Giselle O.
Halili
BSHM 2-1D
CROWD AND CRISIS MANAGEMENT
TERMINOLOGIES
Advisory. A report giving notification, information or message containing recommendations on what
actions are to be undertaken.
Alternative Learning System. A parallel learning system that provides a viable alternative to the existing
formal education instruction. It encompasses both the nonformal and informal sources of knowledge and
skills.
Asteroid. Any of numerous small celestial bodies that revolve around the sun, with orbits lying chiefly
between Mars and Jupiter and characteristic diameters between a few and several hundred kilometers.
Also called minor planet, planetoid.
Atmospheric. Of, relating to, or existing in the atmosphere. Produced by, dependent on, or coming from
the atmosphere. Resembling or representing the atmosphere; having or giving the effect of translucence:
a painting suffused with a hazy, atmospheric glow. Intended to evoke a particular emotional tone or
aesthetic quality: lush atmospheric touches in every room.
Caldera. A large crater caused by the violent explosion of a volcano that collapses into a depression.
Capability. Qualitative assessment of human and material resources such as ability,
competence, authority.
Capacity. Quantitative assessment of human and material resources. Example: number, volume, size.
Capacity Building. Efforts aimed to develop human skills or societal infrastructures within a community or
organization needed to reduce the level of risk.
Comet. A celestial body moving about the sun, usually in a highly eccentric orbit, consisting of a central
mass surrounded by an envelope of dust and gas that may form a tail that streams away from the sun.
Complex Emergency. Form of man-made emergency in which the cause of the emergency as well as the
assistance to the afflicted is complicated by intense levels of political considerations.
Contingency Planning. Forward planning process, in a state of uncertainty, in which scenarios and
objectives are agreed, managerial and technical actions defined, and potential response systems put in
place in order to prevent, or better respond to, an emergency or critical situation.
Counter Measures. All measures taken to counter and reduce disaster risk. They most commonly refer to
engineering (structural) measures but can also include non-structural measures and tools designed and
employed to avoid or limit the adverse impact of natural hazards and related environmental and
technological disasters.
Disasters. Natural or man-made emergencies that cannot be handled by affected communities who
experience severe danger and incur loss of lives and properties causing disruption in its social structure
and prevention of the fulfillment of all or some of the affected community’s essential functions.
Disaster Impact. Actual hazard event or its immediate consequences requiring extraordinary response.
Disaster Mitigation. An act of preventing or minimizing the adverse effects of disaster-causing phenomena
through the introduction of measurers designed to prepare and protect life and property of the members
of the society before the occurrence of a phenomenon. Mitigation includes activities that prevent a
disaster, reduce the chance of a disaster from happening, or reduce the damaging effects of unavoidable
natural phenomena. Construction of typhoon-resistant or earthquake-resistant houses and other
structures and locating human settlements away from high risk areas are examples of mitigation activities.
Disaster Preparedness. A state in which individuals and groups of a community have developed plans,
allocated resources, and established procedures for an efficient and effective implementation of the plans
for the purpose of saving lives and preventing further damage to property in the event of a disaster.
Preparedness includes plans or preparations made to save lives and to help response-and- rescue
operations. Evacuation plans and stocking food and water are both examples of preparedness.
Disaster Risk Management The systematic process of using administrative decisions, organization,
operational skills and capacities to implement policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society and
communities to lessen the impacts of natural hazards and related environmental and technological
disasters. It comprises all forms of activities, including structural and non-structural measures to avoid
(prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) adverse effects of hazards.
Early Warning. Process of information gathering and policy analysis to allow the prediction of developing
crises and action either to prevent them or contain their effects.
Earthquake. A feeble shaking to violent trembling of the ground produced by the sudden displacement of
rocks or rock materials below the earth’s surface.
Ecologists. A specialist in the scientific study of living things in relation to each other and to their
environment.
El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). A complex interaction of the tropical Pacific Ocean and the global
atmosphere that results in irregularly occurring episodes of changed ocean and weather patterns in may
parts of the world, often with significant impacts, such as altered marine habitats, rainfall changes, floods,
droughts and changes in storm patterns.
Emergency. Any situation in which the life or well-being of a community will be threatened unless
immediate and appropriate action is taken, and which demands an extraordinary response and
exceptional measurers.
Fissuring. A movement in the ground causing a narrow opening produced by cleavage or separation of
parts.
Flood. The inundation of land areas which are not normally covered by water. A flood is usually caused by
a temporary rise of the water level of a river, stream or other water course, inundating adjacent lands or
flood-plains. It could also be due to a temporary rise of lakes, oceans or reservoirs or other bodies of water
inundating border lands normally above water.
Flood Plain. A flat or nearly flat surface that may be submerged by flood waters.
Forecast. To tell in advance what is likely to happen. In weather forecasting, to tell the calculated
future weather situation within a specific period of time for a given area.
Geographic. Pertains to geography or to the natural features, population, industries, etc. of a region or
regions.
Geological Hazard. Natural earth processes or phenomena that may cause the loss of life or injury,
property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.
Geotechnical. Pertains to the practical applications of geological science in civil engineering, mining, etc.
Geomagnetic Storms. Major disturbances of the magnetosphere that occur when the interplanetary
magnetic field turns southward and remains southward for a prolonged period of time.
Hazard. Any phenomenon that has the potential to cause disruption or damage to humans and their
environment. Or an event or occurrence that has the potential for causing injury to life, property and
environment.
Heat Wave. Prolonged period of excessive heat, often combined with excessive humidity. PAGASA steps
up its procedures to alert the public during these periods when it anticipates an increase in human heat-
related illnesses.
Heat Index. A number in degrees Celsius (C) that tells how hot it really feels when relative humidity is
added to the actual air temperature. Exposure to full sunshine can increase the heat index by 15 degrees.
Heat Cramps. Heat cramps are muscular pains and spasms due to heavy exertion. Although heat cramps
are the least severe, they are often the first signal that the body is having trouble with the heat.
Heat Exhaustion. Heat exhaustion typically occurs when people exercise heavily or work in a hot, humid
place where body fluids are lost through heavy sweating. Blood flow to the skin increases, causing blood
flow to decrease to the vital organs. This results in a form of mild shock. If not treated, the victim’s
condition will worsen. Body temperature will keep rising and the victim may suffer heat stroke.
Heat stroke. Heat stroke is life-threatening. A person’s temperature control system, which produces
sweating to cool the body, stops working. The body temperature can rise so high that brain damage and
death may result if the body is not cooled quickly. Sunstroke is another term for heat stroke.
Hydrology. The study of water on the surface of land, in the soil and underlying rocks, and in the
atmosphere, particularly with respect to evaporation and precipitation.
Hydrometeorology. The study of atmospheric water, esp. precipitation, as it affects agriculture, water
supply, flood control, power generation, etc. It pertains to the occurrence, motion, and changes of state
of atmospheric water.
Informal Education. A lifelong process of learning by which every person acquires and accumulates
knowledge, skills, attitudes and insights from daily experiences at home, at work, at play and from life
itself.
Intensity. The seismic effect of an earthquake at a given place on man-made structures and on the ground
itself. Intensity refers to the actual earthquake effects as observed at specific places. It is a measure of the
degree of shaking at any given place. Intensity is dependent on the ground, the depth of the epicenter,
and structural conditions at a particular area. It varies from place to place. It is highest near the epicenter
and decreases gradually as distance from the epicenter increases.
Inter-tropical Convergence Zone. Boundary area between the trade wind system of the Northern and
Southern hemispheres characterized in the maritime climates by a showery precipitation with
cumulonimbus clouds sometimes extending to great heights.
Inundation. The rising and spreading of water over land.
La Niña. Approximately the opposite condition to El Niño. Each El Niño or La Niña episode usually
lasts for several seasons.
Land Fall. An instant at which the “eye” of a tropical cyclone approaches the land mass portion of a coastal
area.
Magnitude. A measure of the energy released in the form of vibration by a particular earthquake. It is
measured from seismographic instrument recordings. It is a measure of energy released at the focus. It is
not affected by the distance to the epicenter or ground and structural conditions.
Monsoon.The wind blowing from one direction during a certain part of the year, alternating with the wind
from the opposite direction in another part of the year.
Precautionary Measures. Steps or actions undertaken in advance to avoid hazards.
Nonformal Education. Any organized, systematic educational activity carried outside the framework
of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to a segment of the population.
Non-Structural Measures. Refers to policies, awareness, knowledge development, public commitment,
and methods and operating practices, including participatory mechanisms and the provision of
information, which can reduce risk and related impacts.
Oceanography. Pertains to the scientific study of oceans, the life that inhabits them, and their physical
characteristics, including the depth and extent of ocean waters, their movement and chemical makeup,
and the topography and composition of the ocean floors. Oceanography also includes ocean
exploration.Also called oceanology.
Preparedness. Activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective response to the impact of
hazards, including the issuance of timely and effective early warnings and the temporary evacuation of
people and property from threatened locations.
Prevention. Activities to provide outright avoidance of the adverse impact of hazards and means to
minimize related environmental, technological and biological disasters.
Pyroclastic Flow. High-density mixtures of hot, dry rock fragments and hot gases that move away from the
vent that erupted them at high speeds.They may result from the explosive eruption of molten or solid
rock fragments, or both.They may also result from the nonexplosive eruption of lava when parts of dome
or a thick lava flow collapses down a steep slope.
Reconstruction. An activity to bring about higher quality of life and security against disaster.
Recovery. Decisions and actions taken after a disaster with a view to restoring or improving the pre-
disaster living conditions of the stricken community, while encouraging and facilitating necessary
adjustments to reduce disaster risks.
Relief. An act of helping or alleviating the conditions of persons who are suffering from the effects of
disaster.
Response. The act of implementing or translating into actions what are called for by the preparedness
plans. Response includes actions taken to save lives and prevent further damage in a disaster or
emergency situation. Seeking shelter from strong winds accompanying a typhoon and evacuating to
higher grounds due to an impending flood are examples of response.
Risk.The expected number of lives lost, persons injured, damage to property and disruption of economic
activity due to natural phenomenon, and consequently the product of specific risk and elements at risk.
Specific risk means the expected degree of loss due to a particular phenomenon. Elements at risk means
the population, buildings and civil engineering works, economic activities, public services, utilities and
infrastructure, etc., at risk in a given area.
Risk Assessment / Analysis. A methodology to determine the nature and extent of risk by analyzing
potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that could pose a potential threat or
harm to people, property, livelihood and the environment on which they depend.
Runoff. The portion of the precipitation on the land that ultimately reaches streams and then the sea,
especially the water from rain.
Structural Measures. Refers to any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible impacts of hazards,
which include engineering measures and construction of hazard-resistant and protective structures and
infrastructure.
Technological Danger. Originating from technological or industrial accidents, dangerous procedures,
infrastructure failures or certain human activities, these dangers may cause the loss of life or injury,
property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.
Tectonic. Refers to the forces or conditions within the earth that cause movements of the crust.
designating the results of such movements: tectonic valleys.
Topography.The art of practice of a graphic delineation in detail on maps or charts of selected natural and
man-made features of a place or region.
Tsunami. Giant sea waves generated by under-the-sea earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Vulnerability. Factors of the community that allow a hazard to cause a disaster. Or the result of a number
of factors that increase the chances of a community being unable to cope with an emergency.
ADM Alternative Delivery Mode
ASDS Assistant School Division Superintendent
ASEP Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines
BEIS Basic Education Information System
BSP Boy Scouts of the Philippines
CDFCG Calamity, Disaster and Fire Control Group
CISD Critical Incident Stress Debriefing
DANA Damage Assessment and Needs Analysis
DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources
DepED Department of Education
DLM Distance Learning Modules
DOC Disaster Operation Center
DOST Department of Science and Technology
DRR Disaster Risk Reduction
DRRG Disaster Risk Reduction Group
DRRMO Disaster Risk Reduction Management Office
DRRRM Disaster Risk Reduction Resource Manual
DRRP Disaster Risk Reduction Program
DSWD Department of Social Welfare and Development
EOC Emergency Operation Center
GO Government Office
GPPB Government Procurement Policy Board
GSP Girl Scouts of the Philippines
ICS Incident Command System
LDCC Local Disaster Coordinating Council
LOI Letter of Instruction
MTDP Medium Term Development Plan
NAMRIA National Mapping and Resource Information Authority
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NCDPP National Calamities and Disaster Preparedness Plan
NDCC National Disaster Coordinating Council
NDCP National Disaster and Calamities Plan
NGO Non-Government Office
NOAA National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration
OCD Office of the Civil Defense
PAGASA Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, Astronomical Services Administration PDCC Provincial
Disaster Coordinating Council
PDMS Philippine Disaster Management System
PFSED Physical Facilities and Schools Engineering Division
PHILVOCS Philippine Institutes of Volcanology and Seismology PICE Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers
PNRC Philippine National Red Cross
PSP Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
RD Regional Director
RDCC Regional Disaster Coordinating Council
SDS Schools Division Superintendent
SEDIP Secondary Education Development and Improvement Project SME School Mapping Exercise
SSRM Safer Schools Resource Manual
RADAR Rapid Damage Assessment Reports
TEEP Third Elementary Education Project
TMG Technical Management Group
TWG Technical Working Group
SUSTAINABILITY, CAPACITY, RESILIENCE
The concept of sustainability is now widely used, heavily value-laden; it is ‘a good thing’. The word
has its origins in the Old French ‘soustenir’, and the Latin ‘sustinere’, and continues to be used in the
strong sense of sustaining life. As Du Pisani has argued ‘sustainable development’ only emerged towards
the end of the 20th century and it has been ‘rather overworked’; used ‘without thinking of its real meaning
and implications’ (Du Pisani, 2006: 83). Victor has argued that the concept has been distorted by ‘woolly
thinking’ and that ‘Instead of bringing together nature, the economy, and social justice, sustainable
development has spawned overspecialized and largely meaningless checklists and targets’ (Victor, 2006:
91). A coherent argu- ment can be made that sustainable development, like the green economy, is
oxymoronic (Sachs, 1999; Redclift, 2005; Brand, 2012). As Robinson has argued the concept is ‘vague,
attracts hypocrites and fosters delusions’ (Robin- son, 2004: 369). Sustainability is desirable, an aspiration,
one to which lip service is widely paid, but too rarely are clear sustainability goals defined and action taken
to achieve them. In tourism, sustainability is the aim but rarely are objectives clearly set and progress
reported. Sus- tainability is then the aim. It is the taking of responsibility to set objectives, take action and
report progress that is essential to achieving the objective.
The first major United Nations conference on the Human Environment took place in Stock- holm
in 1972, in the same year that Limits to Growth (Meadows et al., 1972) was published. Resilience has now
become an established part of the science of complex adaptive systems and risk management in the
context of those limits (Walker and Cooper, 2011). Over the following 40 years, with continuing population
growth and the consequences of climate change, the focus has shifted from mitigation towards adap-
tation and resilience. In tourism, as in other sec- tors and discourses, the management of risk within the
limits to growth is receiving more attention (Becken and Hay, 2007; Tyrrell and Johnston, 2008; Biggs,
2011; Becken and Hughey, 2013; Lew, 2014).
The resilience of a tourism business is a function of its capacity to innovate and adapt to change
or to cope with external shocks, whether natural or socio-economic or political (Calgaro and Lloyd, 2008;
Biggs, 2011; Orchiston, 2013). Increasingly tourism businesses and destinations face resilience challenges
from climate change (Becken, 2013). Resilience emerged as a concept in ecology and work on ecosystems
in the 1960s and 1970s and developed to provide a framework for understanding the dynamic and non-
linear interactions between man and the environment which result in periods of disequi- librium,
thresholds and extreme events which disrupt business and the lives of communities (Folke, 2006). Walker
et al. (2004) argued that resilience, when used to characterize a system, refers to the dynamics of the
system and there are ‘three related attributes of social-ecological systems (SESs) [which] determine their
future trajectories: resilience, adaptability, and trans- formability’. They define resilience as ‘the capacity
of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to still retain essentially
the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks’. In the introduction to their paper, Walker et al.
connect work on the concept of resilience with the need for a better scientific basis for sustainable
development than is generally applied (e.g. a new ‘sustainability science’) (Walker et al., 2004: 5).
Walker et al. recognize that the concepts of resilience, adaptability and transformability are imprecise as
are justice and well-being (and one might add responsibility): ‘because different groups adopt different
interpretations to fit their understanding and purpose, however, there is confusion in their use’ (Walker
et al., 2004: 5). One of the major contributions of the concept of resilience to the challenge of
sustainability and sustainable development is the realization that ‘strategies for sustainability must take
many forms’ and that there is ‘no “one size fits all” approach to the future’. Walker et al. conclude that
strategies will always be ‘context dependent’ and that the appropriate strategy is likely to change over
time ‘because of the inevitable changes inherent in complex systems’ (Walker et al., 2004: 12).
Holling in his seminal 1973 paper argued that ‘if we are dealing with a system profoundly affected by
changes external to it, and continually confronted by the unexpected, the constancy of its behaviour
becomes less important than the persistence of the relationships’ (Holling, 1973: 1). Fiksel in 2006 argued
that a systems approach is essential to effective deci- sion making about sustainability because of the
interactions between industrial, social and eco- logical systems. Recognizing ‘that steady-state
sustainability models are simplistic’, he argued that there ‘is an urgent need for a better under- standing
of the dynamic, adaptive behavior of complex systems and their resilience in the face of disruptions’
(Fiksel, 2006: 14). He concluded that ‘we need to develop adaptive policies and strategies that enable
societal and industrial institutions to cope with unexpected challenges, balancing their need to flourish
and grow with long-term concerns about human and ecological wellbeing’ (Fiksel, 2006: 20).
The challenge of resilience has to be addressed by individual businesses and by groups of
businesses and the community in destinations. An originating market business faces resilience
challenges in the originating market and the destinations where they facilitate and provide travel and
tourism services. Economic conditions in the originating market can reduce spending power, often
differentiated among socio-demographic groups, and negative or restrictive travel advisories from source
market governments can have serious consequences for agents and outbound operators, particularly
those who specialize in particular markets. When Exclusive Escapes ceased trading in August 2015, the
terrorist attacks in Tunisia, and the challenging geopolitical situation in Turkey were blamed for the failure
(Calder, 2015). Anatolian Sky ceased trading in July 2016 and cited ‘regional political problems’. They
pointed out that ‘Turkey has been under attack by regional terrorism and by global pow- ers. Every new
attack has had a devastating effect on the company.’
UNDERSTANDING DISASTERS
Disasters are emergencies that cannot be handled by those affected without outside
assistance.They are caused by natural or man- made events wherein communities experience severe
danger and incur loss of lives and properties causing disruption to their social structure and to all or some
of the affected communities’ essential functions. Disasters are inevitable. They are caused by
unsustainable development that has not taken account of possible hazard impacts in that location. They
can be less damaging if the population has better understanding of locally-experienced hazards and
implements preventive or mitigating measures against them.
DISASTER PREVENTION
Prevention and mitigation are actions taken to make sure that the impact of a hazard is lessened.
We cannot stop natural hazards from happening but we can reduce the damages if we institute prevention
and mitigation measures. Taking measures in order to avoid an event turning into a disaster is prevention,
which includes planting trees in order to prevent erosion, landslides and drought. On the other hand,
measures that reduce vulnerability to certain hazards is mitigation which includes for instance improved
building practices and standard designs to ensure that school buildings are constructed in risk free school
sites, houses and hospitals can withstand earthquake or a typhoon.
Prevention and mitigation in schools begins with:
• Knowing which hazards and risks the school is exposed to (hazard mapping);
• Meeting with all stakeholders in education and making plans to reduce those hazards and risks; and
• Implementing plans to reduce vulnerabilities.
Hazard is an event or occurrence that has the potential to cause harm to life and damage property
and the environment.
Risk is the probability of harmful consequences, or expected loss of lives, people injured, livelihoods,
disruption of economic activities and damages to the environment as a result of interactions between
natural or human induced hazards and vulnerable / capable conditions.
Vulnerability comprises conditions determined by physical, social, economic, and environmental
factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility of a community, school, or certain area in a locality
to the impact of hazards.
Capacities are those positive resources and abilities which are helpful to individuals, families and
community in mitigating, preparing for, responding to and recovering from the hazard impact. The United
Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) puts these definitions into an equation:
