Council for Research in Music Education
Constructions of Musical Ability
Author(s): Susan Hallam and Jackie Shaw
Source: Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, No. 153/154, The 19th
International Society for Music Education, ISME Research Seminar, Gothenburg, Sweden.
School of Music, University of Gothenburg, August 3-9, 2002 (Summer - Fall, 2002), pp.
102-108
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Council for Research in Music
Education
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40319148
Accessed: 26-11-2019 03:10 UTC
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Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Spring & Summer, 2002, No. 153/4
Constructions of Musical Ability
Susan Hallam
Institute of Education
University of London
20 Bedford Way, London, WC1H OAA
Jackie Shaw
Institute of Education
Abstract
Historically, musical ability was conceptualised in relation to aural abilities. Recently, this
view has been challenged. Musical ability is now viewed by many as a social construction, ac-
quiring different meanings in different cultures, sub-groups within cultures and at the individual
level. This study aimed to explore these constructions. Based on an earlier qualitative study, a
series of statements were developed describing aspects of musical ability to which participants
responded on a five point rating scale. Participants were drawn from five groups, musicians, non-
musician educators, other adults, children with experience of extra-curricula music and children
with no such experience. The findings showed that musical ability was most strongly conceptualised
in relation to rhythmic ability, organisation of sound, communication, motivation, personal char-
acteristics, an integration of skills and performing in a group. Exploration of differences between
the responses of members of different groups demonstrated that there was considerable consen-
sus between the groups regarding some aspects of musical ability but differences between others.
These similarities and differences are discussed in relation to the extent of musical experience of
the respondents and the music curriculum.
Introduction
The concept of musical ability has a long history. The first tests of musical ability
were devised in the 19th century by Carl Stumpf. This pioneering work provided the
impetus for much further development including tests by Revesz (1920; 1953); Sea-
shore (1960); Wing (1961); and Gordon (1965). The tests were broadly based on aural
perception, although there were variations in the emphasis given to different elements
of perception. Since the development of these tests, there has been a more general
recognition that aural skills alone are insufficient to predict success in music as most
musical activities require the acquisition of a range of skills through practice. Hallam
(1998a) suggests that these include aural, cognitive, technical, musicianship, perfor-
mance and learning skills. There has also been an increasing acknowledgement that
individual musicians have differing strengths and weaknesses. McPherson (1995/6),
for instance, identified five distinct skills: sight reading, performing rehearsed music,
playing from memory, playing by ear and improvising.
Early conceptions of musical ability were also based on the assumption that it was
genetically determined. However, the evidence for this is not strong (Shuter-Dyson
and Gabriel, 198 1 ). Further, recent research relating to the genetic basis of intelligence
suggests that hereditary factors also shape the environment (Ceci, 1990) which makes
it extremely difficult to assess the effects of genetics and environment separately. It
would seem as Farnsworth (1969) wrote that 'neither nature nor nurture can alone
make a musician. Both must be present before musical and other abilities can emerge.'
102
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Hallam & Shaw
It is now genera
petence which i
the opportuniti
way that an enr
tence, a musica
skills. This pro
velop high level
is therefore cru
1 997). In genera
level of expertis
1 998b), althoug
required for lea
of expertise att
point in time (
on complex inte
needed to produ
issues continue
This brief desc
over time and c
that, in commo
changes in conc
intelligence wit
basis to a multi
mented, there h
society as a wh
existence f of a
nately determi
accomplishment
more than 75%
strument, singi
Hallam and Prin
of people with
'musical ability
other occupatio
extra-curricular
is:' The stateme
ability was con
activities; the in
it is learned. In
ways by each g
making the mo
search, relyin
conceptualisati
beliefs. The pur
tive study, was
regarding the n
musical expertis
musical ability.
Method
The present study is an extension of the research carried out by Hallam and Prince
(in press), which used qualitative methods to determine how participants perceived
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104
the construct 'musical ability'
statement 'Musical ability is' . T
cal Ear; Rhythmic Ability;
Appreciation of Music; Declar
Being able to Play or Sing; Re
Communication and Interpret
Organisation of Sound; Creativ
Personal expression; the Origin
nate. In the current study each
from the qualitative study. For i
were: Musical ability depends o
play by ear; Musical ability is
sponded to through levels of ag
also asked to provide informati
rience. The questionnaire was
The sample was an opportuni
city school, an extra-curricular
institution. All participants w
categorised into one of eight gro
ment and whether or not they
educators in other subject doma
cal instrument (20), other adu
involvement in extra curricul
experience (135), pupils with le
extra-curricular musical exper
Findings
The data was analysed using SPSS 10. To enable comparison across categories
with different numbers of statements, mean scores were calculated for each category.
Figure 1 illustrates the categories receiving the strongest levels of response excluding
those relating to the origins of musical ability. Overall, musical ability was most strongly
conceptualised in relation to rhythmic ability, organisation of sound, emotional sensi-
tivity, communication, motivation, personal characteristics, an integration of a range
of complex skills and ensemble skills (see Figure 1).
Analysis of the data relating to underlying assumptions about the origins of musi-
cal ability revealed that respondents tended to the view that musical ability was learned
(mean = 3.4) rather than innate (mean = 3.19) and developed through experience with
music (mean = 3.63).
Analysis of variance was undertaken to explore the differences in response to
each category by the members of each group. No significant differences were found
between respondents from different groups in relation to the total scores for musical
ear; rhythmical ability; listening and understanding; response to music; being able to
play a musical instrument or sing; being able to read music; metacognition or relating
to the origins of musical ability. Significant differences were found in relation to all the
other categories. These are set out in Table 1. Children with limited experience of
involvement with music had the highest response rates to appreciation of music, knowl-
edge about music, evaluation of music, emotional sensitivity, composition and
improvisation and creativity. All the children expressed high response rates to appre-
ciation of music, knowledge and evaluation. Musicians expressed the strongest
agreement that musical ability was related to communication, ensemble skills, emo-
tional sensitivity and the organisation of sound.
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Hallam & Shaw
Figure 1 : Mean
Discussion
The findings reported above indicate that while there are differences in concep-
tions of musical ability depending on the extent of respondents' involvement in active
music making there is considerable agreement in relation to particular aspects of musi-
cal ability. While some of these reflect elements assessed in traditional musical ability
tests, e.g. sense of rhythm, many do not, e.g. communication, emotional sensitivity,
motivation and personal commitment to music. Responses also indicated a stronger
perception that musical ability is learned rather than innate and that it develops through
interaction with the environment.
The evidence supports the findings from the earlier qualitative study (Hallam
and Prince, in press) in that it indicates that there are different conceptions of the nature
of musical ability depending on the extent of involvement with active music making,
in the case of school pupils of an extra-curricular nature. Most of the children gave
strong positive responses to statements about musical ability that reflected the activi-
ties that they undertake within the English National Curriculum, e.g. appreciation of
music, knowledge about music, evaluation of music. These responses tended to be
stronger in pupils with little or no involvement in extra-curricular activities. Musicians
emphasised those aspects of music ability which go beyond being able to play or sing,
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106
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Hallam & Shaw
e.g. communicat
sound. This sugg
musical individu
able to play or s
emotional sensiti
ception of musica
which might be
qualitative study
between musicia
However, the fo
previous study h
extent of variab
cians' conception
generated their
There are some
groups was very
musical ability b
needed. This will
ing structure of
also limited in t
culture. Further
mental differen
research would s
difficult for som
pupils, with a qu
Interviews with
and musical abili
to their experien
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