Part I Chapter 5: The Western and Eastern Concepts of Self - David Ho (1995) described the Western self as an individualistic

an individualistic self that

- The Western conceptualization of the self is divided into 3 periods of is deeply aware of itself, its uniqueness, sense of direction, purpose, and
historical development while the Eastern concepts of the self are volition.
presented based on the four great systems of Eastern thought: - Self is located at the center within the individual which the world is
Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. perceived by/through it.
- The Western and Eastern perspectives share their own contributions - The self is also seen as an entity distinct from other selves and all other
towards understanding the self. entities.
A. Western concept of the self - The self belongs to the individual and to no other.
- Geertz defines the Western concept of self as “a bounded, unique, more - As a consequence of this complete ownership of self, it becomes a
or less integrated motivational and cognitive universe, a dynamic center sovereign subject possessing a sense of personal control.
of awareness, emotion, judgment, and action organized into a - If all things are well, a coherent and stable self persists.
distinctive whole and set contrastively both against other such wholes - The Western self is the measure of all things, that is, the source of all
and against its social and natural background…” reflections.
- This construction of an autonomous, unitary, and stable self in the West - Frank Johnson is the one who traces the earliest historical roots of the
is in a contrasting assumption that non-western, such as eastern people, Western concept of the self.
do not possess individuated self that is differentiated from the “other” - Experimental psychology came into prominence during the mid-19th
- The separate self is likely to be stronger in individuals raised in Century and put the concept of self within the social-interactionist
individualistic Western societies. framework.
- Definition of the Western concept according to Frank Johnson (1985) - The growth of sociology, anthropology, and psychology in the late 19th
1) Western Self as Analytic Century saw the emergence of various concept of the self.
 The Western way of thinking is analytic-deductive with emphasis on Note: The Historical Development of the Western Concept of Self
the causal links(part-to-whole relationships) 1) Stage 1 (Pre-Christian times until 1850)
 One must categorize and make distinctions to pursue cause. - There were philosophical and theological attempts to characterize the
2) Western Self as Monotheistic self through the concepts of soul and mind with emphasis on conscious
 Belief in one supreme being coexisting with the universe condenses experience of the individual, distinction between physical and mental
the supernatural and human capabilities into bipolarity of both nature of man (mind-body dualism), and the causality of human
qualities of existence (beauty/ugly; kind/cruel; sacred/profane; behavior.
strong/weak) and categories of identity or experience (God/Satan; 2) Stage 2 (1850-1940)
body/soul; love/lust; sinner/saint) - Establishment of experimental psychology in mid-19th century led to a
3) Western Self as Individualistic change from abstract concepts of soul and mind to observable and
 Western individualism shows the coexistence of favorable and measurable aspects of human faculties.
unfavorable conditions inherent in personal freedom. Although the - The concept of self re-emerged within the social-interactionist
right to individual freedom provides opportunities for self- framework in the early 1900s.
fulfillment, it also increases the likelihood of experiencing alienation 3) Stage 3 (1940-present)
and frustration. - There is multidirectional and continuous development of concept of
4) Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic self:
 The Western way of thinking is focused on material “things” and  Sociological and psychological theories of self includes all the 3
favors a rational-empirical approach over magical and superstitious levels of self (inner self, interpersonal self, and social self)
explanations of immaterial “things”
  Existentialists and phenomenologists, both in philosophy and  If you do good things, you will be rewarded, if you do bad, you will
psychology, engaged in holistic approach integrating the inner, be punished.
interpersonal, and social aspects of self.  Basically, the individual is the only one responsible for the
 At present, there is convergence in some conceptualizations of the consequences of his/her actions.
self among psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists,  Hindus believe that Atman, being an immortal soul, continues to be
philosophers, and linguists whose studies focus on the actual, reincarnated from lifetime to lifetime until it’s freed from the cycle
multivariate, and situational contexts of the self that gives new of rebirth and reaches a state of nirvana or non-birth.
frameworks and methodologies.  Karma does not end with a body’s death, so its influence may
B. Eastern concept of self extend through incarnation of the soul.
- In this, the philosophy and religion are twisted together. Note: People cannot change the fact that they are exactly what they are
- Eastern major religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism supposed to be in life. In present lifetime, they can change what they
- These 4 religions are the common representatives of the Eastern will become in future lives.
thoughts. 2) Buddhism
- These Eastern intellectual traditions differ greatly in features and  Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) is the founder of Buddhism.
approaches to various issues about selfhood. (Eastern though is  The root word of Buddhism id “budh” meaning “awake”.
described as pluralistic)  To be awake may imply that opening the eyes would lead to
- Even though these 4 systems of Eastern thoughts differ in their understanding more about the self and the world.
approaches about the concept of self, they share the same goal (to  Every person has the seed of enlightenment, hence, the potential to
teach how to become a perfect person. be a Buddha, but the seed should be nurtured.
- The Self in 4 great systems of Eastern thought:  The “Four Noble Truths”, which are the basic principles of
1) Hinduism Buddhism:
 Hindu concept of the self is expounded in Vedanta, a major school  Life is suffering (dukkha)
of Indian thought based on Upanishads, the classical Indian  Suffering is caused by attachment to desires (samudaya)
philosophical treatises.  Suffering can be eliminated (nirodha)
 According to the classical Indian philosophical thought, Brahman is  Elimination of suffering is through the practice of the Eightfold Path
an absolute reality, and Atman (soul or spirit), the true knowledge (magga)
of self, is identical to Brahman.  The “Eightfold Path”: Right view; Right aspiration; Right speech;
 Vedanta characterizes human suffering as the result of failure to Right action; Right livelihood; Right effort; Right mindfulness; Right
realize the distinction between the true self (permanent and concentration
changing) and the non-true self (impermanent and changes  Man is just a title for the totality of the five parts (matter, sensation,
continually). perception, mental constructs, and consciousness) that compose
 The goal of a person is to have knowledge about the true reality, the individual, however, each of the parts distinctly is not man.
which is the Brahman.  Man has no self or soul.
 Self-realization is being united to all-embracing Brahman, but, the  There is only nothing and all else is an illusion; There is nothing
realization of true selfhood will result in a complete dissolution of permanent but change.
individual identity.  The ignorance of the impermanence of everything may lead to an
 The law of karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism. illusion of selfhood.
 All actions are subject to karma.  This primal ignorance is the cause of life’s misery, births, and
 Individual actions will lead to either good or bad outcomes in one’s rebirths.
life.
  The perfect moral-intellectual knowledge becomes powerful in the  The “Tao” refers to the Nature that is the foundation of all that
sense that it eliminates the cause of one’s misery and awakens one exists. The self is not bounded by time and space.
from the illusion of selfhood.  The perfect man has no self.
 The ideal is to experience nirvana (literally meaning “blowing out”  Selflessness is attained when the distinction between “I” and
as of a lamp) which is a state of transcendence devoid of self- “other” dissolves.
reverence.  As a result, the individual may behave spontaneously, just going
 This state of transcendence can be achieved through meditation. with the flow of the Tao.
3) Confucianism  The selfless person leads to a balanced life, in harmony with both
 The Confucian doctrines are found in Analects (conversations of nature and society.
Confucius).  Taoists believe that simplicity, spontaneity, and harmony with
 The core of Confucian thought is the Golden Rule or the principle of nature should govern one’s life.
reciprocity: “Do not do to others what you would not want others  There should be unity and harmony among opposing elements: Yin
to do to you.” and Yang
 The basic virtue or proper conduct is knowing how to act in relation Note: There is oneness of Tao.
to others.
 The most important relationships are the “Five Cardinal
Relationships”: Dichotomy of Western and Eastern Conceptions of Self
 Between the ruler and minister - In Eastern thought, the emphasis is relational rather individualistic.
 Between father and son - The self is considered not in isolation but in relation to others, society,
 Between husband and wife and the universe.
 Between brothers - Eastern thoughts aim at transformations in consciousness, feelings,
 Between friends emotions, and one’s relation to other people and the world.
 Therefore, the self is known as a relational self. - The theories of Eastern philosophers demonstrate a sociocentric view
 The individual’s greatest mission of attaining self-realization presupposing that the self exists as an entity within the concrete
wherein self-cultivation is instrumental. situation or role occupied by the person (Robbins, 2012)
 Self-cultivation could be accomplished by knowing one’s role in - In Western thought, it tends to view the self as autonomous, unitary,
society and acting accordingly. and stable (van Meijl, 2008)
 Moral character is perfected by continuously taking every - Western thoughts about the self have been examined by renowned
opportunity to improve oneself in thought and action. theorists like Freud, Erikson, Bandura, Rogers, Jung, James, Mead,
 There will be harmonious relationships when individuals follow the Cooley, etc.
rules of proper social behavior. - Quito seeks to place Western and Eastern theories of the self into
 The individual is set to respond on what is socially required rather perspective by making some comparisons and contrast among them.
that to one’s personal needs and goals. (Garcia, 2013) (Quito, 1991)
 The self is a subdued self. - For instance, Asian thought looks at life in the 3 mode cycle of birth,
4) Taoism death, and rebirth.
 Taoism is a Chinese counterculture. - On the other hand, Western concept of life is linear as it is concerned
 Taoists reject the Confucian idea of a relational self. with absolute beginnings or endings in time and space.
 Based on the perception of Taoists, the self is an extension of the - Asian thought does not dichotomize between one’s way of thinking and
cosmos, not of social relationships. one’s way of living.
 The self is described as one of the limitless forms of the Tao.
- This implies that one’s thought, action, and speech should be in - Has made use of reason rather than faith to pursue wisdom.
harmony. b. Eastern Thought
- Asian thought considers intuition as a valid means to gain wisdom, it - Has trusted intuition and is often associated with religious beliefs.
does not rely mainly on reason and logic which are the more popular  Modes of Cognition
sources of knowledge in the West. a. Western Thought
Note: Another distinction between Western and Eastern thought is - Analytic and deductive
about nature and self. b. Eastern Thought
- According to Sarza (2013), one unique feature of Eastern philosophy is - Synthetic and inductive
its great reverence for nature. (It is believed that nature promotes  Emphasis
introspection into one’s inner life and that wisdom and enlightenment a. Western Thought
can be attained by observing nature) - Distinctions and oppositions
- According to Peacock (1986), the modern Western culture tends to set b. Eastern Thought
the individual against nature, that is, to struggle against nature which is - Commonalities and harmonies
a dangerous enemy. (This viewpoint can be traced from Christian  View of the Universe and Life
theologies that consider nature as fallen and evil. However, it has been a. Western Thought
argued that the individual and nature are part of a single whole. - Linear
Note: The chart bellows categorizes the Western and Eastern b. Eastern Thought
conceptualizations of self, perspectives, and approaches: - Circular
 View of Self
“Comparative Matrix of Western and Eastern Approaches to Understanding
a. Western Thought
the Self”
- Egocentric
 Frame of Reference b. Eastern Thought
a.
Western Thought - Sociocentric
-There is a separation between philosophy and religion or spirituality  Subject-Object Distinction (Bipolar Qualities of Self)
b.
Eastern Thought a. Western Thought
-Religion and philosophy are intertwined. - Duality of self-as-subject (knower) and self-as-object (known)
 Examples of Schools of Thought/Belief Systems b. Eastern Thought
a. Western Thought - Simultaneously subject and object (the experience of self as both the
- Scholasticism, Rationalism, Empiricism, and Phenomenology knower and known)
b. Eastern Thought  Theological View
- Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism a. Western Thought
 Notable Philosophers - Monotheistic
a. Western Thought b. Eastern Thought
- Greek Triumvirate: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Rene Descartes, John - Polytheistic (plural)
Locke  Ideal
b. Eastern Thought a. Western Thought
- Confucius, Lao Tzu, Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) - Self-actualization through personal growth
 Source of Knowledge b. Eastern Thought
a. Western Thought - To achieve a balanced life and find one’s role in society.
 Cultural Framework
a. Western Thought
- Individualism
 The self is a distinct and autonomous entity; it is an independent
part of the universe and the society.
 Independence and self-reliance are core values
 Prioritize personal goals over group goals
 Characterized by exchange relationship
 Uniqueness, sense of direction, purpose and volition are the
acknowledged features of self
 Personal success is important
b. Eastern Thought
- Collectivism
 The self is an integrated part of the universe and the society
 Interdependence and connectedness are core values
 No distinctions between personal and group goals, or if there is a
distinction, the personal goals are subordinate to the group goals.
 Characterized by communal relationship
 Conformity and obedience are essential social behaviors
 Duty towards all others is important
Note: The Western and Eastern perspectives of the self grew from a
combination of sociology, anthropology, psychology, theology, and religion.
Note: The Western and Eastern thoughts attempt to combine the good
elements of the different disciplines to totally understand the self.