BIOLOGY Domain: Eukaryota

TAXONOMY-is the process of naming and Kingdom: Animalia

classifying things such as animals and plants
Phylum: Chordata
into groups within a larger system, according to
their similarities and differences. Class: Mammalia
CATEGORIES: (Dear King Philip Came Over For Order: Primates
Good Soup)
Family: Hominidae
DOMAIN
Genus: Homo
 Bacteria
Species: Homo sapiens
 Archaea
 Eukaryota PLANTS & PHOTOSYNTEHSIS
KINGDOM PARTS OF A PLANT:
 Animals 1. ROOT- anchor the plants in the soil and
 Plants absorb nutrients and water that are
 Fungi needed by the rest of the plant.
 Protists
TYPES OF ROOTS:
 Archaea
 bacteria  TAPROOT- with a main taproot that
grows down and is larger and grows
PHYLUM
faster than the branch roots
 Porifera  FIBROUS - with all small roots about the
 Cnidaria same
 Platyhelminthes  ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS- develops from
 Annelida any part of the plant
 Mollusca  AERIAL ROOTS- grow above the
 Arthropoda ground, typically providing structural
 Chordata support.
 STORAGE ROOTS- (for example,
CLASS taproots and tuberous roots) are
modified for food storage.
 Mammals
 AERATING ROOTS- rise above the
 Reptiles
ground, especially above water, are
 amphibians
commonly seen in mangrove forests
ORDER that grow along salt water coastlines.
 HAUSTORIAL ROOTS- often seen in
 Poales
parasitic plants such as mistletoe.
FAMILY
PARTS OF A ROOT
 Poaceae.
*Root cap- protects the root tip
GENUS- is a taxonomic rank used in the
* Growing Point or Meristematic Zone-
biological classification of living and fossil
produces new cells for the root cap and the
organisms, as well as viruses
basal region of the root
SPECIES- classification comprising related
*Region or Zone of Elongation- cells in this
organisms that share common characteristics
region possess the power of absorption of
and are capable of interbreeding
water and mineral salts from the soil.
*The genus and species that an organism
* Root Flair Zone- zone of differentiation or
belongs to are how an organism receives its
maturation because different types of primary
scientific name. This naming system is called
tissues differentiate or mature in this region
‘binomial nomenclature’ and was invented by a
brilliant biologist named CARL LINNAEUS *Region or Zone of Mature Cells-anchors the
(father of taxonomy) plant firmly in the soil

TAXONOMY OF HUMANS: (Every Animal Can

Make Pretty Healthy Hot Stew)
 2. STEM- support the upper part of the 4. FLOWERS- are the reproductive part of
plant and act as a transport system for plants that has showy petals and
nutrients, water, sugar, and starches fragrances to attract pollinators.

TYPES OF STEMS: PARTS OF A FLOWER:

 HERBACEOUS STEMS- supported by  SEPAL- outer parts of the flower (often

water in the stem (E.g. These are green and leaf-like) that enclose a
climbers, bulbs, tubers and runners) developing bud.
 WOODY STEMS- taller, thicker and
 PETAL- often conspicuously colored.
harder than herbaceous stems. When
they are fully grown, there is making of
 STAMEN- The pollen producing part of
bark. a flower.
*Nodes-region of the stem where leaves are
 ANTHER- where pollen is produced.
born

*Stem tendrils-help plants to climb such as in  PISTIL- The ovule producing part of a
gourds (cucumber, pumpkins, watermelon) and flower.
grapevines.
 OVARY- part of pistil where ovules are
*Thorns-protect plants from browsing animals produced.

3. LEAF- are the parts of the plant where  STIGMA- where pollen germinates.
photosynthesis usually occurs; where
food for the plant is made.  RECEPTACLE- where the parts of the
flower are attached
TYPES OF LEAVES:

 SIMPLE LEAF- has a single leaf blade on 5. FRUITS- fleshy substances that usually
its stalk surround seeds. They protect the seeds
and attract animals to eat them. This
 COMPOUND- has more than one leaf
helps in seed dispersal.
blade
6. SEEDS- contain plant material that can
PARTS OF A LEAF: develop into another plant. This plant
material is called an embryo
*Petiole- cools the leaf and bringing fresh air to
leaf surface *POLLINATION (flowers)- is when pollen grains
from an anther, the male portion of a flower,
*Lamina/leaf blade- is the green expanded part
are transferred to a female part in the flower,
of the leaf with veins and veinlets
known as the stigma.
*Veins- provide rigidity to the leaf blade and act
TYPES OF POLLINATION:
as channels of transport for water, minerals and
food materials.  SELF-POLLINATION- only involves one
flower. This type of pollination occurs
PHOTOSYNTHESIS- is the process by which
when pollen grains from the anther fall
plants and other things make food
directly onto the stigma of the same
*PALISADE CELLS AND SPONGY CELLS- packed flower
with green chloroplasts which carry out  CROSS-POLLINATION- involves the
photosynthesis. transfer of pollen from the anther of
one flower to the stigma of a different
*CHLOROPLASTS- (in green plant cells) a plastid
flower
that contains chlorophyll and in which
photosynthesis takes place. BACTERIA- are microscopic, single-celled
organisms that thrive in diverse environments
*CHLOROPHYLL- gives plants their green color
everywhere
* COMBINATION OF ANTHOCYANIN AND
TYPES OF BACTERIA:
CHLOROPHYLL- gives plants their brown color
 SPHERICAL- shaped like a ball are called
*ANTHOCYANINS PLUS CAROTENOIDS- gives
cocci, and a single bacterium is a
plants their yellow color
coccus. (E.g streptococcus group,
*BILIRUBIN- gives plants their yellow color responsible for "strep throat.")
  ROD-SHAPED- known as bacilli (singular  AMPHIBIANS- small vertebrates
bacillus). Some rod-shaped bacteria are that need water, or a moist
curved. These are known as vibrio. (E.g environment, to survive. (E.g frog)
bacteria include Bacillus anthracis or  FISHES- aquatic animals within the
anthrax.) class Anatidae that do not have
 SPIRAL- known as spirilla (singular limbs with digits
spirillus). If their coil is very tight they  INSECTS- largest group of six-limbed
are known as spirochetes. (aka hexapod) invertebrates within
Leptospirosis, Lyme disease, and the class Insectav
syphilis are caused by bacteria of this  CRUSTACEANS- large, diverse group
shape. of arthropods (i.e., segmented body
with jointed-limbs) within the class
CELL BIOLOGY
Crustacea (E.g crabs)
*Cell- the basic membrane-bound unit that  ARACHNIDS- another joint-legged
contains the fundamental molecules of life and (8-legs) invertebrate animals
of which all living things are compose (arthropods) within the class
Arachnida.(E.g spiders)
* Cell Structure- defined by the cell membrane,
 ECHINIDERMS- marine animals
the cytoplasm, and the nucleus
classified under the class
*Mycoplasmas- the smallest known cells Echinodermata. (E.g starfish)
 WORMS- animals with a long
PARTS OF A CELL:
cylindrical tube-like body with no
 MITOCHONDRIA- organelles which are limbs
responsible for converting the food  MOLLUSKS- invertebrate animals
eaten by an organism into energy; within the class Mollusca in the
powerhouse of the cell animal kingdom (E.g octopus)
 CELL MEMBRANE/ CELL WALL-  SPONGES- bottom-dwelling sea
surrounds the cell and acts as their skin creatures within the class Porifera
 CYTOPLASM- a jelly-like substance, in the animal kingdom. They do not
made up of mostly water, that keeps have tissues
the various organelles within the cell HEREDITY, GENES AND DNA
separate from each other
 DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)- is *HEREDITY/BIOLOGICAL INHERITANCE- is the
frequently referred to as “the blueprints passing on of traits from parents to their
for life” that contains the generic offspring
information that allows cells to
GENETICS- study of heredity
reproduce and perform their respective
functions *GREGOR MENDEL- deduced the classical
 NUCLEUS- brain of the cell principles of genetics
 RIBOSOMES- organelles which assist in
*GENETIC INHERITANCE- occurs due to genetic
the creation of proteins.
material in the form of DNA being passed from
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)-
parents to their offspring
synthesizes proteins and for the cell
*GENES-basic physical and functional unit of
ANIMAL BIOLOGY
heredity. Genes are made up of DNA
*Animal- any of the eukaryotic multicellular
*CHROMOSOMES- carriers of genes
organisms that comprise the biological
kingdom Animalia. *GENE MUTATION- permanent alteration in the
DNA sequence that makes up a gene, such that
CLASSES OF ANIMALS:
the sequence differs from what is found in most
 MAMMALS- vertebrate animals people
constituting the class Mammalia *GENE FLOW/GENE MIGRATION/ALLELE
and has mammary glands FLOW- the transfer of genetic variation from
 BIRDS- vertebrates that has one population to another
feathers, toothless beaked jaws,
etc. *GENETIC DRIFT- variation in the relative
 REPTILES- are tetrapod animals in frequency of different genotypes in a small
the class Reptilia (E.g Crocodile) population, owing to the chance disappearance
of particular genes as individuals die or do not  SMALL INTESTINE- absorbs
reproduce. nutrients and minerals from food
 LARGE INTESTINE- absorbs water
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENETIC AND from the remaining indigestible
HEREDITARY: food matter and transmit the
useless waste material from the
Hereditary disease- can be passed on from one
body.
generation to another.

Genetic disease- may not be hereditary, but it is 3. EXCRETORY SYSTEM- Eliminates waste
always a result of a change in an organism's from the body.
genome
PARTS:
HUMAN BIOLOGY AND ANATOMY
 KIDNEY- main excretory organ; are
BODY SYSTEMS: two bean-shaped organs in the
renal system. They help the body
1. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM- circulates blood pass waste as urine
around the body delivering oxygen and  URINARY BLADDER- stores urine
nutrients to organs and cells and 4. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM- Influences the
carrying their waste products away. function of the body using hormones.
PARTS: 5. EXOCRINE SYSTEM/ INTEGUMENTARY-
Skin, hair, nails, sweat and etc.
 HEART- organ that pumps blood
throughout the body via the EXOCRINE GLANDS:
circulatory system, supplying  SWEAT GLANDS- produce sweat
oxygen and nutrients to the tissues
 SALIVARY GLANDS- produce saliva
and removing carbon dioxide and
 MAMMARY GLANDS-produces milk
other wastes
 CERUMINOUS GLANDS- produces
 ARTERIES- a vessel that carries
Cerumen that protects the ear canal
blood away from the heart and
 LACRIMAL GLANDS- produces tears
toward other tissues and organs
 SEBACEOUS GLANDS-- produces oil for
 VEINS- returns deoxygenated blood
skin and hair
back to the heart after arteries
 MUCOUS GLANDS- produce mucus
carry blood out.
6. IMMUNE SYSTEM- Defends the body
 BLOOD- transport media of nearly
against pathogens that may endanger
everything within the body. It
the body.
transports hormones, nutrients,
oxygen, antibodies, and etc. PARTS:
2. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM- System to absorb
 WHITE BLOOD CELLS/LEUKOCYTE -
nutrients and remove waste via the
gastrointestinal tract, including the help fight infections by attacking
mouth, esophagus, stomach and bacteria, viruses, and germs that
intestines invade the body
 *RED BLOOD CELLS/ERYTHROCYTE-
PARTS: carry oxygen from the lungs to the
body tissues and carbon dioxide as
 MOUTH- when you chew with a waste product, away from the
salivary glands begins to break tissues and back to the lungs
down starches in your food.  ANTIBODIES -help stop intruders
 ESOPHAGUS- where food is pushed from harming the body
through the stomach
 THYMUS- main lymphatic organ;
 STOMACH- store food and release it
trains the body to adapt specifically
to the intestines
to foreign invaders
 PANCREAS- produces insulin and
other important enzymes and  SPLEEN-acts as a filter for blood
hormones that help break down  BONE MARROW- generate blood
foods cells
 LIVER- makes bile that helps digest  COMPLEMENT SYSTEM- function is
fats and some vitamins. to eliminate pathogens (bacteria or
 GALLBLADDER- store and virus)
concentrate bile
*HEMOGLOBIN- an important protein in the red  TRACHEA- “windpipe”; providing air
blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to flow to and from the lungs for
all parts of our body. respiration.
 BRONCHI- carries oxygen rich air into
7. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM- The system
the lungs and carry carbon dioxide rich
comprising a network of lymphatic
air out of the lungs
vessels that carry a clear fluid called
 LUNGS-role is to bring in air from the
lymph.
atmosphere and pass oxygen into the
8. MUSCULAR SYSTEM- Enables the body
bloodstream
to move using muscles.
 ALVEOLI- allows oxygen and carbon
 SKELETAL MUSCLE- the specialized
tissue that is attached to bones and dioxide to move between the lungs and
allows movement bloodstream
 SMOOTH MUSCLE- located in various 13. SKELETAL SYSTEM- Bones maintain the
internal structures including the structure of the body and its organs.
digestive tract, uterus and blood vessels
such as arteries *Bone- provide support and protection for
 CARDIAC MUSCLE- the muscle specific the body's organs.
to the heart
9. NERVOUS SYSTEM- Collects and *Cartilage- provides flexible support for
processes information from the senses certain structures in adult humans,
via nerves and the brain and tells the including the nose, trachea, and ears.
muscles to contract to cause physical
actions. *Tendon- fibrous connective tissue that
connects muscles to bones*
PARTS OF THE BRAIN:
Ligament- connect the ends of bones
 CEREBRUM- controls reading, together in order to form a joint
thinking, learning, speech, emotions
and planned muscle movements *Joint- Structures that connect individual
like walking. It also controls vision, bones and may allow bones to move against
hearing and other senses. each other to cause movement.
 CEREBELLUM- controls balance,
coordination and fine muscle CHEMISTRY
control (e.g., walking). It also
functions to maintain posture and *ATOMS- consist of protons, neutrons, and
equilibrium. electrons
 BRAIN STEM- connects the
*PROTONS- have a positive (+) electrical charge.
cerebrum with the spinal cord
10. URINARY/RENAL SYSTEM- The system
*ELECTRONS- have a negative (−) charge that is
where the kidneys filter blood to exactly equal and opposite to the electrical
produce urine, and get rid of waste. charge of a proton
 URETHRA- allows urine to pass outside
the body *NEUTRONS- has the same number of electrons
11. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM- The sex as it does protons
organs required for the production of
offspring. *ION- which is not electrically neutral and has
12. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM- Brings air into an electrical charge associated with it
and out of the lungs to absorb oxygen
and remove carbon dioxide. *ANIONS- negatively charged ion

PARTS: *CATIONS- positively charged ion

 NOSE AND NASAL CAVITY- It prevents
*ATOMIC NUCLEUS- made of protons and
the entry of dust particles into the lungs neutrons
by trapping those dust on mucus or by
nasal hair. PERIODIC TABLE- made to organize the
 PHARYNX- allows inhaled air entering periodic elements
the nasal cavity to make its way to the
respiratory tract *GROUP/FAMILY- column
 LARYNX- “voice box”; produces sound
*PERIOD-row
 *DMITRI MENDELEEV- first creator of *METALLIC BOND- formed between positively
periodic table; father of periodic table charged atoms in which the free electrons are
shared among a lattice of cations
*Mendeleev’s periodic law- state the
chemical and physical properties of *HYDROGEN BONDS- caused by the positive
elements vary in a periodic way with their and negative ends of polar molecules attracting
atomic weights each other strongly enough to hold each other
in fixed positions
*Modern periodic law- properties vary with
atomic number MIXTURE AND COMPOUNDS

PERIODIC TABLE IS BASED UPON: 1. COMPOUND- the chemical combination

of elements, bonded together in
1. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION- specific proportion (pure substance)
distribution of electrons of an atom or (E.g water, carbon dioxide, and table
molecule in atomic or molecular salt)
orbitals 2. MIXTURE- the physical combination of
substances, bonded together in any
proportion (impure substance); can be
separated using physical methods such
as filtration, freezing, and distillation
 HOMOGENEOUS- uniform mixture;
you can’t distribute the
components physically (E.g blood,
coffee)
 HETEROGENEOUS- mixture is not
uniform ; it's possible to physically
E.g Na (atomic number:11)
separate components (E.g ice cubes
in a drink, oil and water)
SUBSHELL ORBIT ELECTRON
Sharp 1 2
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND
Principal 3 6
SOLUTIONS
Diffuse 5 10
Fundamental 7 14 * CHEMICAL REACTION- is a process that leads
to the chemical transformation of one set of
2. ATOMIC NUMBER- the number of chemical substances to another
protons in the nucleus of an atom
4 MAIN TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS:
*NIELS BOHRS- stated that electrons exist
within principal shells  DIRECT/SYNTHESIS COMBINATION-
two or more chemical species combine
*CHEMICAL BOND- atom’s interaction with to form a more complex product
each other in which they gain or lose electrons  ANALYSIS REACTION/CHEMICAL
DECOMPOSITION- a compound is
2 MAIN TYPES OF CHEMICAL BOND: broken into smaller chemical species
 SINGLE DISPLACEMENT/SUBSTITUTION
 COVALENT BONDS - the atoms are REACTION- characterized by one
bound by shared electrons element being displaced from a
 IONIC BONDS- one atom essentially compound by another element.
donates an electron to stabilize the  DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT/METATHESIS-
other atom (bond between metal two compounds exchange bonds or ions
and nonmetal) in order to form different compounds.

*NONPOLAR COVALENT BONDS- a type of *ACID BASE REACTION- type of double

chemical bond where two atoms share a displacement reaction that occurs between an
pair of electrons with each other. acid and a base

*POLAR COVALENT BONDING- a type of * COMBUSTION REACTION- type of redox

chemical bond where a pair of electrons is reaction in which a combustible material
unequally shared between two atoms. combines with an oxidizer to form oxidized
products and generate heat
*ISOMERIZATION REACTION- the structural  OXIDES- form from the combination
arrangement of a compound is changed but its of a metal with oxygen
net atomic composition remains the same  SULFIDES- made of compounds of
sulfur usually with a metal
*HYDROLYSIS REACTION- involves water  SULFATES- made of compounds of
sulfur combined with metals and
*REACTANTS/REAGENTS- substance/s initially oxygen
involved in a chemical reaction  HALIDES- form from halogen
elements like chlorine, bromine,
*CONCENTRATION- the amount of a substance fluorine, and iodine combined with
per defined space metallic elements
 CARBONATES- group of minerals
*MOLARITY- most common unit of made of carbon, oxygen, and a
concentration; number of moles of solute metallic element
present in exactly 1 L of solution (mol/L)  PHOSPHATES-often formed when
other minerals are broken down by
Molarity= moles/liter weathering
 MINERALOIDS- those substances
*SOLUTION-a special type of homogeneous that do not fit neatly into one of
mixture composed of two or more substances these eight classes (E.g Opal)

DIAGRAMS *NUCLEOTIDE- any of several compounds

that consist of a ribose or deoxyribose sugar
*Phase diagram- a graphical representation of joined to a purine or pyrimidine base and to
the physical states of a substance under a phosphate group and that are the basic
different conditions of temperature and structural units of nucleic acids (such as
pressure; illustrate the variations between the RNA and DNA) — compare nucleoside
states of matter of elements or compounds as
they relate to pressure and temperatures. *Four types of nucleotides in DNA- Adenine,
Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine
 TRIPLE POINT- the point at which the
three states of matter: gas, liquid, and PARTS OF NUCLEOTIDES IN DNA AND RNA:
solid coexist
 CRITICAL POINT- the point at which the 1. NITROGENOUS BASE- purines and
substance is indistinguishable between pyrimidines are the two categories of
liquid and gaseous states nitrogenous base
 FUSION MELTING/FREEZING CURVE- 2. PENTOSE SUGAR- in DNA, the sugar is
the curve which represents the 2'-deoxyribose. In RNA, the sugar is
transition between liquid and solid ribose
states 3. PHOSPHATE GROUP- a single
 VAPORIZATION/CONDENSATION phosphate group is PO4^3-. The
CURVE- the curve which represents the phosphorus atom is the central atom.
transition between gaseous and liquid
states STATES OF MATTER
 SUBLIMATION/DEPOSITION CURVE-
the curve which represents the  SOLID- solid, particles are packed tightly
transition between gaseous and solid together (high density); has a definite
states shape and volume
 LIQUID- more loosely packed than in a
MINERALS AND NUCLEOTIDE solid and are able to flow around each
other and has an indefinite shape.
*MINERAL- any naturally occurring Therefore, the liquid will conform to the
inorganic solid that has a definite chemical shape of its container
composition (that can vary only within  GAS- gas has no definite shape or
specified limits) and possesses a crystalline volume. If unconfined, the particles of a
structure; form as a result of chemical gas will spread out indefinitely; if
reactions confined, the gas will expand to fill its
container
MINERAL CLASSIFICATION:  PLASMA- consists of highly charged
particles with extremely high kinetic
 NATIVE ELEMENTS- pure form energy. The noble gases (helium, neon,
 SILICATES- largest group of minerals argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are
often used to make glowing signs by
 using electricity to ionize them to the 2. ROCK - an aggregate of one or more minerals,
plasma state. or a body of undifferentiated mineral matter.
 BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE (BEC)- (E.g granite, basalt, limestone, and sandstone)
the atoms begin to clump together and
there are no longer thousands of *The composition of a rock, as well as the
separate atoms, just one "super atom."; appearance, shape, and arrangement of the
used to study quantum mechanics on a grains or crystals within the rock (i.e. its
macroscopic level texture), are the characteristics that reveal its
process of formation
PHASES:
3 MAIN CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS:
 MELTING- from solid to a liquid
 FREEZING- from liquid to solid  IGNEOUS ROCKS- (derived from the
 SUBLIMATION- from solid to gas Latin word “ignis” meaning fire), or
 DEPOSITION- from gas to solid magmatic rock) Igneous rocks form
 VAPORIZATION- from liquid to gas when hot, molten rock (magma) cools
 CONDENSATION- from gas to liquid and solidifies

MEASUREMENT *INTRUSIVE/PLUTONIC IGNEOUS ROCKS-

formed when rising magma is trapped deep
International System of Units- is the metric within the Earth, where it cools very slowly
system used in science, industry, and medicine over many thousands or millions of years
until it finally solidifies.
7 BASE UNITS IN THE SI SYSTEM:
*EXTRUSIVE/VOLCANIC, IGNEOUS ROCKS-
 kilogram (kg)- mass produced when magma is erupted at, or
 second (s)- time very near, the Earth's surface
 kelvin (K)- thermodynamic temperature
 ampere- electric current  SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- formed from
the eroded fragments of pre-existing
 mole (mol)- amount of a substance
rocks, or from the skeletal fragments of
 candela (cd)- luminous intensity
once-living plants or organisms
 meter (m)- distance (length)
*CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- made up of
EARTH SCIENCE
fragments (clasts) of pre-existing rocks
ROCKS AND MINERALS * BIOLOGICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- form
when large quantities of living plants or
Minerals and rocks are the essential building organisms die and accumulate
blocks of the geosphere.
*CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- formed by
1. MINERAL- are the fundamental components chemical precipitation from solutions
of rocks. They are naturally occurring inorganic
substances with a specific chemical composition
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS- formed when a
and an orderly repeating atomic structure that
pre-existing rock is subject to high
defines a crystal structure. (E.g quartz, feldspar,
temperature, high pressure, hot and
mica, amphibole, olivine, and calcite)
mineral-rich fluid, or a combination of
these conditions
*SILICATE MINERALS- are the most abundant
components of rocks on the Earth's surface,
*FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS- exhibit a
making up over 90% by mass of the Earth's crust
platy or sheet-like structure.
*Minerals are classified according to their
*NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS-
chemical composition.
display a massive structure
*The physical properties of minerals, such as
ROCK CYCLE- a conceptual model that explains
their hardness, lustre, colour, cleavage, fracture
how geological processes acting on any one of
and relative density, can be used to identify
the three main rock types can change one rock
minerals. These general characteristics are
type to another over geological time. Plate
controlled mainly by their atomic structure
tectonics is the driving force of the Rock Cycle
(crystal structure).
 Igneous rock-forming processes involve
melting, cooling and crystallization.
 Sedimentary rock-forming processes  MESOSPHERE- mesosphere
involve weathering, erosion, refers to the part of the
deposition, burial and lithification. Earth's mantle below the
 Metamorphic rock-forming processes lithosphere and the
involve changes to rock textures and asthenosphere
mineral compositions under different  THERMOSPHERE- lies
temperature, pressure or hot fluid above the mesopause, and
conditions. is a region in which
temperatures again
EARTH’S INTERIOR increase with height
 IONOSPHERE- region of the
MAJOR LAYERS: atmosphere above about
80 km since the energetic
solar radiation knocks
electrons off molecules and
atoms, turning them into
"ions" with a positive
charge
 EXOSPHERE- region above
about 500; contains mainly
oxygen and hydrogen
atoms, but there are so few
of them that they rarely
collide - they follow
"ballistic" trajectories
under the influence of
gravity, and some of them
escape right out into space
 MAGNETOSPHERE- The
earth behaves like a huge
magnet. It traps electrons
1. INNER CORE- the very center of (negative charge) and
the Earth, and the hottest part protons (positive),
of the planet concentrating them in two
2. OUTER CORE- outer core is a bands about 3,000 and
fluid layer about 2,400 km 16,000 km above the globe
(1,500 mi) thick and composed - the Van Allen "radiation"
of mostly iron and nickel that belts
lies above Earth's solid inner
core and below its mantle *ASTHENOSPHERE- the upper layer of the
3. MANTLE- is the mostly-solid earth's mantle, below the lithosphere
bulk of Earth's interior; lies
between Earth's dense, super-
heated core and its thin outer
layer, the crust
4. CRUST- outermost solid shell of
a rocky planet, dwarf planet, or
*ATMOSPHERE- a layer or a set of
natural satellite
layers of gases surrounding a planet
 OCEANIC CRUST- mainly
or other material body, that is held
made out of dark basalt
in place by the gravity of that body
rocks that are rich in
minerals and substances
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE: like silicon and magnesium;
denser than continental
 TROPOSPHERE- lowest part crust
of the atmosphere - the  CONTINENTAL CRUST-
part we live in. It contains made up of light-colored
most of our weather - granite rocks full of
clouds, rain, snow substances like oxygen and
 STRATOSPHERE- extends silicon; less dense than
upwards from the oceanic
tropopause to about 50 km.
It contains much of the
ozone in the atmosphere
 *LITHOSPHERE- the rigid outer *FAULTS- rock fractures where a block of rock
part of the earth, consisting of moves with respect to another caused by forces
the crust and upper mantle. which maybe vertical, horizontal or inclined

 OCEANIC *FAULT PLANE-rock surface along which fault

LITHOSPHERE- forms movement takes place. HANGING WALL is the
through volcanism in block of rock above the fault plane. FOOTWALL
the form of fissures at is the block of rock below.
mid-ocean ridges which
are cracks that encircle TYPES OF FAULTS:
the globe
 CONTINENTAL  DIP-SLIP FAULTS- involves vertical
LITHOSPHERE- about movement of blocks of rocks
150 kilometers (93  STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS- horizontal
miles) thick with a low- movement of blocks of rock
density crust and
upper-mantle that are VOLCANO- a rupture in the crust of a
permanently buoyant. planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that
allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to
*CONTINENTAL DRIFT-a escape from a magma chamber below the
process where continents drift surface
laterally along the convecting
system of the mantle away 3 MAIN TYPES OF VOLCANOES:
from hot mantle zones toward
cooler ones 1. COMPOSITE VOLCANOES/ STRATO
VOLCANOES- are steep sided cones
PLATE TECTONICS formed from layers of ash and lava
flows. The eruptions from these
*TECTONIC PLATE/LITHOSPHERIC PLATE- a volcanoes may be a pyroclastic flow
massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock, rather than a flow of lava.
generally composed of both continental and
oceanic lithosphere *PYROCLASTIC FLOW- a superheated mixture of
hot steam, ash, rock and dust; can travel down
*PLATE TECTONICS THEORY- the theory the side of a volcano
supported by a wide range of evidence that
considers the earth's crust and upper mantle to 2. SHIELD VOLCANOES- are low with
be composed of several large, thin, relatively gently sloping sides and are formed
rigid plates that move relative to one another from layers of lava. Eruptions are
typically non-explosive. Shield
*Tectonic earthquakes occur at plate tectonic volcanoes produce fast flowing fluid
boundaries. Tectonic plates are constantly lava that can flow for many miles
moving. The waves of released energy (SEISMIC 3. CINDER CONE- are the simplest type of
WAVES- vibrations of the earth caused by volcano. They are built from particles
sudden release of energy stored in rocks) move and blobs of congealed lava ejected
through the Earth's crust and cause the from a single vent. As the gas-charged
*EARTHQUAKES- sudden shaking of the ground lava is blown violently into the air, it
caused by the passage of seismic waves through breaks into small fragments that solidify
Earth's rocks and fall as cinders around the vent to
form a circular or oval cone
*PLATE BOUNDARIES- boundary regions
between plates *ACTIVE VOLCANO- a volcano that has had at
least one eruption during the past 10,000 years;
THREE MAIN TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES: might be erupting or dormant.
*ERUPTING VOLCANO- an active volcano that is
1. DIVERGENT- extensional; the plates having an eruption...
move apart. Spreading ridges, basin- *DORMANT VOLCANO- an active volcano that
range is not erupting, but supposed to erupt again.
2. CONVERGENT- compressional; plates *EXTINCT VOLCANO- has not had an eruption
move toward each other. Includes: for at least 10,000 years and is not expected to
Subduction zones and mountain erupt again in a comparable time scale of the
building. future.
3. TRANSFORM- shearing; plates slide past
each other. Strike-slip motion.
BODIES OF WATER ECOSYETEM- large community of living
organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in
*BODY OF WATER- any significant accumulation a particular area
of water, generally on a planet's surface;
MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS:
1. OCEAN- a very large expanse of sea, in
particular each of the main areas into which the 1. TROPICAL RAINFOREST-are
sea is divided geographically rainforests that occur in areas of
tropical rainforest climate in which
 North Pacific Ocean there is no dry season – all months
 South Pacific Ocean have an average precipitation of at
 North Atlantic Ocean least 60 mm; lowland equatorial
 South Atlantic Ocean evergreen rainforest
 Indian Ocean 2. TEMPERATE RAINFORESTS-
 Arctic Ocean coniferous or broadleaf forests that
1. SEA- the expanse of salt water that occur in the temperate zone and
covers most of the earth's surface and receive heavy rainfall
surrounds its landmasses 3. TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST-
 Mediterranean Sea found between the tropical and
 Caribbean Sea boreal regions, located in the
2. DELTA- landform created by deposition temperate zone.
of sediment that is carried by a river as 4. TAIGA- the sometimes swampy
the flow leaves its mouth and enters coniferous forest of high northern
slower-moving or stagnant water latitudes, especially that between
3. WETLAND- distinct ecosystem that is the tundra and steppes of Siberia
flooded by water, either permanently and North America
or seasonally, where oxygen-free 5. TUNDRA- type of biome where the
processes prevail tree growth is hindered by low
4. LAKE- an area filled with water, temperatures and short growing
localized in a basin, surrounded by land, seasons
apart from any river or other outlet that 6. DESERT- barren area of landscape
serves to feed or drain the lake where little precipitation occurs
5. POND- an area filled with water, either and, consequently, living conditions
natural or artificial, that is smaller than are hostile for plant and animal life
a lake 7. GRASSLAND- areas where the
6. PUDDLE- a small accumulation of liquid, vegetation is dominated by grasses
usually water, on a surface 8. CHAPARRAL- shrubland or
heathland plant community found
primarily in the US state of
LAND FORMS- a natural or artificial feature
California and in the northern
of the solid surface of the Earth or other
portion of the Baja California
planetary body
Peninsula, Mexico
1. MOUNTAIN- a large landform that rises
above the surrounding land in a limited
area, usually in the form of a peak
2. HILL- extends above the surrounding
terrain
3. PLAIN- flat, sweeping landmass that
generally does not change much in
elevation
4. PLATEAU- also called a high plain or a
tableland, is an area of a highland,
usually consisting of relatively flat
terrain, that is raised significantly above
the surrounding area, often with one or
more sides with steep slopes *FOOD CHAIN- the sequence of who eats whom
5. VALLEY- low area between hills or in a biological community (an ecosystem) to
mountains typically with a river running obtain nutrition
through it
6. ISLAND- any piece of sub-continental *TROPHIC LEVEL-is the position an organism
land that is surrounded by water holds in a food chain
  PRIMARY PRODUCERS/AUTOTROPH- *PERMINERALIZATION- Fossilization in which
organisms that make their own food minerals in water deposit into empty spaces in
from sunlight an organism
 PRIMARY CONSUMERS- animals that
eat primary producers; they are also WEATHER, CLIMATE
called herbivores (plant-eaters).
 SECONDARY CONSUMERS- eat primary *WEATHER is the condition of the atmosphere
consumers. They are carnivores (meat- at a particular place over a short period of time
eaters) and omnivores (animals that eat
both animals and plants). *CLIMATE- refers to the weather pattern, using
 TERTIARY CONSUMERS- eat secondary statistical data, of a place over a long enough
consumers. period to yield meaningful averages.
 QUATERNARY CONSUMERS- eat
tertiary consumers. *SOUTHWEST MONSOON (HABAGAT)- July to
October
Food chains "end" with top predators, animals
that have little or no natural enemies. *NORTHEAST MONSOON (AMIHAN)-
November to February
 When any organism dies, it is eventually
eaten by DETRIVORES (like vultures, TYPICAL WEATHER INSTRUMENTS:
worms and crabs) and broken down by
DECOMPOSERS (mostly bacteria and  Thermometer- measuring air and sea
fungi), and the exchange of energy surface temperature
continues.  Barometer- measuring atmospheric
pressure
*HETEROTROPHIC- cannot make their own  Hygrometer- measuring humidity
food  Anemometer- measuring wind speed
 Pyranometer- measuring solar radiation
 Rain gauge- measuring liquid
precipitation over a set period of time.
 Wind sock- measuring general wind
speed and wind direction
 Wind vane/weather vane/weathercock-
shows whence the wind is blowing.

FOSSILS- the remains and traces of ancient

organisms

5 TYPES OF FOSSILS:

 INSECT PRESERVED IN AMBER

 PETRIFIED WOOD
(PERMINERALIZATION)
 CAST AND MOLD OF A CLAM SHELL
 PYRITIZED AMMONITE
 COMPRESSION FOSSIL OF A FERN
 AMBER: FOSSILIZED TREE SAP. PHYSICS

*CAST- mold filled with sediment and hardened LAWS OF MOTION

to create a replica of the original fossil
Newton's Three Laws of Motion
*MOLD- n impression made in sediments by the
hard parts of an organism 1. LAW OF INERTIA- A body at rest will
remain at rest, and a body in motion
 will remain in motion unless it is acted and magnetism, but considered them to be two
upon by an external force separate phenomena.
2. The force acting on an object is equal to
the mass of that object times its The relationship known as electromagnetism
acceleration (f=ma) wasn't described until JAMES CLERK MAXWELL
3. implies conservation of momentum; for published A Treatise on Electricity and
every action, there is an equal and Magnetism in 1873. Maxwell's work included
opposite reaction; When one object twenty famous equations, which have since
``pushes'' a second object at some been condensed into four partial differential
(massless) point of contact using an equations
applied force, there must be an equal
and opposite force from the second ASTRONOMY
object that cancels the applied force
PLANETS OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY
*PLANET- a true planet as a body that circles
*ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM are separate the sun without being some other object's
yet interconnected phenomena associated with satellite; is large enough to be rounded by its
the electromagnetic force. Together, they form own gravity (but not so big that it begins to
the basis for electromagnetism, a key physics undergo nuclear fusion, like a star); and has
discipline "cleared its neighborhood" of most other
orbiting bodies
*MAGNETIC FIELD- generated by a moving
electric charge generates a magnetic field; *TERRESTRIAL PLANETS- The inner four planets
induces electric charge movement, producing closest to the sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth and
an electric current. Mars) because their surfaces are rocky. Pluto
also has a rocky, albeit frozen, surface but has
In an electromagnetic wave, the electric field never been grouped with the four terrestrials.
and magnetic field are perpendicular to one
another. *JOVIAN/GAS GIANTS- The four large outer
worlds (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune)
*BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY- electricity because of their enormous size relative to the
is the phenomenon associated with either terrestrial planets. They're also mostly made of
stationary or moving electric charges. The gases like hydrogen, helium and ammonia
source of the electric charge could be an rather than of rocky surfaces
elementary particle, an electron (which has a
negative charge), a proton (which has a positive *JUPITER AND SATURN- sometimes called the
charge), an ion, or any larger body that has an gas giants
imbalance of positive and negative charge.
Positive and negative charges attracts each *URANUS AND NEPTUNE- have been
other (e.g., protons are attracted to electrons), nicknamed the ice giants because Uranus and
while like charges repel each other (e.g., Neptune have more atmospheric water and
protons repel other protons and electrons repel other ice-forming molecules, such as methane,
other electrons). hydrogen sulfide and phosphene, that
crystallize into clouds in the planets' frigid
*BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETISM- conditions
magnetism is defined as the physical
phenomenon produced by moving electric MERCURY
charge. Also, a magnetic field can induce
charged particles to move, producing an electric  smallest and closest planet to the sun
current. An electromagnetic wave (such as light)  only a little bit larger than Earth's moon
has both an electric and magnetic component.  experiences dramatic changes in its day
The two components of the wave travel in the and night temperatures: Day
same direction, but oriented at a right angle (90 temperatures can reach a scorching 840
degrees) to one another. F (450 C), which is hot enough to melt
lead. Meanwhile on the night side,
*THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF temperatures drop to minus 290 F
ELECTROMAGNETISM- The word (minus 180 C).
electromagnetism comes from a combination of  has a very thin atmosphere of oxygen,
the Greek works elektron, meaning "amber" sodium, hydrogen, helium and
and magnetis lithos, meaning "Magnesian potassium and can't break-up incoming
stone," which is a magnetic iron ore. The meteors, so its surface is pockmarked
ancient Greeks were familiar with electricity with craters, just like the moon.
  Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks  shares similarities with Earth: It is rocky,
and visible to the naked eye has mountains, valleys and canyons,
 Named for the messenger of the Roman and storm systems ranging from
gods localized tornado-like dust devils to
 Orbit: 88 Earth days planet-engulfing dust storms.
 Day: 58.6 Earth days  Substantial scientific evidence suggests
that Mars at one point billions of years
VENUS ago was a much warmer, wetter world.
Rivers and maybe even oceans existed.
 Venus is Earth's twin in size  Although Mars' atmosphere is too thin
 Radar images beneath its atmosphere for liquid water to exist on the surface
reveal that its surface has various for any length of time, remnants of that
mountains and volcanoes wetter Mars still exist today. Sheets of
 Because of its thick, toxic atmosphere water ice the size of California lie
that's made of sulfuric acid clouds, beneath Mars' surface, and at both
Venus is an extreme example of the poles are ice caps made in part of
greenhouse effect. frozen water
 It's scorching-hot, even hotter than  Scientists also think ancient Mars would
MercuryThe average temperature on have had the conditions to support life
Venus' surface is 900 F (465 C). At 92 like bacteria and other microbes. Hope
bar, the pressure at the surface would that signs of this past life — and the
crush and kill you. And possibility of even current lifeforms —
 spins slowly from east to west, the may exist on the Red Planet has driven
opposite direction of most of the other numerous space exploration missions
planets. and Mars is now one of the most
 Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks explored planets in the solar system.
and visible to the naked eye  Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks
 Named for the Roman goddess of love and visible to the naked eye
and beauty  Named for the Roman god of war
 Diameter: 7,521 miles (12,104 km)  Diameter: 4,217 miles (6,787 km)
 Orbit: 225 Earth days  Orbit: 687 Earth days
 Day: 241 Earth days  Day: Just more than one Earth day (24
hours, 37 minutes)
EARTH
JUPITER
 Earth is a waterworld, with two-
thirds of the planet covered by  is a giant gas world that is the most
ocean. massive planet in our solar systemmore
 It's the only world known to harbor than twice as massive as all the other
life planets combined, according to NASA
 Earth's atmosphere is rich in  Its swirling clouds are colorful due to
nitrogen and oxygen different types of trace gases. And a
 Earth's surface rotates about its axis major feature in its swirling clouds is
at 1,532 feet per second (467 the Great Red Spot, a giant storm more
meters per second) — slightly more than 10,000 miles wide. It has raged at
than 1,000 mph (1,600 kph) — at more than 400 mph for the last 150
the equator. The planet zips around years, at least. Jupiter has a strong
the sun at more than 18 miles per magnetic field, and with 75 moons, it
second (29 km per second). looks a bit like a miniature solar system.
 Name originates from "Die Erde,"  Discovery: Known to the ancient Greeks
the German word for "the ground." and visible to the naked eye
 Diameter: 7,926 miles (12,760 km)  Named for the ruler of the Roman gods
 Orbit: 365.24 days  Diameter: 86,881 miles (139,822 km)
 Day: 23 hours, 56 minutes  Orbit: 11.9 Earth years
 Day: 9.8 Earth hours
MARS
SATURN
 it's a cold, desert-like place covered in
dust is known most for its rings. When polymath
Galileo Galilei first studied Saturn in the
 This dust is made of iron oxides, giving
early 1600s, he thought it was an object
the planet its iconic red hue
with three parts: a planet and two large
moons on either side. Not knowing he was
 seeing a planet with rings, the stumped of Uranus led French astronomer
astronomer entered a small drawing — a Alexis Bouvard to suggest some
symbol with one large circle and two other planet might be exerting a
smaller ones — in his notebook, as a noun gravitational tug. German
in a sentence describing his discovery. More astronomer Johann Galle used
than 40 years later, Christiaan Huygens calculations to help find Neptune in
proposed that they were rings. The rings are a telescope. Neptune is about 17
made of ice and rock and scientists are not times as massive as Earth and has a
yet sure how they formed. The gaseous rocky core.
planet is mostly hydrogen and helium and  Discovery: 1846
has numerous moons.  Named for the Roman god of water
 Diameter: 30,775 miles (49,530 km)
 Orbit: 165 Earth years
 Day: 19 Earth hours
 Discovery: Known to the ancient
Greeks and visible to the naked eye PLUTO
 Named for Roman god of
agriculture  Once the ninth planet from the sun
 Diameter: 74,900 miles (120,500  It is smaller than Earth's moon; its orbit
km) is highly elliptical, falling inside
 Orbit: 29.5 Earth years Neptune's orbit at some points and far
 Day: About 10.5 Earth hours beyond it at others
 Pluto's orbit doesn't fall on the same
URANUS plane as all the other planets —
instead, it orbits 17.1 degrees above or
 It has clouds made of hydrogen sulfide, below.
the same chemical that makes rotten  From 1979 until early 1999, Pluto had
eggs smell so foul. It rotates from east actually been the eighth planet from
to west like Venus. But unlike Venus or the sun. Then, on Feb. 11, 1999, it
any other planet, its equator is nearly at crossed Neptune's path and once again
right angles to its orbit — it basically became the solar system's most distant
orbits on its side. Astronomers believe planet — until it was redefined as a
an object twice the size of Earth dwarf planet. It's a cold, rocky world
collided with Uranus roughly 4 billion with a tenuous atmosphere. Scientists
years ago, causing Uranus to tilt. That thought it might be nothing more than
tilt causes extreme seasons that last 20- a hunk of rock on the outskirts of the
plus years, and the sun beats down on solar system. But when NASA's New
one pole or the other for 84 Earth-years Horizons mission performed history's
at a time. first flyby of the Pluto system on July
 The collision is also thought to have 14, 2015, it transformed scientists' view
knocked rock and ice into Uranus' orbit. of Pluto. Pluto is a very active ice world
These later became some of the that's covered in glaciers, mountains of
planet's 27 moons. Methane in the ice water, icy dunes and possibly even
atmosphere gives Uranus its blue-green cryovolcanoes that erupt icy lava made
tint. It also has 13 sets of faint rings. of water, methane or ammonia.
 Discovery: 1781 by William Herschel  Discovery: 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh
(was originally thought to be a star)  Named for the Roman god of the
 Named for the personification of underworld, Hades
heaven in ancient myth  Diameter: 1,430 miles (2,301 km)
 Diameter: 31,763 miles (51,120 km)  Orbit: 248 Earth years
 Orbit: 84 Earth years  Day: 6.4 Earth day
 Day: 18 Earth hours
STARS, ASTEROIDS, COMETS,
NEPTUNE METEORS

 is about the size of Uranus and is *COMETS- objects composed mostly of ice and
known for supersonic strong winds dust that grow tails when they approach the
 is far out and cold. The planet is sun; come from two places in the Solar System:
more than 30 times as far from the the Oort Cloud and the Kuiper Belt. OORT
sun as Earth. Neptune was the first CLOUD is a spherical halo of comets
planet predicted to exist by using surrounding the Solar System. KUIPER BELT is a
math, before it was visually ring of icy objects beyond the orbit of Neptune
detected. Irregularities in the orbit (30-100 AU). It lies (more or less) in the plane of
the solar system and is a reservoir for the short
period comets that we see

*ASTEROIDS- the small rocky objects in the

Solar System. The largest asteroid is Ceres,

*METEORS- the short, white trails across the

sky that we call "shooting stars." They are
caused by small pea-sized pieces of inter-
planetary dust that burn up when they slam
into the Earth's atmosphere at high speeds. *GALAXY- is a gravitationally bound system of
Meteor showers happen when Earth passes stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust,
through the orbital path of a comet that left a and dark matter. The word galaxy is derived
lot of dust behind; If a meteoroid enters the from the Greek galaxias, literally "milky", a
Earth's atmosphere and vaporizes, it becomes a reference to the Milky Way.
meteor, which is often called a shooting star.If a
small asteroid or large meteoroid survives its *UNIVERSE is all of space and time and their
fiery passage through the Earth's atmosphere contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and
and lands on Earth's surface, it is then called a all other forms of matter and energy
meteorite

*STAR- is an astronomical object consisting of a

luminous spheroid of plasma held together by
its own gravity. The nearest star to Earth is the
Sun

*BLACK HOLE- is a region of spacetime

exhibiting gravitational acceleration so strong
that nothing—no particles or even
electromagnetic radiation such as light—can
escape from it. The theory of general relativity
predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can
deform spacetime to form a black hole

ECLIPSES

*LUNAR ECLIPSE- occurs when the Moon passes

directly behind Earth and into its shadow. This
can occur only when the Sun, Earth, and Moon
are exactly or very closely aligned, with Earth
between the other two

*SOLAR ECLIPSE- occurs when a portion of the

Earth is engulfed in a shadow cast by the Moon
which fully or partially blocks sunlight. This
occurs when the Sun, Moon and Earth are
aligned. Such alignment coincides with a new
moon indicating the Moon is closest to the
ecliptic plane

MOON CYCLE

*LUNAR PHASE/PHASE OF THE MOON- the

shape of the directly sunlit portion of the Moon
as viewed from Earth