Transistor

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch

electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor
material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an external
circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because
the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input)
power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are
packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated
circuits.

Austro-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld proposed the concept

of a field-effect transistor in 1926, but it was not possible to actually
construct a working device at that time.[1] The first working device to be Assorted discrete
transistors. Packages in
built was a point-contact transistor invented in 1947 by American
order from top to bottom:
physicists John Bardeen and Walter Brattain while working under TO-3, TO-126, TO-92, SOT-
William Shockley at Bell Labs. They shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in 23.
Physics for their achievement.[2] The most widely used transistor is the
MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect
transistor), also known as the MOS transistor,
which was invented by Egyptian engineer
Mohamed Atalla with Korean engineer Dawon
Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.[3][4][5] The MOSFET
was the first truly compact transistor that could be
miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range
of uses.[6]

Transistors revolutionized the field of electronics,

and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios,
calculators, and computers, among other things. Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor
The first transistor and the MOSFET are on the list (MOSFET), showing gate (G), body (B), source (S)
of IEEE milestones in electronics. [7][8] The and drain (D) terminals. The gate is separated from
MOSFET is the fundamental building block of the body by an insulating layer (pink).
modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in
modern electronic systems.[9] An estimated total of
13 sextillion MOSFETs have been manufactured between 1960 and 2018 (at least 99.9% of all
transistors), making the MOSFET the most widely manufactured device in history.[10]

Most transistors are made from very pure silicon, and some from germanium, but certain other
semiconductor materials can also be used. A transistor may have only one kind of charge carrier, in a
field-effect transistor, or may have two kinds of charge carriers in bipolar junction transistor devices.
Compared with the vacuum tube, transistors are generally smaller, and require less power to operate.
Certain vacuum tubes have advantages over transistors at very high operating frequencies or high
operating voltages. Many types of transistors are made to standardized specifications by multiple
manufacturers.

Contents
History
Bipolar transistors
MOSFET (MOS transistor)
Importance
Simplified operation
Transistor as a switch
Transistor as an amplifier
Comparison with vacuum tubes
Advantages
Limitations
Types
Field-effect transistor (FET)
Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
Usage of MOSFETs and BJTs
Other transistor types
Part numbering standards/specifications
Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS)
European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association (EECA)
Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC)
Proprietary
Naming problems
Construction
Semiconductor material
Packaging
Flexible transistors
See also
References
Further reading
External links

History
The thermionic triode, a vacuum tube invented in 1907, enabled amplified radio technology and long-
distance telephony. The triode, however, was a fragile device that consumed a substantial amount of
power. In 1909, physicist William Eccles discovered the crystal diode oscillator.[11] Austro-Hungarian
 physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed a patent for a field-effect transistor (FET)
in Canada in 1925,[12] which was intended to be a solid-state replacement for
the triode.[13][14] Lilienfeld also filed identical patents in the United States in
1926[15] and 1928.[16][17] However, Lilienfeld did not publish any research
articles about his devices nor did his patents cite any specific examples of a
working prototype. Because the production of high-quality semiconductor
materials was still decades away, Lilienfeld's solid-state amplifier ideas would
Julius Edgar not have found practical use in the 1920s and 1930s, even if such a device had
Lilienfeld proposed been built.[18] In 1934, German inventor Oskar Heil patented a similar device
the concept of a field- in Europe.[19]
effect transistor in
1925.
Bipolar transistors
From
November
17, 1947, to
December
23, 1947,
John
Bardeen
and Walter
Brattain at
John Bardeen, William Shockley and AT&T's
Walter Brattain at Bell Labs in 1948. Bell Labs in
They invented the point-contact Murray
transistor in 1947 and bipolar
Hill, New
junction transistor in 1948.
Jersey,
performed A replica of the first working transistor, a point-
experiments and observed that when two gold point contact transistor invented in 1947.
contacts were applied to a crystal of germanium, a
signal was produced with the output power greater
than the input.[20] Solid State Physics Group leader William Shockley saw the potential in this, and over
the next few months worked to greatly expand the knowledge of semiconductors. The term transistor
was coined by John R. Pierce as a contraction of the term transresistance.[21][22][23] According to Lillian
Hoddeson and Vicki Daitch, authors of a biography of John Bardeen, Shockley had proposed that Bell
Labs' first patent for a transistor should be based on the field-effect and that he be named as the inventor.
Having unearthed Lilienfeld's patents that went into obscurity years earlier, lawyers at Bell Labs advised
against Shockley's proposal because the idea of a field-effect transistor that used an electric field as a
"grid" was not new. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first point-
contact transistor.[18] In acknowledgement of this accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain were
jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their
discovery of the transistor effect".[24][25]

Shockley's research team initially attempted to build a field-effect transistor (FET), by trying to modulate
the conductivity of a semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to problems with the surface
states, the dangling bond, and the germanium and copper compound materials. In the course of trying to
understand the mysterious reasons behind their failure to build a working FET, this led them to instead
inventing the bipolar point-contact and junction transistors.[26][27]
 In 1948, the point-contact transistor was independently invented by German
physicists Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker while working at the
Compagnie des Freins et Signaux, a Westinghouse subsidiary located in Paris.
Mataré had previous experience in developing crystal rectifiers from silicon
and germanium in the German radar effort during World War II. Using this
knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of "interference" in 1947.
By June 1948, witnessing currents flowing through point-contacts, Mataré
produced consistent results using samples of germanium produced by Welker,
similar to what Bardeen and Brattain had accomplished earlier in December
1947. Realizing that Bell Labs' scientists had already invented the transistor
Herbert Mataré in before them, the company rushed to get its "transistron" into production for
1950. He amplified use in France's telephone network and filed for his first transistor
independently
patent application on August 13,1948.[28][29][30]
invented a point-
contact transistor in
The first bipolar junction transistors were invented by Bell Labs' William
June 1948.
Shockley, which applied for patent (2,569,347) on June 26, 1948. On April 12,
1950, Bell Labs chemists Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks had successfully
produced a working bipolar NPN junction amplifying germanium transistor. Bell Labs had announced
the discovery of this new "sandwich" transistor in a press release on July 4, 1951.[31][32]

The first high-frequency transistor was the surface-

barrier germanium transistor developed by Philco
in 1953, capable of operating up to 60 MHz.[33]
These were made by etching depressions into an N-
type germanium base from both sides with jets of
Indium(III) sulfate until it was a few ten-
thousandths of an inch thick. Indium electroplated
into the depressions formed the collector and
emitter.[34][35]

The first "prototype" pocket transistor radio was

shown by INTERMETALL (a company founded by
Herbert Mataré in 1952) at the Internationale
Funkausstellung Düsseldorf between August 29,
1953 and September 9, 1953.[36] The first
"production" pocket transistor radio was the
Regency TR-1, released in October 1954.[25]
Produced as a joint venture between the Regency
Philco surface-barrier transistor developed and
Division of Industrial Development Engineering produced in 1953
Associates, I.D.E.A. and Texas Instruments of
Dallas Texas, the TR-1 was manufactured in
Indianapolis, Indiana. It was a near pocket-sized radio featuring 4 transistors and one germanium diode.
The industrial design was outsourced to the Chicago firm of Painter, Teague and Petertil. It was initially
released in one of four different colours: black, bone white, red, and gray. Other colours were to shortly
follow.[37][38][39]
The first "production" all-transistor car radio was developed by Chrysler and Philco corporations and it
was announced in the April 28th 1955 edition of the Wall Street Journal. Chrysler had made the all-
transistor car radio, Mopar model 914HR, available as an option starting in fall 1955 for its new line of
1956 Chrysler and Imperial cars which first hit the dealership showroom floors on October 21,
1955.[40][41][42]

The Sony TR-63, released in 1957, was the first mass-produced transistor radio, leading to the mass-
market penetration of transistor radios.[43] The TR-63 went on to sell seven million units worldwide by
the mid-1960s.[44] Sony's success with transistor radios led to transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the
dominant electronic technology in the late 1950s.[45]

The first working silicon transistor was developed at Bell Labs on January 26, 1954 by Morris
Tanenbaum. The first commercial silicon transistor was produced by Texas Instruments in 1954. This
was the work of Gordon Teal, an expert in growing crystals of high purity, who had previously worked at
Bell Labs.[46][47][48]

MOSFET (MOS transistor)

Mohamed Atalla (left) and Dawon Kahng (right) invented the MOSFET (MOS transistor) at Bell Labs in 1959.

Semiconductor companies initially focused on junction transistors in the early years of the semiconductor
industry. However, the junction transistor was a relatively bulky device that was difficult to manufacture
on a mass-production basis, which limited it to a number of specialised applications. Field-effect
transistors (FETs) were theorized as potential alternatives to junction transistors, but researchers could
not get FETs to work properly, largely due to the troublesome surface state barrier that prevented the
external electric field from penetrating into the material.[6]

In the 1950s, Egyptian engineer Mohamed Atalla investigated the surface properties of silicon
semiconductors at Bell Labs, where he proposed a new method of semiconductor device fabrication,
coating a silicon wafer with an insulating layer of silicon oxide so that electricity could reliably penetrate
to the conducting silicon below, overcoming the surface states that prevented electricity from reaching
the semiconducting layer. This is known as surface passivation, a method that became critical to the
semiconductor industry as it later made possible the mass-production of silicon integrated circuits.[49][50]
He presented his findings in 1957.[51] Building on his surface passivation method, he developed the
metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) process.[49] He proposed the MOS process could be used to build the
first working silicon FET, which he began working on building with the help of his Korean colleague
Dawon Kahng.[49]
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), also known as the MOS transistor,
was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959.[3][4] The MOSFET was the first truly
compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.[6] With its
high scalability,[52] and much lower power consumption and higher density than bipolar junction
transistors,[53] the MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits,[5] allowing the
integration of more than 10,000 transistors in a single IC.[54]

CMOS (complementary MOS) was invented by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild
Semiconductor in 1963.[55] The first report of a floating-gate MOSFET was made by Dawon Kahng and
Simon Sze in 1967.[56] A double-gate MOSFET was first demonstrated in 1984 by Electrotechnical
Laboratory researchers Toshihiro Sekigawa and Yutaka Hayashi.[57][58] FinFET (fin field-effect
transistor), a type of 3D non-planar multi-gate MOSFET, originated from the research of Digh Hisamoto
and his team at Hitachi Central Research Laboratory in 1989.[59][60]

Importance
Transistors are the key active components in practically all modern electronics. Many thus consider the
transistor to be one of the greatest inventions of the 20th century.[61]

The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, is
by far the most widely used transistor, used in applications ranging from computers and electronics[50] to
communications technology such as smartphones.[62] The MOSFET has been considered to be the most
important transistor,[63] possibly the most important invention in electronics,[64] and the birth of modern
electronics.[65] The MOS transistor has been the fundamental building block of modern digital
electronics since the late 20th century, paving the way for the digital age.[9] The US Patent and
Trademark Office calls it a "groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture around the
world".[62] Its importance in today's society rests on its ability to be mass-produced using a highly
automated process (semiconductor device fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-transistor
costs.

The invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009.[66] The list of
IEEE Milestones also includes the inventions of the junction transistor in 1948 and the MOSFET in
1959.[67]

Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known as discrete) MOS
transistors every year,[68] the vast majority of transistors are now produced in integrated circuits (often
shortened to IC, microchips or simply chips), along with diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic
components, to produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about twenty
transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of 2009, can use as many as 3 billion transistors
(MOSFETs).[69] "About 60 million transistors were built in 2002… for [each] man, woman, and child on
Earth."[70]

The MOS transistor is the most widely manufactured device in history.[10] As of 2013, billions of
transistors are manufactured every day, nearly all of which are MOSFET devices.[5] Between 1960 and
2018, an estimated total of 13 sextillion MOS transistors have been manufactured, accounting for at least
99.9% of all transistors.[10]
The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device. Transistorized
mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It
is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a
control function than to design an equivalent mechanical system to control that same function.

Simplified operation
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its
ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of its
terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of
terminals. This property is called gain. It can produce a
stronger output signal, a voltage or current, which is
proportional to a weaker input signal; that is, it can act as
an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to
turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically
controlled switch, where the amount of current is
determined by other circuit elements. A Darlington transistor opened up so the
actual transistor chip (the small square) can
There are two types of transistors, which have slight be seen inside. A Darlington transistor is
differences in how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar effectively two transistors on the same chip.
transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and One transistor is much larger than the other,
emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is, but both are large in comparison to
transistors in large-scale integration
flowing between the base and the emitter) can control or
because this particular example is intended
switch a much larger current between the collector and for power applications.
emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals
are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage
at the gate can control a current between source and
drain.

The image represents a typical bipolar transistor in

a circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and
collector terminals depending on the current in the
base. Because internally the base and emitter
connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a
voltage drop develops between base and emitter
while the base current exists. The amount of this
voltage depends on the material the transistor is
made from, and is referred to as VBE.

Transistor as a switch
Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as A simple circuit diagram to show the labels of a n–p–
electronic switches which can be either in an "on" n bipolar transistor.
or "off" state, both for high-power applications
such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-
power applications such as logic gates. Important parameters for this application include the current
switched, the voltage handled, and the switching speed, characterised by the rise and fall times.
In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the
light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises,
the emitter and collector currents rise exponentially.
The collector voltage drops because of reduced
resistance from collector to emitter. If the voltage
difference between the collector and emitter were
zero (or near zero), the collector current would be
limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and
the supply voltage. This is called saturation because
current is flowing from collector to emitter freely.
When saturated, the switch is said to be on.[71]
BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-
Providing sufficient base drive current is a key
emitter configuration.
problem in the use of bipolar transistors as switches.
The transistor provides current gain, allowing a
relatively large current in the collector to be switched by a much smaller current into the base terminal.
The ratio of these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for a particular type,
varies depending on the collector current. In the example light-switch circuit shown, the resistor is
chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the transistor will be saturated.

In a switching circuit, the idea is to simulate, as near as possible, the ideal switch having the properties of
open circuit when off, short circuit when on, and an instantaneous transition between the two states.
Parameters are chosen such that the "off" output is limited to leakage currents too small to affect
connected circuitry, the resistance of the transistor in the "on" state is too small to affect circuitry, and the
transition between the two states is fast enough not to have a detrimental effect.

Transistor as an amplifier
The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage (Vin) changes the small
current through the base of the transistor; the transistor's current amplification combined with the
properties of the circuit means that small swings in Vin produce large changes in Vout.

Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing current gain, some
voltage gain, and some both.

From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction,
radio transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete-transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a
few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became
available and amplifier architecture evolved.

Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively inexpensive.

Comparison with vacuum tubes

Before transistors were developed, vacuum (electron) tubes (or in the UK "thermionic valves" or just
"valves") were the main active components in electronic equipment.

Advantages
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to
replace vacuum tubes in most applications are

no cathode heater (which produces the

characteristic orange glow of tubes),
reducing power consumption, eliminating
delay as tube heaters warm up, and immune
from cathode poisoning and depletion;
very small size and weight, reducing
equipment size;
large numbers of extremely small transistors
can be manufactured as a single integrated
circuit;
low operating voltages compatible with
batteries of only a few cells;
circuits with greater energy efficiency are
usually possible. For low-power applications
(e.g., voltage amplification) in particular,
energy consumption can be very much less
than for tubes;
Amplifier circuit, common-emitter configuration with
complementary devices available, providing a voltage-divider bias circuit.
design flexibility including complementary-
symmetry circuits, not possible with vacuum
tubes;
very low sensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, providing physical ruggedness and
virtually eliminating shock-induced spurious signals (e.g., microphonics in audio
applications);
not susceptible to breakage of a glass envelope, leakage, outgassing, and other physical
damage.

Limitations
Transistors have the following limitations:

they lack the higher electron mobility afforded by the vacuum of vacuum tubes, which is
desirable for high-power, high-frequency operation — such as that used in over-the-air
television broadcasting
transistors and other solid-state devices are susceptible to damage from very brief electrical
and thermal events, including electrostatic discharge in handling; vacuum tubes are
electrically much more rugged;
they are sensitive to radiation and cosmic rays (special radiation-hardened chips are used
for spacecraft devices);
In audio applications, transistors lack the lower-harmonic distortion — the so-called tube
sound — which is characteristic of vacuum tubes, and is preferred by some.[72]

Types
Transistors are categorized by

structure: MOSFET (IGFET), BJT, JFET, insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), "other
types";
 semiconductor material: the metalloids
germanium (first used in 1947) and
silicon (first used in 1954)—in
amorphous, polycrystalline and PNP P-channel
monocrystalline form—, the compounds
gallium arsenide (1966) and silicon
carbide (1997), the alloy silicon-
germanium (1989), the allotrope of
carbon graphene (research ongoing
NPN N-channel
since 2004), etc. (see Semiconductor
material);
electrical polarity (positive and negative):
n–p–n, p–n–p (BJTs), n-channel, p- BJT JFET
channel (FETs);
maximum power rating: low, medium, BJT and JFET symbols
high;
maximum
operating
frequency: low, P-channel
medium, high,
radio (RF),
microwave
frequency (the
maximum effective
frequency of a N-channel
transistor in a
common-emitter
or common-
source circuit is JFET MOSFET enh MOSFET dep
denoted by the
term fT, an JFET and MOSFET symbols
abbreviation for
transition frequency—the frequency of transition is the frequency at which the transistor
yields unity voltage gain)
application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair;
physical packaging: through-hole metal, through-hole plastic, surface mount, ball grid array,
power modules (see Packaging);
amplification factor hFE, βF (transistor beta)[73] or gm (transconductance).
temperature: Extreme temperature transistors and traditional temperature transistors
(−55°C to +150°C). Extreme temperature transistors include high-temperature transistors
(above +150°C) and low-temperature transistors (below −55°C). The high-temperature
transistors that operate thermally stable up to 220°C, can be developed by a general
strategy of blending interpenetrating semi-crystalline conjugated polymers and high glass-
transition temperature insulating polymers[74].
Hence, a particular transistor may be described as silicon, surface-mount, BJT, n–p–n, low-power, high-
frequency switch.

A popular way to remember which symbol represents which type of transistor is to look at the arrow and
how it is arranged. Within an NPN transistor symbol, the arrow will Not Point iN. Conversely, within the
PNP symbol you see that the arrow Points iN Proudly.
Field-effect transistor (FET)
The field-effect transistor, sometimes
called a unipolar transistor, uses
either electrons (in n-channel FET)
or holes (in p-channel FET) for
conduction. The four terminals of the
FET are named source, gate, drain,
and body (substrate). On most FETs,
the body is connected to the source
inside the package, and this will be
assumed for the following Operation of a FET and its Id-Vg curve. At first, when no gate
description. voltage is applied. There is no inversion electron in the channel, the
device is OFF. As gate voltage increase, inversion electron density in
In a FET, the drain-to-source current the channel increase, current increase, the device turns on.
flows via a conducting channel that
connects the source region to the
drain region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied
between the gate and source terminals; hence the current flowing between the drain and source is
controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source. As the gate–source voltage (VGS) is
increased, the drain–source current (IDS) increases exponentially for VGS below threshold, and then at a
roughly quadratic rate (IDS ∝ (VGS − VT)2) (where VT is the threshold voltage at which drain current
begins)[75] in the "space-charge-limited" region above threshold. A quadratic behavior is not observed in
modern devices, for example, at the 65 nm technology node.[76]

For low noise at narrow bandwidth the higher input resistance of the FET is advantageous.

FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is
more commonly known as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET (MOSFET), reflecting its original
construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs,
the JFET gate forms a p–n diode with the channel which lies between the source and drain. Functionally,
this makes the n-channel JFET the solid-state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly,
forms a diode between its grid and cathode. Also, both devices operate in the depletion mode, they both
have a high input impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage.

Metal–semiconductor FETs (MESFETs) are JFETs in which the reverse biased p–n junction is replaced
by a metal–semiconductor junction. These, and the HEMTs (high-electron-mobility transistors, or
HFETs), in which a two-dimensional electron gas with very high carrier mobility is used for charge
transport, are especially suitable for use at very high frequencies (microwave frequencies; several GHz).

FETs are further divided into depletion-mode and enhancement-mode types, depending on whether the
channel is turned on or off with zero gate-to-source voltage. For enhancement mode, the channel is off at
zero bias, and a gate potential can "enhance" the conduction. For the depletion mode, the channel is on at
zero bias, and a gate potential (of the opposite polarity) can "deplete" the channel, reducing conduction.
For either mode, a more positive gate voltage corresponds to a higher current for n-channel devices and a
lower current for p-channel devices. Nearly all JFETs are depletion-mode because the diode junctions
would forward bias and conduct if they were enhancement-mode devices; most IGFETs are
enhancement-mode types.
Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET), also known
as the metal–oxide–silicon transistor (MOS transistor, or MOS),[5] is a type of field-effect transistor that
is fabricated by the controlled oxidation of a semiconductor, typically silicon. It has an insulated gate,
whose voltage determines the conductivity of the device. This ability to change conductivity with the
amount of applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. The MOSFET is by
far the most common transistor, and the basic building block of most modern electronics.[9] The
MOSFET accounts for 99.9% of all transistors in the world.[10]

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The
bipolar junction transistor, the first type of transistor to be mass-produced, is a combination of two
junction diodes, and is formed of either a thin layer of p-type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-
type semiconductors (an n–p–n transistor), or a thin layer of n-type semiconductor sandwiched between
two p-type semiconductors (a p–n–p transistor). This construction produces two p–n junctions: a base–
emitter junction and a base–collector junction, separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the
base region. (Two junction diodes wired together without sharing an intervening semiconducting region
will not make a transistor).

BJTs have three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductor—an emitter, a base, and a
collector. They are useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable
by a relatively small base current.[77] In an n–p–n transistor operating in the active region, the emitter–
base junction is forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the junction), and the base-collector
junction is reverse biased (electrons and holes are formed at, and move away from the junction), and
electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will
diffuse into the reverse-biased base–collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-
hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base
current. As well, as the base is lightly doped (in comparison to the emitter and collector regions),
recombination rates are low, permitting more carriers to diffuse across the base region. By controlling the
number of electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be
controlled.[77] Collector current is approximately β (common-emitter current gain) times the base current.
It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for
high-power applications.

Unlike the field-effect transistor (see below), the BJT is a low-input-impedance device. Also, as the
base–emitter voltage (VBE) is increased the base–emitter current and hence the collector–emitter current
(ICE) increase exponentially according to the Shockley diode model and the Ebers-Moll model. Because
of this exponential relationship, the BJT has a higher transconductance than the FET.

Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct by exposure to light, because absorption of photons in the
base region generates a photocurrent that acts as a base current; the collector current is approximately β
times the photocurrent. Devices designed for this purpose have a transparent window in the package and
are called phototransistors.

Usage of MOSFETs and BJTs

The MOSFET is by far the most widely used transistor for both digital circuits as well as analog
circuits,[78] accounting for 99.9% of all transistors in the world.[10] The bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
was previously the most commonly used transistor during the 1950s to 1960s. Even after MOSFETs
became widely available in the 1970s, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for many analog circuits
such as amplifiers because of their greater linearity, up until MOSFET devices (such as power
MOSFETs, LDMOS and RF CMOS) replaced them for most power electronic applications in the 1980s.
In integrated circuits, the desirable properties of MOSFETs allowed them to capture nearly all market
share for digital circuits in the 1970s. Discrete MOSFETs (typically power MOSFETs) can be applied in
transistor applications, including analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters and
motor drivers.

Other transistor types

field-effect transistor (FET):
metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect
transistor (MOSFET), where the gate is
insulated by a shallow layer of insulator;
p-type MOS (PMOS);
n-type MOS (NMOS);
complementary MOS (CMOS);
RF CMOS, for power electronics;
multi-gate field-effect transistor
(MuGFET); Transistor symbol created on Portuguese
pavement in the University of Aveiro.
fin field-effect transistor (FinFET),
source/drain region shapes fins on
the silicon surface;
thin-film transistor, used in LCD and OLED displays;
floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS), for non-volatile storage;
power MOSFET, for power electronics;
lateral diffused MOS (LDMOS);
carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNFET), where the channel material is replaced
by a carbon nanotube;
junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET), where the gate is insulated by a reverse-
biased p–n junction;
metal–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MESFET), similar to JFET with a Schottky
junction instead of a p–n junction;
high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT);
inverted-T field-effect transistor (ITFET);
fast-reverse epitaxial diode field-effect transistor (FREDFET);
organic field-effect transistor (OFET), in which the semiconductor is an organic
compound;
ballistic transistor (disambiguation);
FETs used to sense environment;
 ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (IFSET), to measure ion concentrations in
solution,
electrolyte–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (EOSFET), neurochip,
deoxyribonucleic acid field-effect transistor (DNAFET).
bipolar junction transistor (BJT):
heterojunction bipolar transistor, up to several hundred GHz, common in modern
ultrafast and RF circuits;
Schottky transistor;
avalanche transistor:
Darlington transistors are two BJTs connected together to provide a high current gain
equal to the product of the current gains of the two transistors;
insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) use a medium-power IGFET, similarly
connected to a power BJT, to give a high input impedance. Power diodes are often
connected between certain terminals depending on specific use. IGBTs are particularly
suitable for heavy-duty industrial applications. The ASEA Brown Boveri (ABB)
5SNA2400E170100 ,[79] intended for three-phase power supplies, houses three n–p–n
IGBTs in a case measuring 38 by 140 by 190 mm and weighing 1.5 kg. Each IGBT is
rated at 1,700 volts and can handle 2,400 amperes;
phototransistor.
emitter-switched bipolar transistor (ESBT) is a monolithic configuration of a high-voltage
bipolar transistor and a low-voltage power MOSFET in cascode topology. It was
introduced by STMicroelectronics in the 2000s,[80] and abandoned a few years later
around 2012.[81]
multiple-emitter transistor, used in transistor–transistor logic and integrated current
mirrors;
multiple-base transistor, used to amplify very-low-level signals in noisy environments
such as the pickup of a record player or radio front ends. Effectively, it is a very large
number of transistors in parallel where, at the output, the signal is added constructively,
but random noise is added only stochastically.[82]
tunnel field-effect transistor, where it switches by modulating quantum tunnelling through a
barrier.
diffusion transistor, formed by diffusing dopants into semiconductor substrate; can be both
BJT and FET.
unijunction transistor, can be used as simple pulse generators. It comprise a main body of
either P-type or N-type semiconductor with ohmic contacts at each end (terminals Base1
and Base2). A junction with the opposite semiconductor type is formed at a point along the
length of the body for the third terminal (Emitter).
single-electron transistors (SET), consist of a gate island between two tunneling junctions.
The tunneling current is controlled by a voltage applied to the gate through a capacitor.[83]
nanofluidic transistor, controls the movement of ions through sub-microscopic, water-filled
channels.[84]
multigate devices:
tetrode transistor;
pentode transistor;
trigate transistor (prototype by Intel);
dual-gate field-effect transistors have a single channel with two gates in cascode; a
configuration optimized for high-frequency amplifiers, mixers, and oscillators.
 junctionless nanowire transistor (JNT), uses a simple nanowire of silicon surrounded by an
electrically isolated "wedding ring" that acts to gate the flow of electrons through the wire.
vacuum-channel transistor, when in 2012, NASA and the National Nanofab Center in South
Korea were reported to have built a prototype vacuum-channel transistor in only 150
nanometers in size, can be manufactured cheaply using standard silicon semiconductor
processing, can operate at high speeds even in hostile environments, and could consume
just as much power as a standard transistor.[85]
organic electrochemical transistor.
solaristor (from solar cell transistor), a two-terminal gate-less self-powered phototransistor.

Part numbering standards/specifications

The types of some transistors can be parsed from the part number. There are three major semiconductor
naming standards; in each the alphanumeric prefix provides clues to type of the device.

Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS)

The JIS-C-7012 specification for transistor part JIS transistor prefix table
numbers starts with "2S",[86] e.g. 2SD965, but
Prefix Type of transistor
sometimes the "2S" prefix is not marked on the
package – a 2SD965 might only be marked "D965"; 2SA high-frequency p–n–p BJT
a 2SC1815 might be listed by a supplier as simply 2SB audio-frequency p–n–p BJT
"C1815". This series sometimes has suffixes (such as 2SC high-frequency n–p–n BJT
"R", "O", "BL", standing for "red", "orange", "blue",
2SD audio-frequency n–p–n BJT
etc.) to denote variants, such as tighter hFE (gain)
2SJ P-channel FET (both JFET and MOSFET)
groupings.
2SK N-channel FET (both JFET and MOSFET)

European Electronic Component

Manufacturers Association (EECA)
The Pro Electron standard, the European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association part
numbering scheme, begins with two letters: the first gives the semiconductor type (A for germanium, B
for silicon, and C for materials like GaAs); the second letter denotes the intended use (A for diode, C for
general-purpose transistor, etc.). A 3-digit sequence number (or one letter then two digits, for industrial
types) follows. With early devices this indicated the case type. Suffixes may be used, with a letter (e.g.
"C" often means high hFE, such as in: BC549C[87]) or other codes may follow to show gain (e.g. BC327-
25) or voltage rating (e.g. BUK854-800A[88]). The more common prefixes are:
 Pro Electron / EECA transistor prefix table
Prefix
Type and usage Example Equivalent Reference
class
Germanium small-signal AF Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/N
AC AC126 NTE102A
transistor TE102A.pdf)
Germanium AF power Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nt
AD AD133 NTE179
transistor e179.pdf)
Germanium small-signal RF Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nt
AF AF117 NTE160
transistor e160.pdf)
Germanium RF power Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nt
AL ALZ10 NTE100
transistor e100.pdf)
Germanium switching Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/N
AS ASY28 NTE101
transistor TE101.pdf)
Germanium power switching Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nt
AU AU103 NTE127
transistor e127.pdf)
Silicon, small-signal transistor Datasheet (https://www.mccsemi.com/pdf/P
BC BC548 2N3904
("general purpose") roducts/2N3904(TO-92).pdf)
Datasheet (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/d
BD Silicon, power transistor BD139 NTE375
s/BD/BD135.pdf)
Silicon, RF (high frequency) Datasheet (http://www.onsemi.com/pub_lin
BF BF245 NTE133
BJT or FET k/Collateral/BF245A-D.PDF)
Silicon, switching transistor Datasheet (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/d
BS BS170 2N7000
(BJT or MOSFET) s/BS/BS170.pdf)
Silicon, high frequency, high Datasheet (http://www.datasheetcatalog.or
BL BLW60 NTE325
power (for transmitters) g/datasheet/philips/BLW60.pdf)
Silicon, high voltage (for CRT Datasheet (http://www.datasheetcatalog.or
BU BU2520A NTE2354
horizontal deflection circuits) g/datasheet/philips/BU2520A.pdf)
Gallium arsenide small-signal Datasheet (https://web.archive.org/web/201
CF microwave transistor CF739 — 50109012745/http://www.kesun.com/pdf/r
(MESFET) f%20transistor/CF739.pdf)
Gallium arsenide microwave Datasheet (http://www.datasheetcatalog.or
CL CLY10 —
power transistor (FET) g/datasheet/siemens/CLY10.pdf)

Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC)

The JEDEC EIA370 transistor device numbers usually start with "2N", indicating a three-terminal device
(dual-gate field-effect transistors are four-terminal devices, so begin with 3N), then a 2, 3 or 4-digit
sequential number with no significance as to device properties (although early devices with low numbers
tend to be germanium). For example, 2N3055 is a silicon n–p–n power transistor, 2N1301 is a p–n–p
germanium switching transistor. A letter suffix (such as "A") is sometimes used to indicate a newer
variant, but rarely gain groupings.

Proprietary
Manufacturers of devices may have their own proprietary numbering system, for example CK722. Since
devices are second-sourced, a manufacturer's prefix (like "MPF" in MPF102, which originally would
denote a Motorola FET) now is an unreliable indicator of who made the device. Some proprietary
naming schemes adopt parts of other naming schemes, for example a PN2222A is a (possibly Fairchild
Semiconductor) 2N2222A in a plastic case (but a PN108 is a plastic version of a BC108, not a 2N108,
while the PN100 is unrelated to other xx100 devices).

Military part numbers sometimes are assigned their own codes, such as the British Military CV Naming
System.

Manufacturers buying large numbers of similar parts may have them supplied with "house numbers",
identifying a particular purchasing specification and not necessarily a device with a standardized
registered number. For example, an HP part 1854,0053 is a (JEDEC) 2N2218 transistor[89][90] which is
also assigned the CV number: CV7763[91]

Naming problems
With so many independent naming schemes, and the abbreviation of part numbers when printed on the
devices, ambiguity sometimes occurs. For example, two different devices may be marked "J176" (one the
J176 low-power JFET, the other the higher-powered MOSFET 2SJ176).

As older "through-hole" transistors are given surface-mount packaged counterparts, they tend to be
assigned many different part numbers because manufacturers have their own systems to cope with the
variety in pinout arrangements and options for dual or matched n–p–n + p–n–p devices in one pack. So
even when the original device (such as a 2N3904) may have been assigned by a standards authority, and
well known by engineers over the years, the new versions are far from standardized in their naming.

Construction

Semiconductor material
Semiconductor material characteristics
Junction forward Electron mobility Hole mobility Max.
Semiconductor
voltage junction temp.
material m2/(V·s) @ 25 °C m2/(V·s) @ 25 °C
V @ 25 °C °C
Ge 0.27 0.39 0.19 70 to 100
Si 0.71 0.14 0.05 150 to 200
GaAs 1.03 0.85 0.05 150 to 200
Al-Si junction 0.3 — — 150 to 200

The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge). Silicon (Si) types currently predominate but certain
advanced microwave and high-performance versions now employ the compound semiconductor material
gallium arsenide (GaAs) and the semiconductor alloy silicon germanium (SiGe). Single element
semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described as elemental.

Rough parameters for the most common semiconductor materials used to make transistors are given in
the adjacent table; these parameters will vary with increase in temperature, electric field, impurity level,
strain, and sundry other factors.
The junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the emitter–base junction of a BJT in order to
make the base conduct a specified current. The current increases exponentially as the junction forward
voltage is increased. The values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values
apply to semiconductor diodes). The lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this means that less
power is required to "drive" the transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current decreases
with increase in temperature. For a typical silicon junction the change is −2.1 mV/°C.[92] In some circuits
special compensating elements (sensistors) must be used to compensate for such changes.

The density of mobile carriers in the channel of a MOSFET is a function of the electric field forming the
channel and of various other phenomena such as the impurity level in the channel. Some impurities,
called dopants, are introduced deliberately in making a MOSFET, to control the MOSFET electrical
behavior.

The electron mobility and hole mobility columns show the average speed that electrons and holes diffuse
through the semiconductor material with an electric field of 1 volt per meter applied across the material.
In general, the higher the electron mobility the faster the transistor can operate. The table indicates that
Ge is a better material than Si in this respect. However, Ge has four major shortcomings compared to
silicon and gallium arsenide:

Its maximum temperature is limited;

it has relatively high leakage current;
it cannot withstand high voltages;
it is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits.
Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given
bipolar n–p–n transistor tends to be swifter than an equivalent p–n–p transistor. GaAs has the highest
electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for this reason that GaAs is used in high-frequency
applications. A relatively recent FET development, the high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT), has a
heterostructure (junction between different semiconductor materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide
(AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has twice the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier
junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at
frequencies around 12 GHz. HEMTs based on gallium nitride and aluminium gallium nitride
(AlGaN/GaN HEMTs) provide a still higher electron mobility and are being developed for various
applications.

Max. junction temperature values represent a cross section taken from various manufacturers' data
sheets. This temperature should not be exceeded or the transistor may be damaged.

Al–Si junction refers to the high-speed (aluminum–silicon) metal–semiconductor barrier diode,

commonly known as a Schottky diode. This is included in the table because some silicon power IGFETs
have a parasitic reverse Schottky diode formed between the source and drain as part of the fabrication
process. This diode can be a nuisance, but sometimes it is used in the circuit.

Packaging
Discrete transistors can be individually packaged transistors or unpackaged transistor chips (dice).
Transistors come in many different semiconductor packages (see
image). The two main categories are through-hole (or leaded),
and surface-mount, also known as surface-mount device (SMD).
The ball grid array (BGA) is the latest surface-mount package
(currently only for large integrated circuits). It has solder "balls"
on the underside in place of leads. Because they are smaller and
have shorter interconnections, SMDs have better high-frequency
Assorted discrete transistors
characteristics but lower power rating.

Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic, or plastic.

The package often dictates the power rating and frequency
characteristics. Power transistors have larger packages that can be
clamped to heat sinks for enhanced cooling. Additionally, most
power transistors have the collector or drain physically connected
to the metal enclosure. At the other extreme, some surface-mount
microwave transistors are as small as grains of sand.
Soviet KT315b transistors
Often a given transistor type is available in several packages.
Transistor packages are mainly standardized, but the assignment
of a transistor's functions to the terminals is not: other transistor types can assign other functions to the
package's terminals. Even for the same transistor type the terminal assignment can vary (normally
indicated by a suffix letter to the part number, q.e. BC212L and BC212K).

Nowadays most transistors come in a wide range of SMT packages, in comparison the list of available
through-hole packages is relatively small, here is a short list of the most common through-hole transistors
packages in alphabetical order: ATV, E-line, MRT, HRT, SC-43, SC-72, TO-3, TO-18, TO-39, TO-92,
TO-126, TO220, TO247, TO251, TO262, ZTX851.

Unpackaged transistor chips (die) may be assembled into hybrid devices.[93] The IBM SLT module of the
1960s is one example of such a hybrid circuit module using glass passivated transistor (and diode) die.
Other packaging techniques for discrete transistors as chips include Direct Chip Attach (DCA) and Chip
On Board (COB).[93]

Flexible transistors
Researchers have made several kinds of flexible transistors, including organic field-effect
transistors.[94][95][96] Flexible transistors are useful in some kinds of flexible displays and other flexible
electronics.

See also
Band gap Transistor count
Digital electronics Transistor model
Moore's law Transresistance
Optical transistor Very-large-scale integration
Semiconductor device modeling

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Further reading
Books

Horowitz, Paul & Hill, Winfield (2015). The Art of Electronics (3 ed.). Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-0521809269.
Amos SW & James MR (1999). Principles of Transistor Circuits. Butterworth-Heinemann.
ISBN 978-0-7506-4427-3.
Riordan, Michael & Hoddeson, Lillian (1998). Crystal Fire. W.W Norton & Company Limited.
ISBN 978-0-393-31851-7. The invention of the transistor & the birth of the information age
Warnes, Lionel (1998). Analogue and Digital Electronics. Macmillan Press Ltd. ISBN 978-0-
333-65820-8.
The Power Transistor - Temperature and Heat Transfer; 1st Ed; John McWane, Dana
Roberts, Malcom Smith; McGraw-Hill; 82 pages; 1975; ISBN 978-0-07-001729-0. (archive) (h
ttps://archive.org/details/ThePowerTransistor/)
Transistor Circuit Analysis - Theory and Solutions to 235 Problems; 2nd Ed; Alfred Gronner;
Simon and Schuster; 244 pages; 1970. (archive) (https://archive.org/details/TransistorCircuitAnalysi
s/)
Transistor Physics and Circuits; R.L. Riddle and M.P. Ristenbatt; Prentice-Hall; 1957.

Periodicals

Michael Riordan (2005). "How Europe Missed the Transistor" (https://web.archive.org/web/2

0080214002109/http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/print/2155). IEEE Spectrum. 42 (11): 52–57.
doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2005.1526906 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMSPEC.2005.1526906).
Archived from the original (http://spectrum.ieee.org/print/2155) on February 14, 2008.
 "Herbert F. Mataré, An Inventor of the Transistor has his moment" (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20090623050755/http://www.mindfully.org/Technology/2003/Transistor-Matare-Inventor2
4feb03.htm). The New York Times. February 24, 2003. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.mindfully.org/Technology/2003/Transistor-Matare-Inventor24feb03.htm) on June 23, 2009.
Bacon, W. Stevenson (1968). "The Transistor's 20th Anniversary: How Germanium And A
Bit of Wire Changed The World" (https://books.google.com/?id=mykDAAAAMBAJ&printsec
=frontcover). Bonnier Corp.: Popular Science, Retrieved from Google Books 2009-03-22.
192 (6): 80–84. ISSN 0161-7370 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0161-7370).

Databooks

Discrete Databook (https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_fairchilddldDiscreteDataBook_3512

2751); 1985; Fairchild (now ON Semiconductor)
Small-Signal Transistor Databook (https://archive.org/details/MotorolaSmallSignalTransistor
DataBook1984); 1984; Motorola (now ON Semiconductor)
Discrete Databook
(https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_sgsdataBooDevices5ed_46325378); 1982; SGS (now
STMicroelectronics)
Discrete Databook (https://archive.org/details/NationalSemiconductorDiscreteDatabook197
8); 1978; National Semiconductor (now Texas Instruments)

External links
BBC: Building the digital age (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7091190.stm) photo
history of transistors
The Bell Systems Memorial on Transistors (https://web.archive.org/web/20070928041118/ht
tp://www.porticus.org/bell/belllabs_transistor.html)
IEEE Global History Network, The Transistor and Portable Electronics (http://www.ieeeghn.
org/wiki/index.php/The_Transistor_and_Portable_Electronics). All about the history of
transistors and integrated circuits.
Transistorized (https://www.pbs.org/transistor/). Historical and technical information from the
Public Broadcasting Service
This Month in Physics History: November 17 to December 23, 1947: Invention of the First
Transistor (http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200011/history.cfm). From the
American Physical Society
50 Years of the Transistor (https://web.archive.org/web/20070714010051/http://www.scienc
efriday.com/pages/1997/Dec/hour1_121297.html). From Science Friday, December 12,
1997

Pinouts

Common transistor pinouts (https://web.archive.org/web/20141030170632/http://hamradio.l

akki.iki.fi/new/Datasheets/transistor_pinouts/)

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