Maurya Empire

The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power based in
Magadha and founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated the Indian subcontinent
between 322 and 185 BCE. Comprising the majority of South Asia, the Maurya Empire was
centralized by the conquest of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and its capital city was located at
Pataliputra (modern Patna).[6][7] The empire was the largest political entity that has ever
existed in the Indian subcontinent, extending over 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million
square miles) at its zenith under Ashoka.[8]

Chandragupta Maurya raised an army, with the assistance of Chanakya (also known as
Kauṭilya),[9] and overthrew the Nanda Empire in c. 322 BCE. Chandragupta rapidly expanded
his power westwards across central and western India by conquering the satraps left by
Alexander the Great, and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied northwestern India.[10]
The Mauryan Empire then defeated Seleucus I, a diadochus and founder of the Seleucid Empire
during the Seleucid–Mauryan war, thus acquiring territory west of the Indus River.[11][12]

At its greatest extent, the empire stretched along the natural boundary of the Himalayas, to the
east into Assam, to the west into Balochistan (southwest Pakistan and southeast Iran) and the
Hindu Kush mountains of what is now eastern Afghanistan.[13] The dynasty expanded into
India's southern regions[14][15] by the reign of the emperors Pushkar and Bindusara, but it
excluded Kalinga (modern Odisha), until it was conquered by Ashoka.[16] It declined for about
50 years after Ashoka's rule, and dissolved in 185 BCE with the foundation of the Shunga
dynasty in Magadha.

Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and
economic activities all thrived and expanded across South Asia due to the creation of a single
and efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Maurya dynasty built the
Grand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and longest trade networks, connecting the Indian
subcontinent with Central Asia.[17] After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half
a century of centralized rule under Ashoka. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism
increased socio-religious reform across South Asia, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism and
sponsorship of Buddhist missionaries allowed for the expansion of that faith into Sri Lanka,
northwest India, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, Egypt, and Hellenistic Europe.[18]

The population of the empire has been estimated to be about 50–60 million, making the
Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of antiquity.[19][20] Archaeologically, the
period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware
(NBPW). The Arthashastra[21] and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources of written
records of Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath is the national emblem of
the modern Republic of India.

History[edit]

The Maurya dynasty ruled for 137 years[28] The cultural influence of the Hellenistic kingdoms
founded in the Persianate regions of Gandhara, and parts of India and Kashmir, influenced the
artistic style and culture of these places.[29] After the death of Alexander the Great, the founder
of the Maurya dynasty, Candragupta Maurya, reconquered the Indus Valley and northwest
India.[30] Alexander's armies were forced to retreat back to Gandhara.[29] Chandragupta then
might have come into conflict with Seleucus who ceded the Indus and Swat Valleys, Gandhara,
and east Arachosia.[30] for 500 elephants which he would use in the Wars of the Diadochi.

Chadragupta's grandson Ashoka fought a series of campaigns to extend Mauryan rule over
northern and central India. There are no Greek and Persian influences in the works
commissioned by Ashoka after his conversion to Buddhism.[29]

Founding of the Dynasty[edit]

See also: List of Mauryan rulers

The Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, with help from Chanakya, at
Taxila, a noted center of learning. According to several legends, Chanakya travelled to
Magadha, a kingdom that was large and militarily powerful and feared by its neighbours, but
was insulted by its king Dhana Nanda, of the Nanda dynasty. Chanakya swore revenge and
vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire.[31] Meanwhile, the conquering armies of Alexander the
Great refused to cross the Beas River and advance further eastward, deterred by the prospect
of battling Magadha. Alexander returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west
of the Indus River. Soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented
into independent kingdoms led by his generals.[32]

The Greek generals Eudemus and Peithon ruled in the Indus Valley until around 317 BCE,
when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor)
orchestrated a rebellion to drive out the Greek governors, and subsequently brought the Indus
Valley under the control of his new seat of power in Magadha.[10]
Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On one hand, a
number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa (Signet ring of Rakshasa
– Rakshasa was the prime minister of Magadha) by Vishakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry
and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Maurya's are referred
to in the earliest Buddhist texts, Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to
make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as
"Sandrokottos". As a young man he is said to have met Alexander.[33] He is also said to have
met the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape.[34] Chanakya's original
intentions were to train army under Chandragupta's command.

Conquest of Magadha[edit]

Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha.
Using his intelligence network, Chandragupta gathered many young men from across Magadha
and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana Nanda, plus
the resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men included the
former general of Taxila, accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King
Parvataka, his son Malayaketu, and the rulers of small states. The Macedonians (described as
Yona or Yavana in Indian sources) may then have participated, together with other groups, in
the armed uprising of Chandragupta Maurya against the Nanda dynasty.[36][37] The
Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of
Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvataka, often identified with
Porus,[38][39] although this identification is not accepted by all historians.[40] This
Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite and powerful army made up of Yavanas
(Greeks), Kambojas, Shakas (Scythians), Kiratas (Himalayans), Parasikas (Persians) and
Bahlikas (Bactrians) who took Pataliputra (also called Kusumapura, "The City of
Flowers"):[41]

"Kusumapura was besieged from every direction by the forces of Parvata and Chandragupta:
Shakas, Yavanas, Kiratas, Kambojas, Parasikas, Bahlikas and others, assembled on the advice
of Chanakya" in Mudrarakshasa 2 [42][41]

Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya came up with a strategy. A battle was announced and
the Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage with Maurya's
forces. Maurya's general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He also
managed to create an atmosphere of civil war in the kingdom, which culminated in the death
of the heir to the throne. Chanakya managed to win over popular sentiment. Ultimately Nanda
resigned, handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was never heard of again.
Chanakya contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and made him understand that his loyalty
was to Magadha, not to the Nanda dynasty, insisting that he continue in office. Chanakya also
reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and
destroy the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakya's reasoning, and Chandragupta Maurya was
legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became Chandragupta's chief
advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of an elder statesman.

Chandragupta Maurya[edit]

After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, Chandragupta led a series of campaigns in
305 BCE to retake satrapies in the Indus Valley and northwest India.[30] When Alexander's
remaining forces were routed, returning westwards, Seleucus I Nicator fought to defend these
territories. Not many details of the campaigns are known from ancient sources. Seleucus was
defeated and retreated into the mountainous region of Afghanistan.[43]

The two rulers concluded a peace treaty in 303 BCE, including a marital alliance. Under its
terms, Chandragupta received the satrapies of Paropamisadae (Kamboja and Gandhara) and
Arachosia (Kandhahar) and Gedrosia (Balochistan). Seleucus I received the 500 war elephants
that were to have a decisive role in his victory against western Hellenistic kings at the Battle
of Ipsus in 301 BCE. Diplomatic relations were established and several Greeks, such as the
historian Megasthenes, Deimakos and Dionysius resided at the Mauryan court.[citation
needed]

Megasthenes in particular was a notable Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta

Maurya.[44] According to Arrian, ambassador Megasthenes (c.350–c.290 BCE) lived in
Arachosia and travelled to Pataliputra.[45] Megasthenes' description of Mauryan society as
freedom-loving gave Seleucus a means to avoid invasion, however, underlying Seleucus'
decision was the improbability of success. In later years, Seleucus' successors maintained
diplomatic relations with the Empire based on similar accounts from returning travellers.[30]

Chandragupta established a strong centralised state with an administration at Pataliputra,

which, according to Megasthenes, was "surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and
570 towers". Aelian, although not expressly quoting Megasthenes nor mentionning Pataliputra,
described Indian palaces as superior in splendor to Persia's Susa or Ectabana.[46] The
architecture of the city seems to have had many similarities with Persian cities of the
period.[47]

Chandragupta's son Bindusara extended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern
India. The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam literature described how areas south
of the Deccan Plateau which comprised Tamil country was invaded by the Maurya army using
troops from Karnataka. Mamulanar states that Vadugar (people who resided in Andhra-
Karnataka regions immediately to the north of Tamil Nadu) formed the vanguard of the
Mauryan army.[23][48] He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named Megasthenes.[49]
According to Plutarch Chandragupta Maurya subdued entire India, Justin also observed that
chandragupta maurya was ''in possession of India'', this is corroborated by Tamil sangam
literature which mentions about Mauryan invasion with their south Indian allies and defeat of
their rivals at Podiyil hill in Tirunelveli district in present-day Tamil Nadu.[50][51]

Chandragupta renounced his throne and followed Jain teacher Bhadrabahu.[52][53][54] He is

said to have lived as an ascetic at Shravanabelagola for several years before fasting to death,
as per the Jain practice of sallekhana.[55]

Bindusara[edit]

Bindusara was born to Chandragupta, the founder of the Mauryan Empire. This is attested by
several sources, including the various Puranas and the Mahavamsa.[56][full citation needed]
He is attested by the Buddhist texts such as Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa ("Bindusaro"); the Jain
texts such as Parishishta-Parvan; as well as the Hindu texts such as Vishnu Purana
("Vindusara").[57][58] According to the 12th century Jain writer Hemachandra's Parishishta-
Parvan, the name of Bindusara's mother was Durdhara.[59] Some Greek sources also mention
him by the name "Amitrochates" or its variations.[60][61]

Historian Upinder Singh estimates that Bindusara ascended the throne around 297 BCE.[48]
Bindusara, just 22 years old, inherited a large empire that consisted of what is now, Northern,
Central and Eastern parts of India along with parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Bindusara
extended this empire to the southern part of India, as far as what is now known as Karnataka.
He brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus conquered almost all of the
Indian peninsula (he is said to have conquered the 'land between the two seas' – the peninsular
region between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea). Bindusara didn't conquer the friendly
Tamil kingdoms of the Cholas, ruled by King Ilamcetcenni, the Pandyas, and Cheras. Apart
from these southern states, Kalinga (modern Odisha) was the only kingdom in India that didn't
form the part of Bindusara's empire.[62] It was later conquered by his son Ashoka, who served
as the viceroy of Ujjaini during his father's reign, which highlights the importance of the
town.[63][64]

Bindusara's life has not been documented as well as that of his father Chandragupta or of his
son Ashoka. Chanakya continued to serve as prime minister during his reign. According to the
medieval Tibetan scholar Taranatha who visited India, Chanakya helped Bindusara "to destroy
the nobles and kings of the sixteen kingdoms and thus to become absolute master of the territory
between the eastern and western oceans."[65] During his rule, the citizens of Taxila revolted
twice. The reason for the first revolt was the maladministration of Susima, his eldest son. The
reason for the second revolt is unknown, but Bindusara could not suppress it in his lifetime. It
was crushed by Ashoka after Bindusara's death.[66]

Bindusara maintained friendly diplomatic relations with the Hellenic World. Deimachus was
the ambassador of Seleucid emperor Antiochus I at Bindusara's court.[67] Diodorus states that
the king of Palibothra (Pataliputra, the Mauryan capital) welcomed a Greek author, Iambulus.
This king is usually identified as Bindusara.[67] Pliny states that the Egyptian king
Philadelphus sent an envoy named Dionysius to India.[68][69] According to Sailendra Nath
Sen, this appears to have happened during Bindusara's reign.[67]

Unlike his father Chandragupta (who at a later stage converted to Jainism), Bindusara believed
in the Ajivika sect. Bindusara's guru Pingalavatsa (Janasana) was a Brahmin[70] of the Ajivika
sect. Bindusara's wife, Queen Subhadrangi (Queen Dharma/ Aggamahesi) was a Brahmin[71]
also of the Ajivika sect from Champa (present Bhagalpur district). Bindusara is credited with
giving several grants to Brahmin monasteries (Brahmana-bhatto).[72]

Historical evidence suggests that Bindusara died in the 270s BCE. According to Upinder Singh,
Bindusara died around 273 BCE.[48] Alain Daniélou believes that he died around 274
BCE.[65] Sailendra Nath Sen believes that he died around 273-272 BCE, and that his death
was followed by a four-year struggle of succession, after which his son Ashoka became the
emperor in 269-268 BCE.[67] According to the Mahavamsa, Bindusara reigned for 28
years.[73] The Vayu Purana, which names Chandragupta's successor as "Bhadrasara", states
that he ruled for 25 years.[74]

Ashoka[edit]
As a young prince, Ashoka (r. 272–232 BCE) was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts
in Ujjain and Takshashila. As monarch he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the
Empire's superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga (262–
261 BCE) which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Ashoka used Kalinga to project
power over a large region by building a fortification there and securing it as a possession.[75]
Although Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and
civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare,
including over 10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely
affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation,
Ashoka began feeling remorse. Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka
embraced the teachings of Buddhism, and renounced war and violence. He sent out
missionaries to travel around Asia and spread Buddhism to other countries.[citation needed]

Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports activity and
ending indentured and forced labor (many thousands of people in war-ravaged Kalinga had
been forced into hard labour and servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army,
to keep the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across
Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works
building campaign across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made
Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an
idealized figure of inspiration in modern India.[citation needed]

The Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as
far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (Nellore District), Ashoka's edicts state his
policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were
written in Greek, and one in both Greek and Aramaic. Ashoka's edicts refer to the Greeks,
Kambojas, and Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They also attest
to Ashoka's having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The
edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the Hellenic world at the time such as Amtiyoko
(Antiochus), Tulamaya (Ptolemy), Amtikini (Antigonos), Maka (Magas) and Alikasudaro
(Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism.[citation needed] The Edicts also accurately
locate their territory "600 yojanas away" (a yojanas being about 7 miles), corresponding to the
distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).[76]

Decline[edit]
Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. He was succeeded by
Dasharatha Maurya, who was Ashoka's grandson. None of Ashoka's sons could ascend the
throne after him. Mahendra, his first born, was on to spread Buddhism in the world. Kunala
Maurya was blind hence couldn't ascend the throne and Tivala, son of Kaurwaki, died even
earlier than Ashoka. Another son, Jalauka, does not have much story behind him.

The empire lost many territories under Dasharatha, which were later reconquered by Samprati,
Kunala's son. Post Samprati, the Mauryas slowly lost many territories. In 180 BCE, Brihadratha
Maurya, was killed by his general Pushyamitra Shunga in a military parade without any heir.
Hence, the great Maurya empire finally ended, giving rise to the Shunga Empire.

Shunga coup (185 BCE)[edit]

Buddhist records such as the Ashokavadana write that the assassination of Brihadratha and the
rise of the Shunga empire led to a wave of religious persecution for Buddhists,[77] and a
resurgence of Hinduism. According to Sir John Marshall,[78] Pushyamitra may have been the
main author of the persecutions, although later Shunga kings seem to have been more
supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such as Etienne Lamotte[79] and Romila
Thapar,[80] among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favour of the
allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the
atrocities have been exaggerated.

Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)[edit]

Main article: Indo-Greek Kingdom

The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion
followed. The Greco-Bactrian king, Demetrius, capitalized on the break-up, and he conquered
southern Afghanistan and parts of northwestern India around 180 BCE, forming the Indo-
Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and
make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one
of their kings, Menander, became a famous figure of Buddhism; he was to establish a new
capital of Sagala, the modern city of Sialkot. However, the extent of their domains and the
lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they
retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their
successes against indigenous powers such as the Shungas, Satavahanas, and Kalingas are
unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamed Indo-Scythians, brought about the demise
of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region of
Mathura, and Gujarat.[citation needed]

Administration[edit]

The Empire was divided into four provinces, with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From
Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the
west), Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). The head of the provincial
administration was the Kumara (royal prince), who governed the provinces as king's
representative. The kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers. This
organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and his
Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers).[citation needed]

Historians theorise that the organisation of the Empire was in line with the extensive
bureaucracy described by Kautilya in the Arthashastra: a sophisticated civil service governed
everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the
empire was made possible by what appears to have been one of the largest armies in the world
during the Iron Age.[81] According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000
infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war elephants besides followers and
attendants.[82] A vast espionage system collected intelligence for both internal and external
security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka
nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instil stability
and peace across West and South Asia.[citation needed]

Local Government[edit]

Arthashastra and Megasthenes accounts of Pataliputra describe the intricate municipal system
formed by Maurya empire to govern its cities. A city counsel made up of thirty commissioners
was divided into six committees or boards which governed the city. The first board fixed wages
and looked after provided goods, second board made arrangement for foreign dignitaries,
tourists and businessmen, third board made records and registrations, fourth looked after
manufactured goodsand sale of commodities, fifth board regulated trade, issued licenses and
checked weights and measurements, sixth board collected sales taxes. Some cities such as taxila
had autonomy to issue their own coins. The city counsel had officers who looked after public
welfare such as maintenance of roads, public buildings, markets, hospitals, educational
institutions etc.[83] The official head of the village was Gramika (in towns Nagarika).[84] The
city counsel also had some magisterial powers.
Economy[edit]

For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a common
economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity.
The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional
chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were
freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationally
administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in the
Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network
of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and security for
merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional
private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small
areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works
and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to
new-found political unity and internal peace.[citation needed]

Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, an international network
of trade expanded. The Khyber Pass, on the modern boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan,
became a strategically important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek
states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade
also extended through the Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk
goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The external world came across new scientific
knowledge and technology with expanding trade with the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka also
sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and
other public works. The easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including those
regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity
across the Empire.[citation needed]

In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is analogous to the Roman
Empire of several centuries later. Both had extensive trade connections and both had
organizations similar to corporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were
largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial
entities. These existed purely for private commerce and developed before the Mauryan Empire
itself.[85][unreliable source?]

Religion[edit]
Jainism[edit]

Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism after retiring, when he renounced his throne and
material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a disciple of
the Jain monk Acharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous but
self-purifying Jain ritual of santhara (fast unto death), at Shravana Belgola in
Karnataka.[87][54][88][53] Samprati, the grandson of Ashoka, also patronized Jainism.
Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monks like Suhastin and he is said to have
built 125,000 derasars across India.[89] Some of them are still found in the towns of
Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain, and Palitana.[citation needed] It is also said that just like
Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers and preachers to Greece, Persia and the Middle East for the
spread of Jainism, but, to date, no research has been done in this area.[90][91]

Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta and Samprati are
credited for the spread of Jainism in South India. Hundreds of thousands of temples and stupas
are said to have been erected during their reigns.

Buddhism[edit]

Magadha, the centre of the empire, was also the birthplace of Buddhism. Ashoka initially
practised Hinduism but later embraced Buddhism; following the Kalinga War, he renounced
expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the Arthashastra on the use of
force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels. Ashoka
sent a mission led by his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka, whose king
Tissa was so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism
the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East
Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries and schools, as well as the publication
of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas
across India, such as Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity of
Buddhism in Afghanistan, Thailand and North Asia including Siberia. Ashoka helped convene
the Third Buddhist Council of India's and South Asia's Buddhist orders near his capital, a
council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion. Indian
merchants embraced Buddhism and played a large role in spreading the religion across the
Mauryan Empire.[92]

Architectural remains[edit]
The greatest monument of this period, executed in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, was the
old palace at Paliputra, modern Kumhrar in Patna. Excavations have unearthed the remains of
the palace, which is thought to have been an group of several buildings, the most important of
which was an immense pillared hall supported on a high substratum of timbers. The pillars
were set in regular rows, thus dividing the hall into a number of smaller square bays. The
number of columns is 80, each about 7 meters high. According to the eyewitness account of
Megasthenes, the palace was chiefly constructed of timber, and was considered to exceed in
splendour and magnificence the palaces of Susa and Ecbatana, its gilded pillars being adorned
with golden vines and silver birds. The buildings stood in an extensive park studded with fish
ponds and furnished with a great variety of ornamental trees and
shrubs.[93][better source needed] Kauṭilya's Arthashastra also gives the method of palace
construction from this period. Later fragments of stone pillars, including one nearly complete,
with their round tapering shafts and smooth polish, indicate that Ashoka was responsible for
the construction of the stone columns which replaced the earlier wooden ones.[citation needed]

During the Ashokan period, stonework was of a highly diversified order and comprised lofty
free-standing pillars, railings of stupas, lion thrones and other colossal figures. The use of stone
had reached such great perfection during this time that even small fragments of stone art were
given a high lustrous polish resembling fine enamel. This period marked the beginning of the
Buddhist school of architecture. Ashoka was responsible for the construction of several stupas,
which were large domes and bearing symbols of Buddha. The most important ones are located
at Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati, Bodhgaya and Nagarjunakonda. The most widespread
examples of Mauryan architecture are the Ashoka pillars and carved edicts of Ashoka, often
exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the Indian
subcontinent.[94][better source needed]

The peacock was a dynastic symbol of Mauryans, as depicted by Ashoka's pillars at

Nandangarh and Sanchi Stupa.[25]

The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya dynasty;
being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas
towards forests, their denizens, and fauna in general is of interest.[97]

The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as resources. For them, the most important forest product
was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but
also battle-elephants; these played a role in the defeat of Seleucus, one of Alexander's former
generals. The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took
less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them. Kautilya's Arthashastra
contains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the
responsibilities of officials such as the Protector of the Elephant Forests.[98]

On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The
Office of the Chief Elephant Forester should with the help of guards protect the elephants in
any terrain. The slaying of an elephant is punishable by death.

— Arthashastra

The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and
tigers for skins. Elsewhere the Protector of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers
and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle.[citation needed]

The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs
and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled
them with bribery and political subjugation. They employed some of them, the food-gatherers
or aranyaca to guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden
relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.[99]

When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant
changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even
relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history[failed verification] to advocate
conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts
proclaim that many followed the king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of
them proudly states:[99]

Our king killed very few animals.

— Edict on Fifth Pillar

However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention
of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-
breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the
common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.[99]

Foundation of the Empire[edit]

Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya
Empire. Plutarch reports that Chandragupta Maurya met with Alexander the Great, probably
around Taxila in the northwest:[100]

"Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often
said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since
its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth". Plutarch 62-
4[101][100]

Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 317–316 BCE)[edit]

Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the
Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as "Prefects" in Western sources) left in place
after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have been Eudemus, ruler in the western Punjab
until his departure in 317 BCE or Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the
Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE.[citation needed]

"India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of
servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in
servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he
has liberated from foreign domination" Justin XV.4.12–13[102]

"Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild elephant went
to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader.
Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was
preparing future glory." Justin XV.4.19[103]

Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)[edit]

Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of the Asian portion of Alexander's former empire,
conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus
(Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered into a
confrontation with Emperor Chandragupta:

"Always lying in wait for the neighbouring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council,
he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria,
Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been
subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the
most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus
was subject to Seleucus". Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55[104]

Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the
Indian Emperor as he failed to conquer any territory, and in fact was forced to surrender much
that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement
and through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of
territories to Chandragupta, including eastern Afghanistan and Balochistan.[citation needed]

Marital alliance[edit]

Chandragupta and Seleucus concluded a peace treaty and a marital alliance in 303 BCE.
Chandragupta received vast territories and in a return gave Seleucus 500 war
elephants,[105][106][107][108][109] a military asset which would play a decisive role at the
Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE.[110] In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador,
Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court
at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar). Later, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic
Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an
ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[111][better source needed]

Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus,
including the Hindu Kush, modern-day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of
Pakistan.[112][113] Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the
inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandahar in southern Afghanistan.

“ He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king
of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an
understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship. ”

“ After having made a treaty with him (Sandrakotos) and put in order the Orient
situation, Seleucos went to war against Antigonus. ”

— Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum, libri XLIV, XV.4.15

The treaty on "Epigamia" implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized
at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common
people, or both.[citation needed]

Exchange of presents[edit]

Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus
exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:[60]

"And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as
to make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the
presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like
charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to
banish love." Athenaeus of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32[114]

His son Bindusara 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as
having exchanged presents with Antiochus I:[60]

"But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as Aristophanes says,
"There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians,
wrote to Antiochus, entreating him (it is Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and send him
some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in
answer, "The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to
be sold in Greece." Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67[115]

Greek population in India[edit]

An influential and large Greek population was present in the northwest of the Indian
subcontinent under Ashoka's rule, possibly remnants of Alexander's conquests in the Indus
Valley region. In the Rock Edicts of Ashoka, some of them inscribed in Greek, Ashoka states
that the Greeks within his dominion were converted to Buddhism:

"Here in the king's dominion among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the
Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are
following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma." (Rock Edict Number 13)

"Now, in times past (officers) called Mahamatras of morality did not exist before. Mahdmatras
of morality were appointed by me (when I had been) anointed thirteen years. These are
occupied with all sects in establishing morality, in promoting morality, and for the welfare and
happiness of those who are devoted to morality (even) among the Greeks, Kambojas and
Gandharas, and whatever other western borderers (of mine there are)." (Rock Edict Number 5)

The Kandahar Edict of Ashoka, a bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from
Kandahar. Kabul Museum. (Click image for translation).

Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and
Aramaic, has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek,
using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia ("Piety")
as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous "Dharma" of his other Edicts written in Prakrit:[non-
primary source needed]

"Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the
doctrine of) Piety (εὐσέβεια, Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men more
pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing)
living beings, and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have
desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their
intemperance as was in their power; and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders,
in opposition to the past also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better
and more happily". (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli [1])[unreliable source?]

Territories "conquered by the Dharma" according to Major Rock Edict No.13 of Ashoka (260–
218 BCE).[117][118]

Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as recipients
of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remains:

"The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas
(5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four
kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the
Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)." (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock
Edict, S. Dhammika).[non-primary source needed]

Ashoka also encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men and animals, in their
territories:
"Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, and among the
people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far
as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are
neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision
for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for
animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had
them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them
imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of
humans and animals". 2nd Rock Edict[non-primary source needed]

The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism,
as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as
leading Greek ("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa,
XII[119][non-primary source needed]).

Subhagasena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)[edit]

Sophagasenus was an Indian Mauryan ruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek
sources, and named Subhagasena or Subhashasena in Prakrit. His name is mentioned in the list
of Mauryan princes[citation needed], and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant
of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson of Ashoka, or Kunala, the son of Ashoka. He
ruled an area south of the Hindu Kush, possibly in Gandhara. Antiochos III, the Seleucid king,
after having made peace with Euthydemus in Bactria, went to India in 206 BCE and is said to
have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there:

"He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed his friendship with
Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty
altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his
army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king
had agreed to hand over to him". Polybius 11.39[non-primary source needed]

Timeline[edit]

322 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire by overthrowing the Nanda
Dynasty.

317–316 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya conquers the Northwest of the Indian subcontinent.
305–303 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya gains territory from the Seleucid Empire.

298–269 BCE: Reign of Bindusara, Chandragupta's son. He conquers parts of Deccan,

southern India.

269–232 BCE: The Mauryan Empire reaches its height under Ashoka, Chandragupta's
grandson.

261 BCE: Ashoka conquers the kingdom of Kalinga.

250 BCE: Ashoka builds Buddhist stupas and erects pillars bearing inscriptions.

184 BCE: The empire collapses when Brihadratha, the last emperor, is killed by Pushyamitra
Shunga, a Mauryan general and the founder of the Shunga Empire.

In literature[edit]

According to Vicarasreni of Merutunga, Mauryans rose to power in 312 BC.[120]

Notes[edit]

^ Niharranjan Ray; Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya (2000). A Sourcebook of Indian Civilization.

Orient Blackswan. p. 553. ISBN 978-81-250-1871-1. Aśoka is known to have designated his
realm as Jambudvīpa. [...] Two terms, Jambudvīpa and Pṛthvī now appear to have stood for the
[...] Maurya realm.

^ Jump up to: a b Hermann Kulke 2004, p. 69-70.

^ Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C.
to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 132. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959.

^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West
Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 223.
ISSN 1076-156X. Archived from the original on 17 September 2016. Retrieved 16 September
2016.

^ Thanjan, Davis K. (2011). Pebbles. Bookstand Publishing. ISBN 9781589098176.

^ Hermann Kulke 2004, pp. xii, 448.

^ Thapar, Romila (1990). A History of India, Volume 1. Penguin Books. p. 384. ISBN 0-14-
013835-8.

^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West
Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN
1076-156X. Archived from the original on 17 September 2016. Retrieved 16 September 2016

^ Keay, John (2000). India: A History. Grove Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-8021-3797-5.

^ Jump up to: a b R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 31.

^ Seleucus I ceded the territories of Arachosia (modern Kandahar), Gedrosia (modern

Balochistan), and Paropamisadae (or Gandhara). Aria (modern Herat) "has been wrongly
included in the list of ceded satrapies by some scholars [...] on the basis of wrong assessments
of the passage of Strabo [...] and a statement by Pliny." (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, p.
594).

^ John D Grainger 2014, p. 109:Seleucus "must [...] have held Aria", and furthermore, his "son
Antiochos was active there fifteen years later."

^ The account of Strabo indicates that the western-most territory of the empire extended from
the southeastern Hindu Kush, through the region of Kandahar, to coastal Balochistan to the
south of that (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, p. 594).

^ Sri Lanka and the southernmost parts of India (modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala) remained
independent, despite the diplomacy and cultural influence of their larger neighbor to the north
(Schwartzberg 1992, p. 18; Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 68).

^ The empire was once thought to have directly controlled most of the Indian subcontinent
excepting the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large
tribal regions (especially in the Deccan peninsula) that were relatively autonomous. (Kulke &
Rothermund 2004, p. 68-71, as well as Stein 1998, p. 74). "The major part of the Deccan was
ruled by [Mauryan administration]. But in the belt of land on either side of the Nerbudda, the
Godavari and the upper Mahanadi there were, in all probability, certain areas that were
technically outside the limits of the empire proper. Ashoka evidently draws a distinction
between the forests and the inhabiting tribes which are in the dominions (vijita) and peoples on
the border (anta avijita) for whose benefit some of the special edicts were issued. Certain vassal
tribes are specifically mentioned." (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee pp. 275–6)
^ Kalinga had been conquered by the preceding Nanda Dynasty but subsequently broke free
until it was re-conquered by Ashoka, c. 260 BCE. (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee, pp. 204–209,
pp. 270–271)

^ Bhandari, Shirin (5 January 2016). "Dinner on the Grand Trunk Road". Roads & Kingdoms.
Retrieved 19 July 2016.

^ Hermann Kulke 2004, p. 67.

^ Boesche, Roger (1 March 2003). The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His
Arthashastra. p. 11. ISBN 9780739106075.

^ Demeny, Paul George; McNicoll, Geoffrey (May 2003). Encyclopedia of population.

ISBN 9780028656793.

^ "It is doubtful if, in its present shape, [the Arthashastra] is as old as the time of the first
Maurya," as it probably contains layers of text ranging from Maurya times till as late as the
2nd century CE. Nonetheless, "though a comparatively late work, it may be used [...] to confirm
and supplement the information gleaned from earlier sources." (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee
1996, pp.246–7)

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Irfan Habib & Vivekanand Jha 2004, p. 14.

^ Jump up to: a b Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From
the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. ISBN 9788131716779.

^ R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 14.

^ Jump up to: a b R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 15.

^ H. C. Raychaudhuri 1988, p. 140.

^ R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 8.

^ Thapar 2013, p. 296.

^ Jump up to: a b c O'Riley, Michael Kampel (2013). Art Beyond the West. Person Education.
p. 65.

^ Jump up to: a b c d From Polis to Empire, the Ancient World, C. 800 B.C.-A.D. 500.
Greenwood Publishing. 2002. ISBN 0313309426. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
^ Sugandhi, Namita Sanjay (2008). Between the Patterns of History: Rethinking Mauryan
Imperial Interaction in the Southern Deccan. pp. 88–89. ISBN 9780549744412.

^ Paul J. Kosmin 2014, p. 31.

^ :"Androcottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often
said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since
its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth." Plutarch 62-3
Plutarch 62-3

^ :"He was of humble Indian to a change of rule." Justin XV.4.15 "Fuit hic humili quidem
genere natus, sed ad regni potestatem maiestate numinis inpulsus. Quippe cum procacitate sua
Nandrum regem offendisset, interfici a rege iussus salutem pedum ceieritate quaesierat. (Ex
qua fatigatione cum somno captus iaceret, leo ingentis formae ad dormientem accessit
sudoremque profluentem lingua ei detersit expergefactumque blande reliquit. Hoc prodigio
primum ad spem regni inpulsus) contractis latronibus Indos ad nouitatem regni sollicitauit."
Justin XV.4.15 Archived 1 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine

^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. A Historical Atlas of South Asia, 2nd ed. (University of Minnesota,
1992), Plate III.B.4b (p.18) and Plate XIV.1a-c (p.145)

^ Mookerji, Radhakumud (1966). Chandragupta Maurya and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass.
p. 27. ISBN 9788120804050.; Mookerji, Radha Kumud (1957). "The Foundation of the
Mauryan Empire". In K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (ed.). A Comprehensive History of India, Volume
2: Mauryas and Satavahanas. Orient Longmans. p. 4.: "The Mudrarakshasa further informs us
that his Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite army ... Among these are
mentioned the following : Sakas, Yavanas (probably Greeks), Kiratas, Kambojas, Parasikas
and Bahlikas."

^ Shashi, Shyam Singh (1999). Encyclopaedia Indica: Mauryas. Anmol Publications. p. 134.
ISBN 9788170418597.: "Among those who helped Chandragupta in his struggle against the
Nandas, were the Sakas (Scythians), Yavanas (Greeks), and Parasikas (Persians)"

^ Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.,
1966, p.26-27 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 27 November 2016. Retrieved
26 November 2016.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

^ Sir John Marshall, "Taxila", p. 18 et passim

^ K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (ed., 1967), Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, p.147

^ Jump up to: a b Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal
Banarsidass Publ., 1966, p.27 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 27 November
2016. Retrieved 26 November 2016.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

^ Sanskrit original: "asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih

Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara balairudidhibhiriva
parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama". From the French translation, in "Le
Ministre et la marque de l'anneau", ISBN 2-7475-5135-0

^ Kistler, John M. (2007). War Elephants. University of Nebraska Press. p. 67.

ISBN 0803260040. Retrieved 16 August 2019.

^ Paul J. Kosmin 2014, p. 38.

^ "Megasthenes lived with Sibyrtius, satrap of Arachosia, and often speaks of his visiting
Sandracottus, the king of the Indians." Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri Arrian. "Book 5". Anabasis.

^ "In the royal residences in India where the greatest of the kings of that country live, there are
so many objects for admiration that neither Memnon's city of Susa with all its extravagance,
nor the magnificence of Ectabana is to be compared with them. ... In the parks, tame peacocks
and pheasants are kept." Aelian, "Characteristics of animals" Aelian, Characteristics of
animals, book XIII, Chapter 18, also quoted in The Cambridge History of India, Volume 1,
p411

^ "The architectural closeness of certain buildings in Achaemenid Iran and Mauryan India have
raised much comment. The royal palace at Pataliputra is the most striking example and has
been compared with the palaces at Susa, Ecbatana, and Persepolis" Aśoka and the decline of
the Mauryas, Volume 5, p.129, Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1961

^ Jump up to: a b c Upinder Singh 2008, p. 331.

^ Paul J. Kosmin 2014, p. 32.

^ Chatterjee, Suhas (1998). Indian Civilization and Culture. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd.
ISBN 9788175330832.

^ Dikshitar, V. R. Ramachandra (1993). The Mauryan Polity. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.

ISBN 9788120810235.
^ R. K. Mookerji 1966, pp. 39–40.

^ Jump up to: a b Geoffrey Samuel 2010, pp. 60.

^ Jump up to: a b Romila Thapar 2004, p. 178.

^ R. K. Mookerji 1966, pp. 39–41.

^ Srinivasachariar 1974, p. lxxxvii.

^ Vincent Arthur Smith (1920). Asoka, the Buddhist emperor of India. Oxford: Clarendon
Press. pp. 18–19. ISBN 9788120613034.

^ Rajendralal Mitra (1878). "On the Early Life of Asoka". Proceedings of the Asiatic Society
of Bengal. Asiatic Society of Bengal: 10.

^ Motilal Banarsidass (1993). "The Minister Cāṇakya, from the Pariśiṣtaparvan of

Hemacandra". In Phyllis Granoff (ed.). The Clever Adulteress and Other Stories: A Treasury
of Jaina Literature. Translated by Rosalind Lefeber. pp. 204–206.

^ Jump up to: a b c Paul J. Kosmin 2014, p. 35.

^ Alain Daniélou 2003, p. 108.

^ Dineschandra Sircar 1971, p. 167.

^ William Woodthorpe Tarn (2010). The Greeks in Bactria and India. Cambridge University
Press. p. 152. ISBN 9781108009416.

^ Mookerji Radhakumud (1962). Asoka. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 8. ISBN 978-81-208-0582-8.

Archived from the original on 10 May 2018.

^ Jump up to: a b Alain Daniélou 2003, p. 109.

^ Eugène Burnouf (1911). Legends of Indian Buddhism. New York: E. P. Dutton. p. 59.

^ Jump up to: a b c d S. N. Sen 1999, p. 142.

^ "Three Greek ambassadors are known by name: Megasthenes, ambassador to Chandragupta;

Deimachus, ambassador to Chandragupta's son Bindusara; and Dyonisius, whom Ptolemy
Philadelphus sent to the court of Ashoka, Bindusara's son", McEvilley, p.367

^ India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.108-109

^ P. 138 and P. 146 History and doctrines of the Ājīvikas: a vanished Indian religion by Arthur
Llewellyn Basham

^ P. 24 Buddhism in comparative light by Anukul Chandra Banerjee

^ P. 171 Ashoka and his inscriptions, Volume 1 by Beni Madhab Barua, Ishwar Nath Topa

^ Kashi Nath Upadhyaya (1997). Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgita. Motilal Banarsidass.
p. 33. ISBN 9788120808805.

^ Fitzedward Hall, ed. (1868). The Vishnu Purana. IV. Translated by H. H. Wilson. Trübner &
Co. p. 188.

^ Allchin, F.R.; Erdosy, George (1995). The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The
Emergence of Cities and States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 306.

^ Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, translation S. Dhammika.

^ According to the Ashokavadana

^ Sir John Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi", Eastern Book House, 1990, ISBN 81-85204-32-2,
pg.38

^ E. Lamotte: History of Indian Buddhism, Institut Orientaliste, Louvain-la-Neuve 1988 (1958)

^ Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1960
P200

^ Gabriel A, Richard (30 November 2006). The Ancient World :Volume 1 of Soldiers' lives
through history. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 28.

^ R. C. Majumdar 2003, p. 107.

^ Indian History. Allied Publishers. 1988. ISBN 9788184245684.

^ Narain Singh Kalota (1978). India As Described By Megasthenes.

^ The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India. Archived 4 February 2016 at
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^ John Cort 2010, p. 199.

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magnitudinis ultro se obtulit et ueluti domita mansuetudine eum tergo excepit duxque belli et
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magnitudinis fundamenta iaciebat, Indiam possidebat." Justin XV.4.19 Archived 20 April 2017
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External links[edit]

^Samuel

^Samuel

^Michaels (2004) p.39

^Hiltebeitel (2002)

^Michaels (2004) p.39

^Hiltebeitel (2002)

^Micheals (2004) p.40

^Michaels (2004) p.41

Sources

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Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia:
Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge

Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
University Press

Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth
Century, Cambridge University Press