaching strategy model (our name) was defined in the sixties by Hilda Taba and aims to help designing
courses down to lessons in areas where students are supposed to learn how to think.

Background assumptions
According to Joyce and Weil (2000:131), Taba built her approach around three assumptions:
1. Thinking can be taught (through engaging students in practice, in particular inductive reasoning).
2. Thinking is an active transaction between the individual and data. This relies on earlier theories, e.g. Bruner's
concept attainment, an important component of concept learning
3. Processes of thought evolve by a sequence that is "lawful", somewhat in the sense of mastery learning.
Taba identified three inductive thinking skills:
• concept formation (concept learning)
• interpretation of data
• application of principles

The model
[1] [2]
According to Joyce and Weil (2000), think inductively , Handbook to Elementary Social Studies we made a
provisional summary of the model (have to get the original at some point - Daniel K. Schneider).

Concept Formation
This stage includes three major steps: listing items (exemplars of concepts), group similar items together, label
these (with a concept name).
• Phase 1: Identifying and listing
• What do you know about .... ?
• For lessons in your own classroom, you might ask the following: What did you see? What did you hear? What
do you know about...?
• Phase 2: Grouping according to common attributes
• Do any of these go together? Why?
• Phase 3: Categorizing (labeling of the categories above)
• How would you name these groups?

Interpretation of Data
This stage includes interpreting, inferring, and generalization and leads to concept attainment (i.e. students develop
deductive capabilities).
• Phase 4: Identifying critical relationships (differentiation)
Taba teaching strategy model 318

• What do you notice about the data ? What did you see ?
• Phase 5: Exploring relationships (cause-effect)
• Why did this or that happen? What do you think this means?
• Do you notice any connections within the records or across the data?
• Phase 6: Making inferences
• What makes you think about this?
• What can you conclude?
Note: At some point phases 1/2/3 can be repeated or revised.

Application of Principles
• Phase 7: Predicting consequences
• What if?
• Phase 8: Explaining and/or supporting predictions
• Why do you think this or that would happen?
• Based on the data, would these conditions be logical?
• Phase 9: Testing and generalization
• What would it take to make this generally true ?

Links
Summaries
• Concept Formation or Concept Development Model by Hilda Taba (1966) [3] by Janet Bosnick
[2] [4]
• Summary of Taba's ch 5. Teacher's Handbook an other version is Concept Attainment (not clear who copied
from whom).

• Outline of framework for instruction and learning [5]

Examples
• The Database Project [6]
• [http://imet.csus.edu/classic/imet1/dave/periodictable/

References
• Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Joyce, B., Weil, M., Calhoun, E. : Models of teaching, 6th edition, Allyn & Bacon, 2000. ISBN 0205389279. (This is
on my essential reading list).
• Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development; theory and practice. New York,: Harcourt Brace & World.
• Taba, H. (1967). Teacher's handbook for elementary social studies. Palo Alto, Calif.: Addison-Wesley.

TeachML
Taba teaching strategy model 319

Draf

Definition
TeachML is an educational modelling language for contents. The code can be run in the Targeteam software.
[8]
This project may be dead since the homepage of the project is dead. See ELML, a very similar (and alive) project.
TeachML has been created in the TArgeted Reuse and GEneration of TEAching Materials (Targeteam) project). “
Targeteam is a system for supporting the preparation, use, and reuse of teaching materials. It is centered around
the XML based language TeachML which can be classified as an "educational modelling language".” ([8], retrieved
15:50, 29 May 2007 (MEST)).
The Targeteam project is a joint development effort of the group of Prof. Gunnar Teege, University of the Armed
Forces, and Prof. Johann Schlichter, Technical University, both at faculty of Informatics, in Munich, Germany. The
Targeteam System is an Open Source development, implemented completely in Java. The System and all
[8]
documentation can be downloaded from the Targeteam homepage and can freely be used and distributed.

TeachML architecture
The most important element of TeachML is the issue: “Targeteam [...] provides an abstract structure in the form of
a homogeneous hierarchy of issues . Content chunks are not identified as “chapter”, “section”, “paragraph”, “list
entry”, “exercise”, “slide”, “course unit” etc. Instead, the actual structure is generated automatically from the
homogeneous hierarchy when the delivery format is produced. The abstract structure makes it possible, to reuse
Targeteam content chunks in differently structured contexts. The same issue can be used in one context as a
subsection where the subissues become list entries, and in another context as a separate chapter where the
subissues become sections ” (Teege, 2002 [1])
The main structure of TeachML can be formalized with a UML class diagram

UML diagram of the main structure in TeachML

[1
(Teege, 2002
TeachML 320

TeachML 1.2 Integrated Materials Language

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?>

<!-- ................................... --> <!-- TeachML 1.2 Integrated Materials

Language -->

<!-- file: TeachML-Int.dtd

This is the TeachML language for complete integrated TeachML materials. It consists of

all TeachML language modules but TeachML Integration.

Note, that this is not the real DTD, as it is used in the Targeteam system. The real DTD is modularized

into several files, according to DTD modularization in XHTML, and it makes heavy use of parameter

enities. This file contains all DTD modules and most parameter entities have been eliminated for

better readability. This file is provided for getting a first quick impression of the Targeteam DTD.

More information about the elements, their semantics, their use and examples can be found in the

Targeteam documentation, available at the Targeteam homepage:

http://www11.in.tum.de/forschung/projekte/targeteam/ .................................... -->

<!-- The document element is teachml. -->

<!-- TeachML document element ..................... -->

<!ELEMENT teachml ( module ) >

<!-- Next, all sublanguages for content are integrated. Each sublanguage XXX contributes the

elements in ContentXXX.mix to the elements which may be used anywhere in content. -->

<!-- Language Core --> <!-- content contribution

elements: -->

<!ENTITY % ContentCore.mix "note | definition | code | defined | emph | quote | ref | whatsit | xor"

>

<!-- complete element set: -->

<!ENTITY % ElementsCore.mix

"%ContentCore.mix; | header | intro | kernel | details | illustration | exercises |

metaissues | summary

| module | issue " >

TeachML 321
TeachML 322

<!-- Sublanguage Box -->

<!-- complete element set: --> <!ENTITY % ElementsBox.mix "vbox | hbox | cbox | ivbox | ihbox"

>

<!-- content contribution elements: all --> <!ENTITY % ContentBox.mix

"%ElementsBox.mix;" >

<!-- Sublanguage Tup -->

<!-- complete element set: --> <!ENTITY % ElementsTup.mix "tuples | metatuple | tuple |

ten" >

<!-- content contribution element: tuples --> <!ENTITY % ContentTup.mix

"tuples" >

<!-- Sublanguage Astep -->

<!-- complete element set: --> <!ENTITY % ElementsAstep.mix "atom-stepping | atoms | step | nosteps" >

<!-- content contribution elements: all -->

<!ENTITY % ContentAstep.mix "%ElementsAstep.mix;" >

<!-- Additionally, content elements which are only present afer integration (this is

the atom element) --> <!-- complete element set: -->

<!ENTITY % ElementsIntegrated.mix "atom" >

<!-- content contribution elements: all -->

<!ENTITY % ContentIntegrated.mix "%ElementsIntegrated.mix;"

>

<!ENTITY % Content.mix "| %ContentCore.mix; | %ContentBox.mix; | %ContentTup.mix; |

%ContentAstep.mix; | %ContentIntegrated.mix;" >

<!ENTITY % Elements.mix "| %ElementsCore.mix; | %ElementsBox.mix; | %ElementsTup.mix; |

%ElementsAstep.mix; | %ElementsIntegrated.mix;" >

<!-- Now we define the language modules. They only interact via the Content.mix

parameter. -->

<!-- TeachML core language ..................... -->

<!-- Parameter defaults: -->

<!ENTITY % Inissue.class

"header | intro | kernel

TeachML 323
TeachML 324

| details | illustration | exercises | metaissues | summary"

>

<!-- The Root Element: module. -->

<!ELEMENT module ( issue )+ > <!ATTLIST

module id ID #IMPLIED >

<!-- ********************************* -->

<!-- The sublanguage for structuring -->

<!ELEMENT issue ( %Inissue.class; )* > <!ATTLIST issue id ID

#IMPLIED kind CDATA #IMPLIED author CDATA #IMPLIED

affiliation CDATA #IMPLIED > <!ELEMENT header ( #PCDATA

%Content.mix; )* >

<!ELEMENT intro ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )*" >

<!ATTLIST intro id ID #IMPLIED>

<!ELEMENT kernel ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* >

<!ATTLIST kernel id ID #IMPLIED>

<!ELEMENT summary ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* >

<!ATTLIST summary id ID #IMPLIED>

<!ELEMENT xor ( alt )* >

<!ELEMENT alt ( #PCDATA | issue %Content.mix; )* > <!ATTLIST alt types NMTOKENS

"standard">

<!-- Issue groups: -->

<!ENTITY % [http://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2002/7teege/teege.htm Teege, 2002]Issuegroup.attrib " id ID #IMPLIED header CDATA #IMPLIED

labels (numbers | letters | capletters | dots) #IMPLIED first-label CDATA #IMPLIED label-pre CDATA #IMPLIED label-post CDATA #IMPLIED " >

<!ELEMENT details ( issue | xor )* >

TeachML 325
TeachML 326

<!ATTLIST details %Issuegroup.attrib; >

<!ELEMENT illustration ( issue | xor )* >

<!ATTLIST illustration %Issuegroup.attrib; >

<!ELEMENT metaissues ( issue | xor )* >

<!ATTLIST metaissues %Issuegroup.attrib; >

<!ELEMENT exercises ( issue | xor )* >

<!ATTLIST exercises %Issuegroup.attrib; >

<!-- *********************************** -->

<!-- The sublanguage for textual content -->

<!ELEMENT definition ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* >

<!ATTLIST definition id ID #IMPLIED>

<!ELEMENT note ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* >

<!ATTLIST note id ID #IMPLIED>

<!ELEMENT code ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* >

<!ELEMENT defined ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* >

<!ELEMENT emph ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* >

<!ELEMENT quote ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* >

<!ELEMENT whatsit ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* >

<!ATTLIST whatsit kind CDATA #REQUIRED>

<!-- ************************************ -->

<!-- The sublanguage for cross references -->

<!ELEMENT ref ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* > <!ATTLIST ref

target-module NMTOKEN #IMPLIED target-atom

NMTOKEN #IMPLIED target NMTOKEN #IMPLIED

url CDATA #IMPLIED>

<!-- ************************************ --> <!-- The

sublanguage for simple includes -->

<!ELEMENT include EMPTY >

<!ATTLIST include select CDATA #REQUIRED>

<!-- TeachML Box ................... ..................... -->

TeachML 327
TeachML 328

<!ELEMENT vbox ( %ElementsBox.mix; )+ > <!ATTLIST vbox

width CDATA #IMPLIED id ID #IMPLIED >

<!ELEMENT hbox ( %ElementsBox.mix; )+ > <!ATTLIST hbox

width CDATA #IMPLIED id ID #IMPLIED >

<!ELEMENT cbox ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* > <!ATTLIST cbox

width CDATA #IMPLIED id ID #IMPLIED >

<!ELEMENT ivbox ( %ElementsBox.mix; )+ > <!ATTLIST ivbox

width CDATA #IMPLIED id ID #IMPLIED >

<!ELEMENT ihbox ( %ElementsBox.mix; )+ > <!ATTLIST ihbox width CDATA #IMPLIED id

ID #IMPLIED > <!-- TeachML Tup ................... ..................... -->

<!ELEMENT tuples ( metatuple?, tuple+ ) > <!ATTLIST tuples

arity CDATA #IMPLIED id ID #IMPLIED > <!ELEMENT

metatuple ( ten+ ) >

<!ELEMENT tuple ( ten+ ) >

<!-- "ten" is the abbreviation of Tuple ENtry -->

<!ELEMENT ten ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* > <!-- TeachML Astep ................... .....................

-->

<!ELEMENT atom-stepping ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* > <!ATTLIST atom-

stepping id ID #IMPLIED >

<!ELEMENT atoms ( atom )+ >

TeachML 329

<!ELEMENT step ( #PCDATA %Content.mix; )* > <!ATTLIST step

atom CDATA #REQUIRED initial (true|false) "false" >

<!ELEMENT nosteps EMPTY > <!

ATTLIST nosteps atom CDATA

#REQUIRED >

<!-- TeachML Integration extensions .................... --> <!ELEMENT atom ( alternative )+ > <!

ATTLIST atom id ID #IMPLIED >

<!ELEMENT alternative EMPTY > <!ATTLIST

alternative name CDATA #REQUIRED
extension CDATA #REQUIRED type
CDATA #REQUIRED derived-from CDATA
#IMPLIED derived-by CDATA #IMPLIED>

Discussion
The following text is copy/paste from http:/ /www.targeteam. net/ (!), , retrieved 15:50, 29 May 2007 (MEST).
Learner's Experience
The feedback from learners was positive about the rich offer of different delivery formats which can be selected
according to the learning situation and personal preferences. The main delivery formats offered where a fulltext
script in PDF, a fulltext online script as structured HTML, and a short "slide" version in HTML used during the
lectures.
Authors Experience
After a period of accomodation the abstract structure and the separation from layout of the Targeteam content was
perceived by authors as making the development of teaching materials substantially easier. However, this is only
true for the development of new content or the reuse of Targeteam content. The reuse of "legacy content", such as
content in LaTeX, Powerpoint or Word format, is rather difficult.

Links
[8]
• TArgeted Reuse and GEneration of TEAching Materials (TargeTeam Homepage - dead link June 2009) •
[2]
Targeteam Documentation

Bibliography
• Teege, Gunnar (2002), Reuse of Teaching Materials in Targeteam HTML [1]
• Ruch, Tobias (2008). Konzeption und Realisierung eines Layout-Editors für TeachML-Kursinhalte, Vdm Verlag Dr.
Müller, ISBN 3639046293.
• Wehner, F. & Lorz, A. (2001). Developing Modular and Adaptable Courseware Using TeachML. In C.
TeachML 330

Montgomerie & J. Viteli (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and
[3]
Telecommunications 2001 (pp. 2013-2018). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Abstract/PDF

Team learning
Draf

Definition
Team learning is a popular design element in various project-oriented learning models.

Team building
[1]
According to the Building Blocks for Teams Web Site there are a few recommendations on which most
practitioners would agree:

Number of students
• In engineering education, a team is usually composed by 4-5 people, because that is small enough for everyone
to communicate, but large enough to have genuine team dynamics. 7-8 participants seems to be maximum,
pairs (2) the minimum.

Mix of students
• Most experts agree that students should not form teams by themselves, since within the team clique-building
increases and conversely exclusions of some.
Different strategies:
1. Heterogeneous Groups: Selection of students according to several criteria, e.g. according to background in
subject matters, or geographic / ethnic / gender, or learning styles. However, make sure not to have a sole
"minority person" in a group.
2. Random assignment.
3. By interest, e.g. topics, future career plans, etc.
4. By expertise, see shared expertise.
“ Teams which have similar membership often function more quickly and efficiently than heterogeneous groups,
but heterogeneous teams can be more innovative in the long run.” ([2], retrieved, 17:17, 15 September 2006
(MEST))
 331
Team learning

Team stability
As a general rule, teams should remain stable throughout a project. However there are exceptions:
• “ One exception could be if your class does relatively short projects with pairs or small teams. In that case, it
could be advantageous to rotate members so students are exposed to more viewpoints.” ([2] retrieved, 17:17, 15
September 2006 (MEST))
• Some CSCL models like Busser and Ninck's (2004) BrainSpace may include rotation schemes where students are
assigned different roles in differents groups so that knowledge can spread through a whole class.

The role of technology

Technology is of course very prominent in scenarios that explicitly include within-group collaboration scripts, e.g.
this is the case in computer-supported collaborative learning.
However, even if teamwork organization is left open to team members and students are enrolled in presential
teaching, technology plays an increasingly important role.
needs to be completed, see entries like project-oriented learning and technology-enhanced classroom for
conceptual issues and entries like project management sofware for very technical issues.

Research Issues
Can team skills be taught ?
According to Okudan (2001) “ it was proposed that the high performing team skills training and education could
improve the performance of student design teams.”. Half of an engineering class received three two-hour training,
but globally the results have not been found significant and the authors call for more research that also try out
different more in depth-training.

Links
[3] [4]
• Student Teams in Engineering This Web page from the engineering education Foundation Coalition has
several interesting documents for teachers.
[1]
• Building Blocks for Teams , Teaching and Learning with Technology, PennState. Good site with practical advice.
[5]
• Frequently Asked Questions of the Wharton Leadership Program. Addresses some team forming/management
issues.
[6]
• BESTTEAMS , (Building Engineering Student Team Effectiveness and Management Systems project) at
University of Maryland. This site has teaching materials for download.

References
Practical
• Breslow, Lori, Teaching Teamwork Skills - Part 1, TLL Library, Vol. X, No. 4, January/February 1998 HTML [7]
[8]
• Breslow, Lori, Teaching Teamwork Skills - Part 2, TLL Library, Vol. X. No. 5, March/April 1998. HTML
• Katzenbach, J.R. and Smith, D.K. (1992) Wisdom of Teams, Harvard Business School Press
• Issacs, Geoff. (2000) "'Group Assessment' - Assessment of Students on Group-Based Tasks - Issues and Options"
A Report for the Queensland Teaching and Learning Committee.
 332
Team learning

• Michaelson, Larry K. (1999) "Myths And Methods In Successful Small Group Work." National Teaching and
Leaning Forum, Vol. 8, #6

Research
• Buesser, Maurus & Ninck, Andreas (2004). BrainSpace: a virtual environment for collaboration and innovation,
[9]
Int. J. Technology Management, 28 (7/8) PDF
• Okudan, G.E., Horner, D. and Russell, M. (2001) Achieving High Performing Engineering Design Teams: A
Curriculum Intervention Study, Proceedings, International Conference on Engineering Education. PDF [10]
• Okudan, G.E., Horner, D., Bogue, B., Devon, R. and Russell, M. (2002) An Investigation of Gender Composition on
Integrated Project Team Performance: Part II, Proceedings, ASEE International Colloquium on Engineering
[11]
Education. PDF

• Seat, E. and Lord, S. (1999)"Enabling Effective Engineering Teams: A Program for Teaching Interaction Skills,"
Journal on Engineering Education, 88(4), 385-390

Teleteaching
Draf

Definition
• Teleteaching can be considered as a form of e-learning or distance teaching. Most often, it implements a sort of
direct instruction approach.
• Sometimes it also is used as synonym for educational videoconferencing, i.e. as a component of a design, not a
design by itself.

Teleteaching designs
A key feature of a teleteaching instructional design model is e-instruction. Teleteaching is most often done in a class
context (i.e. learners connect at the same time and can interact with the instructor). But they also may choose to
look at archived sessions they can download. In addition, each learner will have to work on his own.

Teleteaching according to the SCIL eLearning

compontents framework

Of course, such a instructional framework can be combined with others. I.e. it is possible to engage learners of a
distance teaching class in other activities, e.g. collaborative work through a wiki. Modern instructional design
models like 4C/ID or First principles of instruction advocate the use of different strategies.
Teleteaching
 333
Technology
For Videoconferencing
• Videoconferencing and archives of sessions, e.g. Mpeg4, quicktime, breeze/flash formats
• Screencasting software (slides + voice over).
In addition
• Various courseware (eMedia)
• Learning platforms, such as LMSs or groupware

Trialogical learning

Stub
Trialogical Learning refers to “Those forms of learning where learners are collaboratively developing, transforming,
or creating shared objects of activity (such as conceptual artefacts, practices, products) in a systematic fashion.
Trialogical learning concentrates on the interaction through developing these common, concrete objects (or
artefacts) of activity, not just between people ("dialogical approach"), or within one's mind ("monological"
approach)” (Trialogical Learning [1], retrieved 17:16, 13 June 2008 (UTC)).
Trialogic learning can be defined with respect to monologic and dialogic learning:

Trialogic learning, Retrieved June 2008 from

http: escalateorgil construction_knowledge
papersandriessen htm

See also: Cognitive artifact, Cognitive tool, Knowledge-building community model, expansive learning,
Transformative pedagogy.

Tools
• See cognitive tools, in particular environments like CSILE.
• Simple software like wikis (e.g. some articles in our edutech wikis may be the trace of some trialogical learning
[2]
• The KP-LAB Project attemps to build software. The European Community's Knowledge-Practices Laboratory
(KP-Lab) project is coordinated by Hakkarainen's research centre at the University of Helsinki. It is a large
integrated European project (11.2 million euro, Information Society Technologies program, Technology Enhanced
learning call) that involves 15 European countries and 22 organizations (2005-2010). The project will produce a
modular, flexible and extensible system consisting of a cluster of inter-operable applications (i.e., shared
collaborative spaces, semantic web knowledge services, communication platforms, ubiquitous user agents, inter-
institutional access) which organize participants' collaborative activity around shared knowledge artefacts.
Trialogical learning

Links
 334
[3]
• Trialogical Glossary

• Trialogical Learning [1]

[4]
• Trialogical Technology

Bibliography
• Ahonen, H., Engeström, Y., & Virkkunen, J. (2000). Knowledge management - the second generation: Creating
competencies within and between work communities in the Competence Laboratory. In Y. Malhotra (Ed.),
Knowledge management and virtual organizations. Hershey: Idea Group.
• Andriessen, Jerry; Crina Damsa, Mirjam Pardijs and Patrick Sins (?). Teacher Support of collaborative discussions,
Research Centre Learning in Interaction, Utrecht University, KP-lab project. HTML [5]
• Kotzinos, D., Christophides, V., & Ilomäki, L. (2007). The KP-Lab Framework for Knowledge Creation Practices.
[6]
ERCIM News, 71. Available online
• Hakkarainen, K. (2006). Design challenges of Knowledge Practices Laboratory (Working paper of Knowledge-
[7]
Practice Laboratory) PDF

• Paavola, S. & Hakkarainen, K. (2005). The Knowledge Creation Metaphor - A Emergent Epistemological Approach
[8]
to Learning. Science & Education 14(6), 535-55 PDF Draft (Note: This is the best paper I came accross - Daniel
K. Schneider 17:16, 13 June 2008 (UTC))
• Paavola, S. & Hakkarainen, K. (2004, June) "Trialogical" processes of mediation through conceptual artefacts. A
paper presented at the Scandinavian Summer Cruise at the Baltic Sea. Stockholm, Sweden. PDF [9]
• Stetsenko, A. (2005). Activity as Object-Related: Resolving the Dichotomy of Individual and Collective Planes of
Activity. Mind, Culture, and Activity 12(1), 70-88.
• Tzitzikas, Y., Christophides, V., Flouris, G., Kotzinos, D., Markkanen, H., Plexousakis, D., & Spyratos, N.
(2007). Emergent Knowledge Artifacts for Supporting Trialogical E-learning. International Journal of Web-Based
Learning and Teaching Technologies, 2(3), 16-38
• Tzitzikas, Y., Christophides, V., Flouris, G., Kotzinos, D., Markkanen, H., Plexousakis, D., & Spyratos, N.
(2006). Trialogical E-learning and emergent knowledge artifacts. In E. Tomadaki & P. Scott (Eds.), Innovative
Approaches for Learning and Knowledge Sharing, EC-TEL 2006 Workshops Proceedings (pp. 385-399). Greece:
[10]
University of Patras. Available PDF Reprint
Universal design for learning

Universal design for learning

Draf

Definition
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an instructional design model for designing curricula that engable all
individuals to gain knowledge, skills, and enthousiasm for learning.

Principle
UDL relies on the idea that there exist three primary brain networks playing different roles in learning. According to
UDL Homepage [1] at CAST:
 335
• Recognition networks: Gathering facts. How we identify and categorize what we see, hear, and read. Identifying
letters, words, or an author's style are recognition tasks- the "what" of learning.
• Strategic networks: Planning and performing tasks. How we organize and express our ideas. Writing an essay or
solving a math problem are strategic tasks - the "how" of learning.
• Affective networks: How students are engaged and motivated. How they are challenged, excited, or interested.
These are affective dimensions- the "why" of learning.
Therefore, an universally-designed currulum should offer the following:
• Multiple means of representation to give learners various ways of acquiring information and knowledge
• Multiple means of expression to provide learners alternatives for demonstrating what they know, and
• Multiple means of engagement to tap into learners' interests, challenge them appropriately, and motivate them
to learn
More details in executive format can be found in a table in the FORMATEX 2006 paper: Supporting post secondary
learners with psychiatric disabilities in online environments [2]. The most detailed model we found is in Grabinger et
al., 2008.

Links
Center for applied special technology (CAST)
[3]
• CAST Homepage
[1]
• CAST Universal design for learning
[4]
• Teaching Every Student (TES)

Other
[5]
• Universal Design for Learning - Improved Access for All , by Nancy Firchow.

References
• Dolan, R. P. & Hall, T. E. (2001). Universal Design for Learning: Implications for Large-Scale Assessment. IDA
Perspectives 27(4): 22-25. pdf [6]

• Grabinger, R. Scott, Cary Aplin and Gitanjali Brenner-Poppanna (2006). Supporting post secondary learners with
[2]
psychiatric disabilities in online environments, Formatex 2006. PDF
• Grabinger, R. Scott, Cary Aplin, and Gitanjali Ponnappa-Brenner (2008). Supporting Learners with Cognitive

Impairments in Online Environments, TechTrends 52(1), 63 -69. DOI: 10.1007/s11528-008-0114-4 [7] (Access
Universal design for learning

restricted)
• Hitchcock, C., Stahl, S. (2003). Assistive technology, universal design, Universal Design for Learning: Improved
[8]
opportunities. Journal of Special Education Technology 18(4). HTML
• Meyer, A., & O'Neill. L. A. (2000). Supporting the motivation to learn: How Universal Design for Learning can
help. Exceptional Parent 30(3): 35-39.
• Pisha, B., & Coyne, P. (2001). Smart from the start: The promise of Universal Design for Learning. Remedial and
Special Education 22(4): 197-203.
• Rose, David H. and Anne Meyer (eds.) (2006). A Practical Reader in Universal Design for Learning, Harward
Education Press, ISBN: 1-891792-29-6
 336
• Rose, D. H. (2001). Universal Design for Learning: Deriving Guiding Principles from Networks that Learn. Journal
[9]
of Special Education Technology 16(1): 66-70. PDF
• Rose, D. H., & Dolan, R. P. (2000). Universal Design for Learning: Assessment. Journal of Special Education
Technology 15(4). HTML [10]

• Rose, D. H., Grogan, D. et al. (2000). Walking the Walk: Universal Design on the Web. Journal of Special
[11]
Education Technology 15(3). HTML

• Rose, D. H., & Meyer, A. (2000). Universal Design for Learning. Journal of Special Education Technology 15(1): 67-
70.
• Rose, D. H., Stahl, S. et al. (2002). Universal Design for Learning: Digital text in the classroom. Journal of Special
Education Technology 17(2). HTML [12]

WIPPEA
Draf

Definition
• WIPPEA is a lesson planning method.
• The acronym WIPPEA represents the first letter of each stage in the lesson planning model: Warm-up,
Introduction, Presentation, Practice, Evaluation, Application.

The design method

[1]
According to Writing lesson plans , the desing principles are the following.
Each learning concept builds on the previous one
• This becomes the instructional roadmap for teachers
Teachers plan lessons with the result in mind, according to the backwards design method. Teachers defines:
• The lesson's objective
• The evaluation of mastery of the objective. E.g. he asks himself “ How will I expect students to demonstrate
understanding or mastery of this objective? What type of evaluation activity will best assess students' ability to
learn and apply their new knowledge?”
Then, the teachers designs the lesson activities according to the WIPPEA stages:
1. Warm-up
2. Introduction
3. Presentation
WIPPEA

4. Practice
5. Evaluation, Application

Links
• Writing lesson plans [1] from OTAN Online Lesson Plan Builder for adult educators
 337
Templates
• Word blank template [2]

WebLabs model

Definition
We refer to WebLabs as an instructional design model: “ The model of learning in WebLabs is that children design,
model, reflect, share and comment on each others' evolving knowledge of mathematical and scientific ideas. The
pedagogic approach in WebLabs is to motivate and foster model building, collaboration and critique.” ( Pedagogical
[1]
Model , retrieved 20:19, 21 July 2006 (MEST) )

The model
This model draws from various socio-constructivist thoughts and insists on well defined scenarios (activity
sequences).

Its main components are according to the pedagogical model [1] page:
• Motivation: Teacher leads an introduction into the activity sequence. • Group discussion: Teacher-led sharing of
ideas about
• Group web report: Teacher-led writing of an initial group web report
• Designing: Small group discussion about how to model the situation (build from scratch, use preparred tools or
models from another site).
• Modelling: Work with the computer
• Group Sharing: Teacher-led sharing of products, comparison. Also debugging and setting of new challenges.
Back to modelling if needed.
• Group Reflection: Teacher-led discussion of what has been done
• Group web report: Teacher-led writing of a report (including working models).
It is is noteworthy that each group activity takes place in different sites (web labs created within the WebReports
system) and can feed into each other.
WebLabs model

Software
• ToonTalk is the authoring environment used to build models.
• Models build with ToonTalk
• WebReports is the web-based collaborative workspace.

Links
• WebLabs [2] home page.

References
Y. Mor, J. Tholander & J. Holmberg (2005), Designing for cross-cultural web-based knowledge building. Presented at
10th anniversary Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) conference, 30 May - 4 June 2005, Taipei,
[3]
Taiwan. Reprint
 338
[4]
Matos, J.F & Santos, M., Global view of WebLabs from a Communities of Practice's point of view, PDF

WebQuest

Definition
A WebQuest is an inquiry-oriented activity in which most or all of the information used by learners is drawn from
the Web, optionally supplemented with videoconferencing. WebQuests are designed to use learner's time well, to
focus on using information rather than looking for it, and to support learner's thinking at the levels of analysis,
synthesis and evaluation. The model was developed in 1995 at San Diego State University by B.Dodge with T.March.
There are at least two levels of WebQuests:
(a) Short Term WebQuests: designed to be completed in 1 to 3 class periods. The instructional goal is knowledge
acquisition and integration, described as Dimension 2 in Marzano's (1992) Dimensions of Thinking model. At the
end of a short term WebQuest, a learner will have grappled with a significant amount of new information and made
sense of it.
(b) Longer Term WebQuest: will typically take between one week and a month in a classroom setting. The instructional
goal is extending and refining knowledge (Marzano's Dimension 3). After completing a longer term WebQuest, a
learner would have analyzed a body of knowledge deeply, transformed it in some way, and demonstrated an
understanding of the material by creating something that others can respond to, on-line or off-.
The forms that a longer term WebQuest might take are open to the imagination. Some ideas:
• A searchable database in which the categories in each field were created by the learners.
• A microworld that users can navigate through that represents a physical space.
• An interactive story or case study created by learners.
• A document that describes an analysis of a controversial situation, takes a stand, and invites users to add to or
disagree with that stand.
• A simulated person who can be interviewed on-line. The questions and answers would be generated by learners
who have deeply studied the person being simulated.
Putting the results of their thinking process back out onto the internet serves 3 purposes: it focuses the learners on
a tangible task; it gives them an audience to create for; and it opens up the possibility of getting feedback from that
distant audience.
WebQuest 339

Critical Attributes
WebQuests of either short or long duration are deliberately designed to make the best use of the learner's time.
There is questionable educational benefit in having learners surfing the net without a clear task in mind, and most
schools must ration student connect time severely. To achieve that efficiency and clarity of purpose, WebQuests
should contain at least the following parts:
1. An introduction that sets the stage and provides some background information.
2. A task that is doable and interesting.
3. A set of information sources needed to complete the task. Many (though not necessarily all) of the resources
are embedded in the WebQuest document itself as anchors pointing to information on the Web. Information
sources might include web documents, experts available via e-mail or realtime conferencing, searchable
databases, and books and other documents physically available in the learner's setting. Because pointers to
resources are included, the learner is not left to wander through webspace completely adrift.
4. A description of the process the learners should go through in accomplishing the task. The process should be
broken out into clearly described steps.
5. Some guidance on how to organize the information acquired. This can take the form of guiding questions, or
directions to complete organizational frameworks such as timelines, concept maps, or cause-and-effect
diagrams as described by Marzano (1988, 1992) and Clarke (1990).
6. A conclusion that brings closure to the quest, reminds the learners about what they've learned, and perhaps
encourages them to extend the experience into other domains.
Some other non-critical attributes of a WebQuest include these:
1. WebQuests are most likely to be group activities, although one could imagine solo quests that might be
applicable in distance education or library settings.
2. WebQuests might be enhanced by wrapping motivational elements around the basic structure by giving the
learners a role to play (e.g., scientist, detective, reporter), simulated personae to interact with via e-mail, and a
scenario to work within (e.g., you've been asked by the Secretary General of the UN to brief him on what's
happening in sub-Saharan Africa this week.)
3. WebQuests can be designed within a single discipline or they can be interdisciplinary. Given that designing
effective interdisciplinary instruction is more of a challenge than designing for a single content area, WebQuest
creators should probably start with the latter until they are comfortable with the format.

Thinking Skills required

(from Marzano, 1992)
1. Comparing: Identifying and articulating similarities and differences between things.
2. Classifying: Grouping things into definable categories on the basis of their attributes.
3. Inducing: Inferring unknown generalizations or principles from observations or analysis.
4. Deducing: Inferring unstated consequences and conditions from given principles and generalizations.
5. Analyzing errors: Identifying and articulating errors in one's own or other's thinking.
6. Constructing support: Constructing a system of support or proof for an assertion.
7. Abstraction: Identifying and articulating the underlying theme or general pattern of information.
8. Analyzing perspectives: Identifying and articulating personal perspectives about issues.

Design Steps
WebQuest 340

Learning to design WebQuests is a process that should go from the simple and familiar to the more complex and
new. That means starting within a single discipline and a short-term WebQuest and then moving up to longer and
more interdisciplinary activities. Here are the recommended steps:
1. Become familiar with the resources available on-line in one's own content area. Toward that end, it exists a
[1]
Catalog of Catalogs of Web Sites for Teachers . This provides short list of starting points for exploration broken
down by subject matter discipline.
[2]
2. Organize one's knowledge of what's out there. For example, Non-WebQuest 3 will guide the teacher in
organizing the resources in their discipline into categories like searchable database, reference material, project
ideas, etc.
3. Following that, teachers should identify topics that fit in with their curriculum and for which there are
appropriate materials on-line.

Selecting a WebQuest Project

WebQuest projects have to be well chosen [3]. There are four filters that the idea must pass through. The WebQuest
should:

1. Curriculum Standards
One temptation is to do things just because they are cool. We've all seen labs filled with kids creating animations or
comic strips or games. Once you get past the novelty, you might ask yourself what children learn from such things.
Sometimes the glitz has an instructional goal that is well thought out, other times not.
The movement towards definable standards in all content areas is apparent everywhere and is unstoppable.
Nowhere are they perfect. Even where the standards are disorganized or unclear, though, it is wise to spend your
time creating lessons that can be tied to definable goals that others recognize as important.
We'll assume that you have access to the standards that apply to your location, grade level and content, and that
you'll consult them as you juggle possible ideas.

2. Creative Discontent
Creating a first WebQuest is going to take a fair amount of time. (the second will go more quickly and will be of
higher quality…) Since that's so, the chosen project must be something taught before and never been fully satisfied
with. The WebQuest designed should replace something and improve upon it rather than being yet another add-on
in an already crowded year. When the going gets rough, you'll draw energy from the fact that your newborn
WebQuest will make a part of your teaching more effective and enjoyable.

3. Using the Web Well

The Web adds a unique dimension to teaching. It brings in primary sources that would not ordinarily be available to
schools. It brings in timely information that is fresher than tomorrow's newspaper. It allows for colorful pictures,
sound and animation. The basic structure of a WebQuest could be done with a pile of books and magazines. You
should choose a project that could not be done solely with print materials. Using print alongside the web is a great
idea... but let's pick something that couldn't be done as well without web access.
WebQuest 341

4. Understanding
Not everything teached requires deep understanding. Some things are best taught with direct instruction because
there's no room for creativity and no need for synthesis, analysis or judgement. Irregular verbs in Spanish, the list of
NATO member states,... these are not good material for WebQuests. Choose content and standards that invite
creativity, that have multiple layers, can have multiple interpretations or be seen from multiple perspectives. In
short, pick material that requires students to transform what they seen into something different.
There are great lesson ideas that will not pass through all of these filters. They might make for terrific classroom
activities, but they won't make terrific WebQuests. The task now is to juggle possible ideas until they meet all four
criteria.

The Process
How deal with these four filters? Think about the teaching, the curriculum standards, and the kinds of things found
on the web so far. Then go through the process as outlined here. You may need to use your newly honed web
searching skills to see what's out there on your topic. When you can't answer YES, either modify your idea or pick
another one. When you can answer YES to all four questions, you're ready to go on to the next stage. Adapted from :
[3]
Selecting a WebQuest Project

Tools
QuestGarden
QuestGarden [4] is an online authoring tool, community and hosting service designed to make it easier and quicker
to create high quality WebQuests. No knowledge of web editing or uploading is required. Prompts, guides and
examples are provided for each step of the process. Images, worksheets and other documents can easily be
attached or embedded in the WebQuest, and users have complete control over the appearance of the final lesson.
QuestGarden is modeled after a community garden with all the resources needed to bring great WebQuests to life.
Users are encouraged to comment on each other's work, to share links and images, and to build new WebQuests
on existing ones. Rather than starting from scratch, users can bring a WebQuest written by another member of the
community into their workspace, modify the content or appearance to suit their needs, and use it with their own
students. Attribution to the first author is maintained, and authors are notified when another member of the
community makes an improved or modified version of their work.
The main features are:
• Step by step guidance through the entire process of creating a WebQuest
[5]
• WYSIWYG editing of each section of the WebQuest
• Ability to insert images and upload supplementary documents to be linked to the WebQuest
• Publication of the WebQuest in a layout over which the creator has complete control of colors and fonts.
• Attaching a WebQuest to a group which allows for easy feedback and commenting among group members. This
is designed especially for use by WebQuest workshop leaders and teacher educators.
QuestGarden is more than just a tool, it's a community of educators with many goals in common. Members are
encouraged to become critical friends of each other's work, to generate ideas for improvement that benefit all of
us.
WebQuest 342

San Diego City Tool

The Technology Challenge Grants Website from the San Diego City schools suggest step-by-step online tools to
create WebQuest forms. Each block of a WebQuest is detailed here with some examples for each block [6].
Then people can see two differents templates with lot of details of what to do for each block, when and how :

Student page [7]:

• Several blocks: Title, Introduction, Task, Process, Evaluation, Conclusion.

Teacher page [8]:

• Several blocks: Title, Introduction, Learners, Curriculum Standards, Process, Variations, Resources Needed,
Evaluation, Conclusion.

Examples of WebQuests
Investigating Archaeotype
[9]
The goal of this short term WebQuest was to give student a sense of how Archaeotype , a simulated
archaeological dig, was conceived and implemented at two very different school sites. The exercise took about 2
hours and involved students working in groups to answer a series of questions. They were given a set of resources
to read and interact with which included project reports and theoretical papers on the Web, copies of a portion of
the Archaeotype documentation, and directions to go to another room and interact with a teacher via video
conference, or with a staff member via speakerphone. The students broke up into groups to experience each of
these sources of data and then spent time telling each other what they'd learned. The end result was that each
person in the class could explain what Archaeotype was and what problems and successes came with its
implementation.

A look at other school Pages

[10]
Short term WebQuest in which the student teachers examined a number of web pages put up by schools . The
point of the exercise was to expose them to a variety of ways in which a school could portray itself on the web in
preparation for their creating web pages. By the end of the exercise they were able to articulate general principles
of good and not-so-good design for school web sites.

A Webquest about Webquests

[11]
Short term WebQuest about WebQuests . The student teachers have to develop an understanding of the
differents possibilities of web-based lessons. To do it, they analyze a number of webquest examples and discuss
them from multiple perspectives. By the end of the exercise they are able to recognise the good and the bad
features of a WebQuest.

Other WebQuests
The most recently published WebQuests [12]
[13]
The best WebQuests
WebQuest 343

References
• Clarke, J. H. (1990). Patterns of thinking: Integrating learning skills in content teaching. Needham Heights MA:
Allyn and Bacon.
• http:/ /projects.edtech. sandi. net/staffdev/buildingblocks/ p-index. htm
• http:/ /webquest. org/ questgarden/ author/overview. htm
• http:/ /webquest. org/ questgarden/ author/report-recentpubs. php
• http:/ /webquest. sdsu. edu/
• http:/ /webquest. sdsu. edu/ about_webquests. html
[14]
• Dodge, B. (1995, May 5, 1997). Some thoughts about WebQuests, HTML , retrieved 19:56, 23 May 2006
(MEST)
• Grant, Michael, M. (2002), Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal a service of NC State
University, Raleigh, NC, Volume 5, Issue 1 ISSN 1097 9778 HTML [15] (retrieved 19:56, 23 May 2006 (MEST))
• Marzano, R. J., Brandt, R.S., Hughes, C.S., Jones, B. F., Presseisen, B, Z., Rankin, S. C., & Suhor, C. (1988).
Dimensions of thinking: A framework for curriculum and instruction. Alexandria VA: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
• Marzano, R. J. (1992). A different kind of classroom: Teaching with dimensions of learning. Alexandria VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
[16]
• Pickett, N., & Dodge, B. (2001, June 20, 2001). Rubrics for web lessons, HTML , retrieved 19:56, 23 May 2006
(MEST)
• Starr, L. (2000). Creating a WebQuest: It's easier than you think!, [17], retrieved 19:56, 23 May 2006 (MEST)
• Yoder, M. B. (1999). The student WebQuest. Learning and Leading with Technology, 26(7).
Wiki-supported project-oriented learning 344

Wiki-supported project-oriented learning

Draf

Definition
We define wiki-supported project-oriented learning as some kind of relativly open enden project-based learning
design that uses the wiki as sole (or central) tool. Of course, such a design also can be adapted to other project-
oriented learning designs, e.g. inquiry learning Pedagogical goals:
• Create applicable and/or "deep" knowledge in some domain
• Learn how to conduct a research project.

Example architecture (1)

Below are some suggestions for a minimalist design that need to be adapted to your needs.

Context
• This model has been tested in 2006 with a semester-long undergraduate class in history of deviant social
behavior. Both teacher and students didn't have much exposure to Internet technology.

Preparation and wiki training

• DSchneider helped designing the course (2h of work) and then sometimes met with the teacher and the class.
All in all it rather was a "low cost" operation and no systematic observation was performed. Evaluation by
students was "ok", but some complained about the workload.
• Students received less then half an hour of wiki training in the beginning and a short help text including short
editorial guidelines were prepared. Most students ignored some important features of the wiki, e.g. some didn't
really undestand how links work, why one should use titles, how to organize a discussion page, how to fill in a
home page, etc. A few forget to save articles from time to time and lost stuff, because they didn't know how to
copy/paste after an editing timeout and this created some frustrations. The overall result (wiki pages) however
was acceptable, but DSchneider believes that more structure and more training may improve results, but it
interested to observed that a minimal approach also works.

Stages
The model has four stages.
(1) Preparation
• Teacher defines global course topic
• Defines (ajustable) milestones and student evaluation procedure
• Student teams (5 to 7 members) are formed according to their interests (each student had to write a short text
in the wiki)
(2) Planning
• Team members search resources, start some reading
• Students write the initial specification of the project, for example goals and questions.
• Students add some planning elements: Rough definition of tasks (work packages) and important milestones.
• Teacher gives feedback and students revise the project plan (at least 2 times)
Wiki-supported project-oriented learning 345

Each team works with the following pages

• A single project / research plan page.
• A page for the paper (i.e. the research
• Other pages for shared activities (see below)
(3a) Implementation of the research project
• Students were set to work on their project. More or less informal deadlines have been set for important
common milestones (like reviews of the literature, initial fieldwork, methods, fieldwork, etc.)
• After some initial fieldwork (interviews/reading documents) students were asked to present their research
methods (this is somewhat particular to history). Also, sometimes students made adjustements to the plan
themselves.
• Teachers insures that some cooperation (either off-line or on-line happens). Some presential classes have been
cancelled and replaced by meeting time for students.
• Once per week teacher gave feedback in the wiki (mostly in discussion pages).
• Repeat the previsous steps until all milestones are met and/or the course end approaches (3b) Other activities
Students also were asked to:
• Work on a common bibliography
• A dictionary of terms
(4) Finalization
• It was required that final project (a long wiki page) somewhat met academic standards •
Each group had to present result to class and then make some adjustments
• Grades and the whole experience are discussed in a final meeting.

Organization of the Wiki

On the frontpage, there should be:
• Planning (1): The current tasks on which students should work (with deadlines)
• Planning (2): A pointer to the overall program (syllabus) of the course.
• A menu leading to index pages for various tasks (project planning pages index, project pages index, dictionary
index, common bibliography, etc.). These also have to be made by the teacher.
• Extra-information like Wiki Help
Below is a screenshot (in french)

Mediawiki-supported project-oriented learning in

history

Other examples
this is still missing, e.g. out experiences with biology teaching at high-school level, or writing-to-learn designs
at master level...

Software
Wiki-supported project-oriented learning 346

Any sort of wiki can do, although we suggest to use a wiki that allows tagging and linking. Some "Wikis" that are
embedded in pedagogical platforms are not really wikis (but just simple CMS tools that allow both students and
teachers to edit pages through the web. See the wiki article for technical details.

Writing-to-learn
Draf

Definition
• Writing-to-learn refers to a family of instructional design models that postulate positive effects of pedagogical
scenarios that engage learners in writing activities.
• Writing-to-learn is also known as the writing across the curriculum movement (WAC) movement, in particular
in science teaching. According to Keys, WAC was inspired by Britton's (1970) work.
As of 2010, writing-to-learn is still an active field of research and this article needs some upgrading, e.g. see the
Discussion page for some comments by Alan Jones. - Daniel K. Schneider 19:33, 7 October 2010 (CEST)

Overview
Research reveals that one learns both from and with interactive technology. Writing-to-learn focuses on the use of
ICT as social expressive digital media. In this cognitive tools approach, interactive expressive tools are given directly
to learners to use for expressing what they experience and know to themselves and also to others.
(1) "Writing-to-learn" has a long research tradition that initially focused mostly on the effects of individual writing
and related cognitive issues. Klein's (1999) detailed research review identifies four major research lines and
associated main hypothesis:
1. The "point of utterance" hypothesis: writers spontaneously generate knowledge when they write (Galbraith,
1999).
2. The "forward hypothesis": writers externalize ideas in text, and then reread them to generate new inferences.
3. The "genre hypothesis": writers use genre structures to organize relationships among elements of text, and
thereby among elements of knowledge (Newell, 1984).
4. The "backward hypothesis": writers set rhetorical goals, and then solve content problems to achieve these goals
(Flower & Hayes, 1994).
These four hypotheses invoke different aspects of writing and are in principle compatible with regard to the
learner's competence matrix. According to Klein (1999:252) there are plenty of supportive studies, but only the
genre hypothesis has been systematically tested against measures of writers' learning, and shown to have generally
positive effects. See also the debate on genres
(2) More recent research mainly conducted in the CSCL (computer-supported collaborative work) community
focused on collaborative learning mechanisms, its impact on individual learning and development of tools that
enhance collaborative and social learning. Learners can be co- located, e.g. in computer-integrated classrooms
Writing-to-learn 347

(Tewissen, 2001).
Writing activities are essential to many different CSCL paradigms. While mainstream "writing-to-learn" research
focuses on the production of larger texts or at self self-contained entries, writing in the CSCL perspective concerns
rather producing short texts in various genres (questions, arguments, definitions, etc.). Learner productions plus
interactions are meant to provoke various meta-cognitive mechanisms beneficial to learning e.g. conceptual change
and deeper understanding. "Restructuring learning environments" (Flower & Hayes, 1994; Erkins et al. 2003) are
based on the main hypothesis is that knowledge transformation leads to knowledge constitution (Galbraith, 1999).
Restructuring and knowledge building can be enhanced through computer-supported "knowledge building
communities". Writing then contributes to a larger collective body of knowledge whose elements can be edited,
manipulated and put in relation. A good example are so-called computer-supported intentional learning
environments (CSILE) (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1994), that aim at reframing classroom discourse to support
knowledge building in ways extensible to out-of-school knowledge- advancing enterprises and make school
education more situated (Lave & Wenger, 1991). In one scenario, records made at the place of work (knowledge in
action) "ground" reflective activities in the classroom.
Many compatible instructional models, like inquiry-based learning, problem-based learning or project-based
learning can integrate research results from successful experimental of clinical studies.
(3) Co-construction enhanced by collective knowledge management is also related to organizational learning.
Community memories are to communities of practice (Wenger, 1998) what human memories are to individuals.
They make use of explicit, external, symbolic representations that allow for shared understanding within a
community. They make organizational learning possible within the group (Stahl, 2000). Conversely, such
communities need a social infrastructure around the technical infrastructure (Hakkarainen 2003; Bielaczyc, 2001).
Interest in knowledge-building communities is both shared by education and the business literature (Snyder, 2003;
Bereiter, 2002; Paavola, 2002). In other words, individual learning in school and workplace, life-long learning, and
organizational learning are related issues in this perspective (Scardamalia, 2001).

The genres debate

Writing-to-learn refers to different instructional design models. Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) introduced the
difference between writing as "knowledge telling" and writing as "knowledge transformation". For Bereiter and
Scardamalia, the rhetorical goal of a text incites exploration that leads to discovery of new knowledge/ideas. They
distinguish between two processes are used used, depending on the capacities and knowledge of the author:
• Knowledge-telling: ideas that respond to the rhetorical goal are retrieved from long-term memory and
transferred directly into written text. This process of writing is used by those knowledgeable in the topic being
considered.
• Knowledge-transforming: ideas retrieved from memory are transformed by the effort to resolve a conflict
between the ideas and the rhetorical goal resulting in the generation of new ideas, content and a deeper
understanding of the subject. This is the process of writers that lack expertise in the topic of the text being
produced.
Scrutinizing and reworking Bereiter & Scardamalia's model, Galbraith introduces writing as a knowledge-
constituting process (Galbraith, 1998), where content is derived from a "dispositional dialectic" (Galbraith 1996 in
Galbraith, 1998): the translation process that takes place during a cycle of “spontaneous articulation of thought…
during text production” that responds to the stimulus of the emerging text – Galbraith (1998). The subject and the
task at hand invoke a network of ideas referred to as "units". If an idea is satisfactory, other ideas are suppressed. If
an idea does not meet the needs of the task at hand, other ideas are examined. During the repetition of this cycle
there is an emergence of new or contradictory ideas that lead the writere to a broader and deeper understanding
of the subject. Galbraith points out that rhetorical planning is only a “reorganization of existing ideas”… “retrieved
from episodic memory” (p.140). The resolution of rhetorical problems leads to neither a deeper understanding, nor
the development of new ideas.
The process and the number of times the cycle will be repeated is dependent on the author's knowledge of the
subject, as this will determine the quantity of ideas generated, the complexity of the semantic network invoked and
the author's capacity to express the ideas linguistically.
Writing-to-learn 348

The product will also be affected by the "translation" strategies used by the author, i.e. the form in which ideas will
be represented. The type of planning used for the writing process, (outline vs. free flow), the format of the output
(notes, prose, graphic) and the rhetorical goal will all play a determining role in which ideas will be selected and
developed (Galbraith, p.147-148).
Catel (2001) distinguishes several dimensions of research according to genre:
1. Expository writing refers to process that engages a learner in reusing existing knowledge, e.g. to test his
knowledge in an examination.
2. Scientific writing: learners are engaged into different kinds of academic writing, like lab notes, field notes,
presentation (including report and explanation) in poster or paper form.
3. Interpretative (expressive) writing in different genres focusses on exploration of personal thinking, like
conceptual cards, stories, slogans
4. Social (collaborative, cooperative and collective) writing social pratice, usually computer-mediated and often
referring to practices of the scientific community.
Many authors seem to agree that diversification of genres is important. E.g. Prain & Hand (1998: 158) argue that
" ...results indicate that diversification of writing types enhances opportunities for students to develop higher order
thinking skills, including metacogntive understandings.".
For some authors it is important that learners write in their own language (Prain & Hand). Others authors claim that
all writings should refer to scientific practice (e.g. Keys). These two views may conflict, but may also be sequenced
in a learning experience.

Learning styles and writing

It seems likely that personality differences and cognitive styles will influence individuals' writing process and when
and how learning takes place while writing. Learning, personality and cognitive style theories have been applied to
the teaching of composition and writing with mixed results but which still give some insight into the processes and
strategies applied by learners during writing and how the application writing-to-learn in instruction may effect
different learners. These individual differences should be taken into consideration when designing instruction and
ICTs to support writing-to-learn activities.
Davidson-Shivers (2002) attempted to test the effects of lesson structure on the pre-writing and writing
performance of students categorized using Kolb's Learning Style Inventory. No relationship between learning style
and lesson structure was evident in the writing performance.
Using Reid's Perceptual Learning Style Preference questionnaire designed for ESL students, Jones(1996) also found
that although his students scored variably on the questionnaire [1] they still openly expressed a preference for
traditional teacher-centered instructional styles, opting for strong guidance through explicit models to emulate and
standards to acheive. Jones attributes this to socio-cultural norms rather than familiarity with and reliance on these
norms.

MBTI and writing

Jensen and DiTiberio (1984) have used the Learning style MBTI to tailor instruction in remedial pre-writing and
writing strategies and processes for graduate students and have succeeded (qualitatively) in reducing students
perceived anxiety over writing tasks and writing blocks.
Extravert - Introvert
Extraverts tend to generate ideas in freeflow text and discussions, writing with little initial planning. Jensen and
DiTiberio suggests extraverts can be helped by being allowed to compose freely and then guided into selecting the
most relevant ideas and developing and organizing them further. Introverts on the other hand tend to follow the
more traditionally taught phases of outlining/planning, writing, and revising. They like to have ideas clarified before
they write. They are often blocked when ideas don't fit into the outline they have conceived. They need to be
encouraged to be open to ideas emerging during the writing process as these are key to learning.
Writing-to-learn 349

The writing process tendencies predicted by the personality type dimension of extravert and introvert are markedly
analoguous to Snyder's scale of personality types that categorizes people into low or high self-monitors
respectively. -- KBenetos 16:40, 8 January 2007 (MET)
Sensing - Intuition
The sensing types focus on the concrete experience or example and collect lots of data, often neglecting the overall
meaning. They benefit from explicit instruction and detailed examples of how to generate ideas and structure and
organize them. They often require guidance in formulating thesis statements and summaries and need to be
encouraged to look at the relation of their data to these. The intuitive types will focus on general concepts or
patterns, neglecting the details. They prefer to set their own goals and structures. They tend to generate ideas in a
freeflow manner, leaving details, facts and supports for ideas to later revisions. They need to be encouraged to
clarify their ideas and support them with facts and examples.
Thinking - Feeling
Thinking types use explicit objective performance standards to guide their writing. They categorize and structure
their ideas easily and clearly, relying heavily on their predefined outlines to make content decisions. They do not
take the effect of their writing on the audience into consideration. They need help to revise their structures and
relate their information to personal experience or that of the audience. Feeling types need to feel personally
engaged by the topic of their writing. They place great emphasis on the impact of their writing and communicating
precise sentiments to their audience, often sacrificing structure, organization and clarification of ideas. Outlines are
not particularly adhered to, and the structure tends to develop from the anticipation of the readers' reactions. They
need help to balance ideas with examples and consider potential opposing perspectives.
Judging - Perceiving
Judging types limit their topics quickly, dealing with the process goals that need to be fullfilled to bring the task to
completion. This often leads to hasty decisions and a strict adherence to an outline and schedule that are not
acheivable without revision or reordering of certain process goals. They benefit from 'blank' phases where they can
give in to sponataneous needs. Perceiving types select broad topics and have difficulty narrowing the scope of their
research and writing. They tend to look at exhausitve quantities of data before writing, and have difficulty selecting
from the multitude of possible structural and epistemological approaches. While their writing is often thorough,
though lacking in focus.
Jensen & DiTiberio observed that writers did best when their early drafts drew on their MBTI strengths and their
later drafts filled in what was missing by using their MBTI weaknesses (p.298), suggesting that learning styles can be
effectively used to enhance writing performance.

Self-monitoring and writing

In the mid-seventies, Mark Snyder developed a the 25-item self-monitoring scale to measure "how concerned
people are with the impressions they make on others, as well as their ability to control the impressions that they
convey to others in social situations". Based on the results, individuals are described as either high self-monitors or
low self-monitors.
'High self-monitors tend to regulate their behaviour based on stimuli from their environment aiming to control the
effect they have on others in a given situation.
'Low self-monitors' behaviour is regulated by their inner state, expressing themselves according to their thoughts
and feelings rather modifying their behaviour and projected self to suit the social circumstances
Galbraith in 1996 (Galbraith, 1999) looked at the writing processes of the two personality types and found that high
self-monitors tended to generate most of their ideas during note-taking prior to writing, while low self-monitors
generated most of their ideas while writing. They reported that greater gains in knowledge correlated with a
greater number of shifts in ideas. High self-monitors simply translated ideas retrieved from episodic memory
produced during note-taking (Galbraith, 1999, p. 151). indicating they tend to inhibit new ideas that may conflict
with their defined rhetorical goal.
Writing-to-learn 350

Examples
• This Wiki will be used in some of courses for student writing activities, e.g. they have to improve articles, add
new ones, add cases studies, and so forth [more details will follow]
• Keys (1999) discuss a "science writing heuristic" tool for learning from laboratory activities in secondary science
and which can be used by teachers as a framework from which to design classroom activities. "There is evidence
that use of the science writing heuristic facilitated students to generate meaning from data, make connections
among procedures, data, evidence, and claims, and engage in metacognition. Students' vague understandings of
the nature of science at the beginning of the study were modified to more complex, rich, and specific
understandings." (Keys 1999:1065).
In french
[2]
• Encyclopedia written by children - Wikimini is a free encyclopedia written for and by children aged from 8 to
13 years. More languages to come...
• http:/ / fr. vikidia. org/ encyclopédie destinée aux 8-13 ans dérivée de Wikipédia, ayant pour objectif de favoriser la
participation des enfants à la rédaction. voir aussi la page des projets pédagogiques [3]
• http:/ / fr. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Wikip%C3%A9dia:Projets_p%C3%A9dagogiques page des participations à Wikipédia
dans le cadre universitaire.

Technology
• Different sorts of cognitive tools
• Wikis
• C3MS Portals
• Knowledge Forum
• Concept maps
• Writing tools
• Fle3

Links
• The WAC Journal [4] (Academic open-access journal)
• By Request December 2004: Writing To Learn, Learning To Write: Revisiting Writing Across the Curriculum in
[5]
Northwest Secondary Schools . By Request is a booklet series produced at the Northwest Regional Educational
Laboratory, Portland, two times per year.

References
• Bereiter, C. & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Bereiter, C. (2002). Education and mind in a knowledge society. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Bielaczyc, K. (2001). Designing social infrastructure: The challenge of building computer-supported learning
communities. In P. Dillenbourg, A. Eurelings, & K. Hakkarainen (Eds.), European perspectives on computer-
supported collaborative learning. The proceedings of the First European Conference on Computer-Supported
Collaborative Learning (pp. 106-114).
• Britton, J. (1970). Language and learning. New York: Penguin.
• Britton, J. N. (1972). Writing to Learn and Learning to Write: National Council of Teachers of English.
• Catel, Laurence (2001), Ecrire pour apprendre ? Ecrire pour comprendre ? Etat de la question. in Fillon, Pierre et
Vérin, Anne (eds.) Ecrire pour comprendre les sciences, Aster, recheres en didactique des sciences
expérimentales 33.
Writing-to-learn 351

• Connally, P. (1989). Writing and the ecology of learning. In P. Connally & T. Vilardi (Eds.), Writing to learn
mathematics and science (pp. 1-15). New York: Teachers College Press.
• Davidson-Shivers, G.V. (2002). Do multimedia lesson structure and learning styles influence undergraduate
writing performance? College Student Journal.[6]
• Donahue, Christiane, Writing and Teaching the Disciplines in France - Current Conversations and Connections,
Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, Vol. 3, No. 1, 59-79 (2004), DOI: 10.1177/1474022204039645 PDF [7]
• Erkens, G., Kanselaar, G., Prangsma, M., & Jaspers, J. (2003). Computer Support for Collaborative and
Argumentative Writing. In E. De Corte, L. Verschaffel, N. Entwistle, & J. van Merriënboer (eds). Powerful Learning
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Knowing What to Write: Conceptual Processes in Text Production Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. (pp.
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• Hand Brian, Prain Vaughan, Teachers implementing writing-to-learn strategies in junior secondary science: A case
study, Science Education 86 (6), 737 - 755. DOI 10.1002/sce.10016 [8]
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Article Sources and Contributors 353

Article Sources and Contributors

CRESST learning model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=11832 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Kalli

4C/ID Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=45978 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Dug, Spiral

5e Learning cycle Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=8426 Contributors: Kalli, Pakchan

5e's of education Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=6490 Contributors: Kalli

7e Learning cycle Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=30292 Contributors: Burleyc1, Kalli

8 learning events model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=26592 Contributors: Kalli, Sugarch0

ABAHCOCOSUCOL Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=43389 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Laraschmitt

ARCS Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=45065 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, RobertoOrtelli, S9dakopp

Advance Organizer Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=27810 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Advance backward design organizer Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=18500 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, OldSchool

Aesthetic principles for instructional design Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=17865 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Agile learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=20577 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Anchored instruction Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=8027 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Backwards design Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21248 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

C3MS project-based learning model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=43391 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Kevinhill, Laraschmitt, LarelGetro

C5 simulation framework Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21754 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

CPM Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21952 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Campbell-Lom mentoring model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=10379 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Carroll model of school learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=52034 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Case-based learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=29439 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Grob, Stek

Case-based reasoning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=10544 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Kalli

CeLS Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=41082 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Suki

Cognitive flexibility hypertext Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21966 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Cognitive flexibility theory Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21967 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, RobertoOrtelli, Stek

Cognitive load Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=20555 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Kalli, MEmiMO, Mthomas, Soupman55, Widged

Collaborative Face to Face Educational Environment Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=37111 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Community of inquiry model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=34267 Contributors: Claire, Daniel K. Schneider, Jasonfahy

Component display theory Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=18930 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Lrhayden

Computer simulation Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=23512 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, WikiSysop

Constructivist emotionally-oriented model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=5850 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Cybergogy Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=28467 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Macbeal, Minjuansandiego, Raphael, Solitudestanding

DialogPlus Toolkit Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=52790 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Kalli

Direct instruction Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=32966 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Discovery learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=8099 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, RobertoOrtelli, Stek

Dukes simulation and gaming model for sociology teaching Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=6161 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

E-moderation five-stage model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=13887 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, RobertoOrtelli, Stek

E-tivity Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=30284 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Eddina47, Ilmarkello, Julianberg1978, Mariachiara2006, Milengk, Ngberger,
Valentina

E2ML Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21795 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Educational design language Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=54001 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Pzervas

Educational modeling language Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=52846 Contributors: Benjaminva, Daniel K. Schneider, Kalli

Eight-component framework for e-learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=11729 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Sara

Elaboration theory Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=8017 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Engagement theory Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=33428 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Exploratory learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=8307 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Stek

FEASP Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=5840 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Felder design model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=13556 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

First principles of instruction Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=40388 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Joel Gardner, PhD, Kalli
Article Sources and Contributors 354

Gerlach and Ely design model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=8126 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

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Hypermodel Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21969 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Hypertext Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=22845 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Fridemar, RobertoOrtelli

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Instructional transaction theory Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=8405 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Kemp design model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=12511 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Moroney, Stek

Knirk and Gustafson design model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=15765 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Deltawebmaster

LAMS Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=42936 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Ernieg, Jade

Laurillard conversational framework Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=53804 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Jonagib, Mgaved

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Learning management system Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=53028 Contributors: Alex ufpe, Daniel K. Schneider, Jason, Kalli, Mwilli31, Rambatz,
RobertoOrtelli, Sameer Bhatia, WikiSysop

Learning sequence Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21849 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Learning to teach with technology model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=6567 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Lesson planning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=29285 Contributors: Addict, D, Daniel K. Schneider, Hjcombs

Madeline Hunter method Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=11651 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Mastery learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=13641 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Medicine Blends Computers and PBL Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=10339 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Stek

Mentoring Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=17475 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Rcarr

Microlearning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=30042 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

MiniQuest Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=5724 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Minimalist instruction Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=4157 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Model-based learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=6946 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Moursund project-based learning model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=11780 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Vyerus

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OASIF Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21870 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

PALO Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21876 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

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Phoebe pedagogic planner Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=28918 Contributors: Chaney786, Daniel K. Schneider

Problem-based learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=52757 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Robc, Stek, Sugarch0, Urs

Programmed instruction Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21892 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Magicesca, RobertoOrtelli, Stek, WikiSysop

Progressive project assignment Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=40771 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Project-based learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=43387 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Laraschmitt, Paraskevi Synteta, Shanekrukowski, Smithtk,
Stek, WikiSysop

Project-based science model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=18343 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Project-methodology-based learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=7761 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Stek R2D2

Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=10494 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Sandberg learning environment functions Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=5719 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Scaffolded knowledge integration Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=53253 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Science writing heuristic Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21902 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, Kalli

Self-regulated strategy development model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=5622 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Shuell model of learning functions Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=20323 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Simulation Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=40531 Contributors: Aaronjay, Daniel K. Schneider, RobertoOrtelli, Stek

Article Sources and Contributors 355

Super motivation Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=16620 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Taba teaching strategy model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=16027 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

TeachML Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21916 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Team learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=11624 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Teleteaching Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=41035 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Trialogical learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=21924 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

Universal design for learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=17055 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

WIPPEA Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=13567 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

WebLabs model Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=6953 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider

WebQuest Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=18319 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, RobertoOrtelli, Stek, 9 anonymous edits

Wiki-supported project-oriented learning Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=30121 Contributors: Daniel K. Schneider, VandyMerdock

Writing-to-learn Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?oldid=38644 Contributors: BigR, Bubulle, Daniel K. Schneider, Diegomarad, Grob, Jjohnsonwbc, Kalli,
Lakewindmn, RobertoOrtelli, Stek, Urs
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

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http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Abahcocosucol.png License: unknown Contributors: image:c3ms-teacher-role.png Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:C3ms-teacher-role.png License: unknown Contributors: image:c3ms-activities-urloop.png Source:
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http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:C3ms-lms-vs-living-document.png License: unknown Contributors: image:c3ms-course-architecture.png Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:C3ms-course-architecture.png License: unknown Contributors: image:c3ms-portal-scenarios-modules.png Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:C3ms-portal-scenarios-modules.png License: unknown Contributors: image:PLE-michele-martin.jpg Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:PLE-michele-martin.jpg License: unknown Contributors: image:c3ms-glossary-scenario.png Source:
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http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:C3ms-sharp-focus-fuzzy-edges.png License: unknown Contributors: image:c3ms-creativity-modules.png Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:C3ms-creativity-modules.png License: unknown Contributors: image:c3ms-landscaping.png Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:C3ms-landscaping.png License: unknown Contributors: image:cpm-screencapture.png Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Cpm-screencapture.png License: unknown Contributors: -
Image: carrol-school-learning-by-reeves.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Carrol-school-learning-by-reeves.png License: unknown Contributors:
image: CeLS-activity-structure.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:CeLS-activity-structure.png License: unknown Contributors: image: CeLS_02.png
Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:CeLS_02.png License: unknown Contributors: -
image:coffee-beta_systemdiagram.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Coffee-beta_systemdiagram.png License: unknown Contributors: -
Image: Garrison_Anderson_community_of_inquiry.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Garrison_Anderson_community_of_inquiry.png License: unknown
Contributors: -
Image:Cybergogy.gif Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Cybergogy.gif License: unknown Contributors: image:Dialogplus-learning-activity.jpg Source:
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http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Dialogplus-activity-task.png License: unknown Contributors: image:Dialogplus-task-types.png Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Dialogplus-task-types.png License: unknown Contributors: image:Dialogplus-task-tools.png Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Dialogplus-task-tools.png License: unknown Contributors: image:Dialogplus-assessment.png Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Dialogplus-assessment.png License: unknown Contributors: image:nugget-LD-comparison-small.png Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Nugget-LD-comparison-small.png License: unknown Contributors: image:eml-join-information-model-2002.png Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Eml-join-information-model-2002.png License: unknown Contributors: image:dks-what-can-be-modeled-2007.png Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Dks-what-can-be-modeled-2007.png License: unknown Contributors: image:EducationalContent-Rodriguez-Artacho.png
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Contributors: image:merril-first-principles-of-instruction.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Merril-first-principles-of-instruction.png License: unknown
Contributors:
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Contributors: image:merril-first-principles-of-instruction-2.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Merril-first-principles-of-instruction-2.png
License: unknown
Contributors: -
Image: Gerlach-ely-design-model.gif Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Gerlach-ely-design-model.gif License: unknown Contributors: -
Image:Hypermodel_architecture.gif Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Hypermodel_architecture.gif License: unknown Contributors: -
Image:IBL_circle.gif Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:IBL_circle.gif License: unknown Contributors: -
Image: Kemp.jpg Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Kemp.jpg License: unknown Contributors: -
Image: Knirk-gustavson-design-model.gif Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Knirk-gustavson-design-model.gif License: unknown Contributors:
Image:LAMS-authoring.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:LAMS-authoring.png License: unknown Contributors: image:LAMS-sequence-writing-
research-papger.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:LAMS-sequence-writing-research-papger.png License: unknown
Contributors: -
image:LAMS-sequence-stolen-generation.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:LAMS-sequence-stolen-generation.png License: unknown Contributors: -
Image:laurillard-conversational-framework.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Laurillard-conversational-framework.png License: unknown
Contributors: image:deitel-froncover.jpg Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Deitel-froncover.jpg License: unknown Contributors:
image:textbook-deitel-insert1.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Textbook-deitel-insert1.png License: unknown Contributors:
image:carey-fontcover.jpg Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Carey-fontcover.jpg License: unknown Contributors: image:clark-
frontcover.jpg Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Clark-frontcover.jpg License: unknown Contributors: image:reiser-frontcover.jpg
Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Reiser-frontcover.jpg License: unknown Contributors: image:alessi-frontcover.jpg Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Alessi-frontcover.jpg License: unknown Contributors: image:morsund-frontcover.jpg Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Morsund-frontcover.jpg License: unknown Contributors: image:veer-frontcover.jpg Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Veer-frontcover.jpg License: unknown Contributors: image:carey-css-chapter-2.jpg Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Carey-css-chapter-2.jpg License: unknown Contributors: image:carey-css-chapter-3.jpg Source:
http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Carey-css-chapter-3.jpg License: unknown Contributors: -
image:driscoll-simulation-chapter-1.jpg Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Driscoll-simulation-chapter-1.jpg License: unknown Contributors: -
Image:learning-to-teach-with-technology-model.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Learning-to-teach-with-technology-model.png License: unknown
Contributors: -
Image:course-design-modules.gif Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Course-design-modules.gif License: unknown Contributors: image:guncontrol.jpg
Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Guncontrol.jpg License: unknown Contributors: -
Image: OASIF-hierarchy.gif Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:OASIF-hierarchy.gif License: unknown Contributors: image:ley-young-pome-model.gif
Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Ley-young-pome-model.gif License: unknown Contributors: image:dualt-collaborative-writing-conjecture-
map.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Dualt-collaborative-writing-conjecture-map.png License: unknown Contributors: -
Image:learning-environment-functions-sandberg.gif Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Learning-environment-functions-sandberg.gif License: unknown
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Contributors: image:teachml-teege2002.gif Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Teachml-teege2002.gif License: unknown
Contributors: image:teleteaching.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Teleteaching.png License: unknown
Contributors: -

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

image:trialogic_learning.gif Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Trialogic_learning.gif License: unknown Contributors: image:mediawiki-supported-pbl-

history.png Source: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/mediawiki/index.php?title=File:Mediawiki-supported-pbl-history.png License: unknown Contributors: -
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License

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