DEPT.

OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND

HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
 CONTENT

CHAPTER COURSE PAGES

1 COCONUT 1-10

2 ARECANUT 11-18

3 CASHEW 19-28

4 TEA 29-39

5 COFFEE 40-45

6 RUBBER 46-51
 Coconut

Botanical name: Cocos nucifera

Family: Palmae
Sub family: Cocoidae
Centre of Origin: South East Asia
Chromosome No. 2n= 32

Introduction

Coconut (Cocos nucifera) plays a significant role in the agrarian economy of India.
Apart from the importance of copra and coconut oil which is widely used in the
manufacture of soaps, hair oil, cosmetics and other industrial products, its husk is a
source of fibre which supports a sizable coir industry. The tender nut supplies coconut
water, a popular thirst quencher of health and hygienicvalue. Virgin coconut oil(VCO),
extracted from fresh coconut kernel without any chemical processes is abundant in
vitamins, minerals and anti-oxidants, thus making it the 'mother of all oils. Coconut is a
crop of small and marginal farmers since 98% of about five million coconut holdings in
the country are less than two hectares. In the west coast of India, the palm is an essential
component in the homestead system of farming. While there is a concentration of
coconut plantations in the coastal regions of the country, it is also grown in the
hinterlands where the agro climatic requirements of coconut cultivation are met.

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PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
Scope for Coconut Cultivation and its National Importance

Coconut is grown in more than 93 countries of the world and Indonesia, Philippines,
India are the major producing countries of the world. Coconut is grown in more than
18.95 lakh ha in the country with an estimated 16943 million nuts during 2010-11 with
an average productivity of 8937 nuts per ha. Traditional areas of coconut in India are the
states of Kerala, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Goa, West Bengal,
Pondicherry, Maharashtra and Islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar.
However, several states like Assam, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura, Manipur,
Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh have emerged as non-traditional areas for the
cultivation of coconut.

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PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
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 Technical Requirements of Coconut Cultivation

Agro - climatic requirements

Coconut is essentially a tropical plant but has been found to grow under varying agro
climatic conditions. The mean annual temperature for optimum growth and maximum
yield is stated to be 270C with a diurnal variation of 60C to 70C and relative humidity
more than 60 %. The coconut palm thrives well up to an altitude of 600 m above MSL.
The coconut palm thrives well under an evenly distributed annual rainfall ranging from
1000 mm to 3000 mm. However, a well distributed rainfall of about 2000 mm is the
ideal rainfall for proper growth and higher yield.

Soil

The coconut palm can tolerate wide range of soil conditions. But the palm does show
certain growth preferences. A variety of factors such as drainage, soil depth, soil fertility
and layout of the land has great influence on the growth of the palm. The major soil
types that support coconut in India are laterite, alluvial, red sandy loam, coastal sandy
and reclaimed soils with a pH ranging from 5.2 to 8.0.

Selection of Site

Soil with a minimum depth of 1.2m and fairly good water holding capacity is preferred
for coconut cultivation. Shallow soils with underlying hard rock, low lying areas
subjected to water stagnation and clayey soils should be avoided. Proper supply of
moisture either through well distributed rainfall or irrigation and sufficient drainage are
essential for coconut.

Preparation of land

Size of the pit depends on the soil type and water table. In laterite soils large pits of the
size 1.2m x 1.2m x 1.2 m may be dug and filled up with loose soil, powdered cow dung
and ash up to a depth of 60 cm before planting. In loamy soils, pits of size 1m x 1m x
1m filled with top soil to height of 50 cm is recommended. While filling the pits, two
layers of coconut husk can be arranged at the bottom of the pit with concave surface

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DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
 facing upwards for moisture conservation. After arranging each layer, BHC 10% DP
should be sprinkled on the husk to prevent termite attack. In laterite soils, common salt
@ 2 kg per pit may be applied, six months prior, on the floor of the pit to soften the hard
pans.

Spacing

In general square system of planting with a spacing of 7.5m x 7.5m is recommended for
coconut. This will accommodate 177 palms per hectare. However, spacing of 7.5 to 10
m is practised in various coconut growing regions of the country.
Varieties

The tall varieties are extensively grown throughout India while dwarf is grown mainly
for parent material in hybrid seed production and for tender coconuts. The tall varieties
generally grown along the west coast is called West Coast Tall and along the east coast
is called East Coast Tall. Benaulim is the tall variety grown in Goa and coastal
Maharashtra. Laccadive Ordinary, Laccadive Micro, Tiptur Tall, Kappadam, Komadan
and Andaman Ordinary are some of the tall varieties.

Chowghat Dwarf Orange, Chowghat Dwarf Yellow, Chowghat Dwarf Green, Malayan
Yellow Dwarf and Malayan Orange Dwarf are some of the dwarf varieties grown in
India. Gangabondam is a semi tall type grown in certain tracts of Andhra Pradesh.
Characters of Tall Varieties
• 90% cross pollination.
• Wide variation in height, colour, shape and size of the nut.
• Wide variation in yield & quality of copra.
• Extensively cultivated in all coconut tracks.
• Long stout trunk with a swollen base.
• Ht. of trunk 15 – 20m.
• Crown has 25 to 40 leaves( length of frond 6m).
• Hardy , late bearing & resistant to insect, pest & disease.
• Life span 80 to 90 years
• Bearing starts from 7 to 9 years onwards.
• Good quality copra, oil & fiber yield
• WCT, ECT,AO, LO, Malay Giant, Singapore Giant, Philippines ordinary, Kerasagara.

Characters of Dwarf Varieties

• Short plant , early bearing

• 90% self pollination.

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PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
 • Thin trunk with swollen base.
• Fully developed frond( not more than 4m)
• Fully grown tree 5-8m
• Bearing within 5-7 years.
• Heavy yielding but irregular bearing
• Yield decline after 25yr but economic life may extend to 35 to 40yr.
• Generally grown for tender nuts.
• 3 types of dwarf cultivar(Green ,orange,yellow)

Table 1 : Details of coconut varieties/ Hybrids

S. Name Area for which recommended Annual nut Copra Oil content
No yield/ palm (g/nut) (%)
Varieties
1 Chandrakalpa Kerala, Karnataka, TN 97 195 70
2 Kerachandra AP, Maharashtra 110 198 66
3 Chowghat Orange All coconut growing regions Tender nut variety
Dwarf
4 KalpaPratibha West Coast region and 91 256 67
peninsular India
5 KalpaDhenu West Coast region and 86 242 65.5
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
6 KalpaMitra West Coast region and West 80 241 66.5
Bengal
7 Kalpatharu Kerala, Karnataka, TN 116 176 68
8 Kalparaksha West Coast region and root 65 215 65.5
(wilt) diseases tracts of Kerala
9 Kalpasree West Coast region and root 90 96.3 66.5
(wilt) diseases tracts of Kerala
10 Pratap Konkan region 150 152 59
11 VPM-3 Tamil Nadu 77 191 66
12 ALR 1 Tamil Nadu 126 131 64
13 Kamrupa Assam 101 162 64
14 KeraSagara Kerala 99 203 67.8
15 KeraKeralam Kerala, Tamilnadu and West 109 186 67.8
Bengal;

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DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
16 KeraBastar Andhra Pradesh, Konkanregion 117 151
in Maharashtra and Tamilnadu
17 Kalyani Coconut-1 West Bengal 80 154
18 Gauthami Ganga Andhra Pradesh 90 157 68
Hybrids
1 Chandra Sankara Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu 110 208 68
2 KeraSankara Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, 106 198 68
Andhra Pradesh
3 Chandra Laksha Kerala, Karnataka 109 195 69
4 KalpaSankara West Coast region and root 84 170 67.5
(wilt) disease tracts of Kerala
5 KalpaSamrudhi Kerala and Assam 117 214 69
6 Laksha Ganga Kerala, Tamil Nadu 108 195 70
7 Kera Ganga Kerala 100 201 69
8 KeraSree Kerala 112 216 66
9 KeraSowbhagya Kerala 130 195 65
10 Ananda Ganga Kerala 95 216 68
11 Godavari Ganga Andhra Pradesh 140 150 68
12 VHC-1 Tamil Nadu 98 135 70
13 VHC-2 Tamil Nadu 107 152 69
14 VHC-3 Tamil Nadu 156 161 64.5
15 KonkanBhatye Konkan Region, Maharashtra 122 180 67.1
Coconut Hybrid-1
Source: Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod

Difference between Tall & Dwarf coconut

• More than 20m • Less than 8m

• Bearing start 7 to 9yr • Bearing start within 5yr.
• Mainly cross pollinated • Mainly self pollinated
• 8 to 9 leaves/yr • 20 leaves/yr
• Flowering period upto 28 days • Flowering period upto 35 days
• Green frond • Orange brown to yellow frond
• Oil content( more than 65%) • Oil content< 65%
• Dried copra 130gm / nut • Dried copra 85gm/nut
• Coconut water is less sweet • More sweet
• More resistant to insect pest diseases • Highly susceptible
• Nut shape varies • Nut shape round or egg like

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PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
 Hybrid coconut

Two types of hybrids

Tall X Dwarf (TD)
Dwarf x Tall (DT)
 Early bearer, high yielder
 No. of nuts/palm is high
 Easy intercultural operations
 Less longevity(only 30yr.)
 More susceptible to insect pest & disease
 Irregular bearing habit
 Small size nut
 Less percent of oil
 Non tolerant to drought

Hybrid Cross Released by

Combination
Kerasankar WCTxCOD CPCRI

Chandrasankar COD x WCT CPCRI

Chandralaksha LCT x COD CPCRI
Keraganga WCT x GBGD KAU
Anandaganga ADOT x GBGD KAU
Kerasree WCT x MYD KAU
Kerasoubhagya WCT x SSAT KAU
VHC-1 ECT x MGD TNAU
VHC-2 ECT x MYD TNAU
VHC-3 ECT x MOD TNAU
Godavari Ganga ECT x GBGD APAU

Maintenance of Coconut Garden

Regular manuring from the first year of planting is essential to ensure good vegetative
growth, early flowering and bearing and high yield. Organic manure at the rate of 30 kg
per palm per year may be applied with the onset of south west monsoon when soil
moisture content is high. Different forms of organic manures like compost, farmyard
manure, bonemeal, fish meal, neem cake, groundnut cake, gingelly cake, etc. could be
used for this purpose. Green manure crops like sunhemp, glyricidia, dhaincha, etc. could
also be grown as intercrops to incorporate in the coconut basins later.

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PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
 Manures and Fertilizers

Regular manuring right from the first year of planting is essential for good vegetative
growth, early flowering and bearing and sustainable yield of coconut palms. The first
application of chemical fertilizers should be done after three months of planting.

Particulars Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 onwards

FYM (kg/palm) 40 20 25 30
N (g/palm) 50 160 330 500
P (g/palm) 40 120 240 320
K (g/palm) 135 400 810 1200

Rock phosphate is recommended as source of phosphorus in lateritic and acidic soils.

Fertilisers may be applied in two split doses during May-June and September-October
for the rainfed palms and in four or more equal splits for irrigated palms avoiding the
heavy rainfall period. In sandy soils with acidic nature, in addition to these fertilizers, 1
kg of dolomite may be broadcast during April-May in the basins and incorporated into
the soil by forking.

Irrigation

Coconut responds well to summer irrigation i.e. summer irrigation @ 40 litres per palm
per week will increase the yield of nuts by 50%. Under basin irrigation, 200 litres per
palm once in four days will be beneficial. In areas where water is scarce drip irrigation
system can be adopted. The quantity of water recommended for drip irrigation in
coconut is 66 per cent of the open pan evaporation.

Interculture operations

Tillage operations like digging, ploughing, forming small mounds during August -
September and spreading them in December - January, making shallow basins with a
radius of 2m before the onset of monsoon and filling it up at the close of monsoon are
beneficial to the trees. Regular inter cultivation needs to be adopted to keep weeds under
control. In sandy soils, intercultivationmay not be necessary.

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DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
Propagation
• Propagation through seed is common.
• Selection of mother plant is important
– Parents of mother plant should be well known.
– Should be of medium age
– Regular bearing habit
– There must be 10-12 inflorescence/yr.
– Crown should be spherical
– 30 - 40 fronds/tree
– Good fruiting ability
– More female flower should be there.
– Flowering stalk strong and stout.
– Medium size nut and free from disease and pest.
– No abortion of fruit
– Wt. of nut should be 1.5kg
– Endosperm should be more than 300gm and copra should be more than
180gm.
Nursery raising
• 1 ha. Produces 70,000 seedlings of coconut.
• Planting –R to R = 40cm
• nut to nut 30-40cm
• 2 method of sowing
– Straight or upright method
– Parallel or horizontal method
Planting Material
• Generally 9 to 12 month old seedlings are used for planting.
• Select seedlings, which have 6-8 leaves and 10-12 cm collar girth when they are 9-
12 month old.
• Early splitting of leaves is another criteria in the selection of coconut seedling.

Coconut based cropping systems

To maximise the utilisation of soil and sunlight in the coconut garden, intercropping can
be adopted with a variety of crops like pineapple, banana, elephant foot yam, groundnut,
chillies, sweet potato, tapioca etc. upto 8-10 years. During 10-22 years of age of the
palms, crop like colocasia which can tolerate shade can be cultivated. In older
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PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
plantations, perennials like cocoa, pepper, cinnamon, clove and nutmeg can be grown as
mixed crops along with intercrops. Mixed farming by raising fodder grasses such as
hybrid napier or guinea grass along with leguminous fodder crops in coconut garden has
been found to be profitable which can support rearing of milch animals.

Harvesting

Coconuts are harvested at varying intervals in a year. The frequency differs in different
areas depending upon the yield of the trees. In well maintained and high yielding
gardens, bunches are produced regularly and harvesting is done once a month.

Coconuts become mature in about 12 months after the opening of the spathe. It is the
ripe coconut which is the source of major coconut products. Nuts which are eleven
months old give fibre of good quality and can be harvested in the tracts where green
husks are required for the manufacture of coir fibre. Economic life of the coconut palm
is about 60 years.

Utilisation of Coconut

Coconut industry in the country is mainly confined to traditional activities such as copra
making, oil extraction, coir manufacture & toddy tapping. Coconut products such as
virgin coconut oil, desiccated coconut, coconut water based vinegar, coconut water are
also made. However, coconut milk based beverages, coconut chips, coconut based
handicrafts, shell powder, shell charcoal and shell based activated carbon are
manufactured in the country on a limited scale. Neera, coconut water based non-
alcoholic health drink isnow gaining momentum in many states like Karnataka and
Maharashtra. Coir and coir based industry is one of the major segments using coconut
by-products mainly the husk.

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PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
 ARECANUT

 Scientific name - Areca catechu

 Family- Palmae
 Centre of Origin- Malayan Archipelago,
Philippines and Other East Indian island
 Chromosome no.-2n=32

Arecanut palm is cultivated primarily for its kernel obtained from the fruit which is chewed in its
tender, ripe or processed form. Though it is native of Malayan Archipelago, Philippines and other East
Indian Islands, Commercial cultivation is confined only in India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. India has
about 2, 00,000 ha under this crop with an annual production of 2, 28, 600 tonnes. Kerala, Karnataka
and Assam account for more than 90 per cent of the total area and production in our country.
Arecanut production in India has now almost reached a level of self sufficiency. Uses for arecanut
other than chewing are negligible. Its export prospects are also very much limited. Therefore, the
present policy is not to expand the area under arecanut, but to adopt intensive cultivation and take up
replanting of the aged and unproductive gardens. Inter and mixed cropping in arecanut gardens is
advocated to augment the income from the existing arecanut garden.
Botany
It is a monoecious palm and its inflorescence is a spadix produced in the leaf axil and is
completely enclosed in a sealed boat shaped spathe. The spadix is having a main rachis divided
subsequently into secondary and tertiary rachis. Female flowers are confined to tertiary and distal end
of the secondary rachis, while male flowers are produced on filiform branches arising below and
beyond the female flowers. Both female and male flowers are sessile, with two whorls of perianth.
The fruit is a monolocular, one seeded berry and it consists of a fibrous outer husk, enclosing a single
seed. It is a cross pollinated crop and fruit set normally varies form 12.0 to 40.0 percent and the
time taken from full bloom to maturity of the fruit ranges from 35 to 47 weeks.
Climate and Soil
The arecanut palm is capable of growing under a variety of climatic and soil conditions. It grows
well from almost sea level up to an altitude of 1000 metres in areas receiving abundant and well
distributed rainfall or under irrigated conditions. It is grown in soils such as laterite, red loam and
alluvial soils. The soil should be deep and well drained.
Varieties
There are few local varieties known by the name of the place where they are grown and are
Thirthahalli, South Kanara, Mettupalayam, Mohitnagar. Regional Station, Vittal has released three
improved cultivars, they are,
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 Mangala: An introduction from China early bearing, higher fruit set, higher yield, semi tall
variety.
Subamangala: A selection from Indonesia, yield 17.5 kg of nuts/palm at the age of 10 years.
Sreemangala: A selection from Singapore yields 16.5 kg/palm at the 10th year.
SAS-1: Sirsi Arecanut Slection, resealed from UAS, Dharwad.
Raising of planting materials
Collection of seed nuts should be confined to high yielding palms which commence to bear early
as well as those which give more than 50 % of fruit set. From these selected mother palms, fully ripe
nuts are alone collected. All undersized and malformed nuts must be rejected. Heavier seed nuts within
a bunch are alone selected, as they give higher percentage of germination and produce seedlings of
better vigour than
lighter ones.
The selected seed nuts are sown immediately after
harvest, 5cm apart in sand beds under partial shade with their
stalk ends pointing upwards. Sand is spread over the nuts just
to cover them. The beds may be watered daily. Germination
commences in about 40 days after sowing and the sprouts
can be transplanted to the second nursery when they are
about three months old. At this stage the sprouts might have
produced two to three leaves.
The secondary nursery beds of 150 cm width and of
convenient length are prepared for transplanting the sprouts. The sprouts are transplanted at a spacing
of 30X30 cm with the onset of monsoon. Partial shade to the seedlings can also be provided during
summer by pandal or growing banana. Care should be taken to drain the nursery beds during the
monsoon and to irrigate them
during the dry months. Weeding and mulching should be
done periodically. Seed nuts can also be sown in polythene
bags (25 X 15 cm size ,150 gauge) after filling the bags
with potting mixture containing 7 parts of loam or top
soil, 3 parts of dried and powdered farm yard manure and 2
parts of sand.
The seedlings will be ready for transplanting to the main field when they are 12 to 18 months
old. Seedlings having 5 or more number of leaves selected. The height of seedlings at the time of
planting has a negative correlation with the subsequent yield of the plant. Hence

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DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
shorter seedlings with maximum number of leaves are removed with a ball of earth for transplanting.
If the seedlings are raised in polythene bags, these can be straightway transported to any distance
without much damage.
Planting
The planting is done during May- June with the onset of monsoon. Arecanut palms need adequate
protection from exposure to the South Western sun as they are susceptible to sun- scorch. Proper
alignment of the palms in the plantation will minimize sun scorching of the stem. In the square system
of planting at a spacing of 2.7m X 2.7m, the North South line should be deflected at an angle of 35
degree towards went. The outermost row of plants on the southern and south-western sides can be
protected by covering the exposed stem with areca leaves or leaf sheaths or by growing tall and quick
growing shade trees.
Pits of 90 X 90 X 90cm are dug and the pits are filled with a mixture of top soil, powdered cow
dung and sand to a height of 50 to 60 cm from the bottom. The seedlings are planted in the centre of
the pit, covered with soil to the collar level and pressed around. A shade of banana can be raised to
give protection to the seedlings from sun scorch.
Manuring
Adequate supplies of plant nutrients in the soil throughout the life of the crop are essential to get
high yield. Hence, an annual application of 100: 40: 140 g of NPK per tree in the form of fertilizers and
12 kg each of green leaf and compost or cattle manure per bearing palm is recommended. Under rainfed
conditions, half the quantity of fertilizers may be applied in April- May and the remaining quantity in
Sep- Oct. Under irrigated condition, the first dose of fertilizer is applied only in Feb. Green leaf and
compost can be applied in single dose in Sep- Oct. Irrespective of the age of the plants, full dose of
green leaf and compost or cattle manure may be applied from the first year of planting itself while
one-third of the recommended quantity of fertilizers in the first year, two-third in the second year and the
full dose from the third year onwards. The first dose of fertilizers may be broadcast around the base of
each plant after weeding and mixed with the soil by light forking, while the second dose is done in
basins around the palm dug to a depth of 15 to 20 cm and at 0.75 to 1m radius. In acidic soils,
required quantity of the lime may be applied during the dry months and forked in.
Irrigation and drainage
The palms should be irrigated once in four to seven days depending on the soil type and climatic
factors. In Kerala, arecanut gardens are irrigated during dry months once in seven or eight days during
November-December., once in six days during March, April and May. Adequate drainage should be
provided during monsoon since the palms are unable to withstand water logging. Drainage channels
should be 25 to 30 cm deeper than the bottom of the pits to drain excess water from the plot.
Other operations
A light digging may be required when the monsoon ends to break up any crust formed at the soil
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surface and also to uproot weeds. Weeding should be done periodically to keep the garden clean.
Cover cropping
Cover crops, such as Mimosa invisia, Stylosanthes gracillis and Calapogonium muconoides have
been found to be suitable for arecanut gardens. The cover crops may be sown in the month of April-
May and the green matter may be cut and applied to arecanut palms at the time of second dose of
fertilizer application.
The crops which can be grown successfully in arecanut gardens without loss of arecanut yields are
banana, cocoa, pepper, pineapple, betel vine; elephant foot yam, tapioca, dioscorea, sweet potato, arrow
root, ginger, turmeric and guinea grass. Nutmeg and clove can be also grown in between four palms on
alternate rows.
Harvesting and processing
The stage of harvesting depends on the type of produce to be prepared for the market.
1. Dried ripe nuts/Chali/Kottapak
The most popular trade type of arecanut is the dried,
whole nut known as chali or kottapak. Fully ripe, nine
months old fruits having yellow to orange red colour is the
best suited for the above purpose. Ripe fruits are dried in the
sun for 35 to 40 days on dry leveled ground. For drying and
dehusking, sometimes fruits are cut
longitudinally into halves and sun dried for about 10 days, then the kernels is scooped out and given
a final drying.
2. Kalipak
Another form of processing is by making kalipak. The
nuts of 6 to 7 months maturity with dark green colour are
dehusked, cut into pieces and boiled with water of dilute
extract from previous boiling; a kalli coating is given and
dried finally. Kali is the concentrated extract obtained from
boiling 3 to 4 batches of Kalipak.
3. Scented suparis
There are many varieties of scented suparis. Dried arecanuts broken into bits, blended with
flavour mixture and packed. Formerly the bits were roasted in ghee or oil, but it is almost fully given
up nowadays, owing to development of rancidity. The flavouring of supari varies with region and is
a closely guarded secret.
In South India scented supari is made from kalipak like batlu Spices and synthetic flavours are
added. Instead of raw spices, nowadays, essential oils are used for easy blending. Rose essence as well

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DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
as menthol is very common. Coconut gratings are not added nowadays to check microbial growth.
These are usually packed in butter paper. Scented suparis popular in north and central India are of two
types; the one made from chali and the often from kalipak. The former is more popular. At times,
saccharin is used for sweetening. Additives like colour and flavour are added. Plastic strips are used for
convenient packing. Tin and aluminum pouches are used for bulk packing of scented supari.
Post harvest technology
Dehusking of arecanut is traditionally done by skilled manual labour with the help of a tool, which
has a sickle shaped small pointed blade fixed on a plant. A simple device for dehusking arecanut,
developed by CPCRI, Kasargod can also be used. The main advantage of this device is that any
unskilled person can
operate it. The optimum is about
60 kg husked nuts in case of
dried nuts and 30 kg in case of
green nuts if one person
operates the device for a day of
8 hours.

In view of the declining use of arecanut as masticatory, alternate and better uses of arecanut and
the other produces like spathe, husk are now thought of.
Yield
th
More than 10 kg of ripe nuts per palm at the 10 year is considered as normal yield in any
plantation.
Pest management
Mites (Raoiella indica, Oligonychus indicus)
Adults and young ones suck the lower surfaces of the leaves, causing them to turn yellow and
bronzed appearance. The mites can be controlled by spraying with dimethoate or Dicofol at 0.05 per
cent.
Spindle bug (Carvalhoia arecae)
The feeding injury is caused on the lamina and petiole. The affected leaves show dry brown
patches.
Spray crowns with carbaryl 50 WP. The spray should reach the leaf axils. Repeat
spraying after 30-35 days if pest incidence continues. Placement of 2 g phorate 10G sachets on the
top most two leaf axils prevents the pest attack.
Inflorescence caterpillar (Tirathaba mundella)
Caterpillar feed on the flowers and clamp the inflorescence into a wet mass of frass with

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DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
 silky threads.
Force open the inflorescence out of the enclosing spathe and spray Malathion 50 EC (250
ml in 100 litres of water). Control slugs, which predispose inflorescence to the attack of caterpillar,
by using bait of Metaldehyde.
Root grub (Leucopholis burmeisteri)
Loosen soil around the base of palms to a depth of 10-15 cm and drench with Chlorpyrifos
0.04% suspension twice, one in May just before the onset of southwest monsoon and again in
September-October towards the close of the monsoon. Repeat application for 2 or 3 years
consecutively to secure a complete eradication of the pest. Root grubs can also be controlled by soil
application of phorate 10G around the palms.
Disease Management
Koleroga (Mahali or fruit rot) (Phytophthora arecae)
Water soaked lesions appearing on the nut surface near the perianth and spread over the
other parts. Infected nuts shed without perianth.
Spray Bordeaux mixture 1% on all bunches three times in a year, one just before the onset of
southwest monsoon and the rest at 40 days intervals. If monsoon season is prolonged give a third
spray. Use rosin soda adhesive to ensure tenacity of the spray deposit on treated substrate. Remove
and burn all fallen and infected nuts.
Bud rot (Phytophthora palmivora)
Affected spindle appear yellow, later changing to brown and finally the whole spindle rots.
Remove and destroy affected spindle and leaves. In early stages of infection, scoop out affected rotten
tissues by making longitudinal side splits and apply Bordeaux paste on the exposed healthy tissues or
drench crown with 1% Bordeaux mixture.
Basal stem rot (Anabe roga) (Ganoderma lucidum)
Small brown irregular patches appear on the stem and a brownish exudates oozes out from
these patches.

Control
1. Isolate affected palms by digging trenches 60 cm deep and 30 cm wide around, one
metre away from the base and drench with Captan (0.3%), Calixin (0.1%) or Copper
oxychloride (0.3%)
2. Remove and destroy all severely affected palms and stumps of dead palms.
3. Drench the soil with 1% Bordeaux mixture before planting healthy seedlings.
4. Discourage growing of collateral hosts of fungus such as Delonix regia and Pongamia
glabra in the vicinity of gardens.
5. Apply 2 kg neem cake per palm.

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 6. Avoid flood irrigation and water flowing from infected palms to healthy palms.
Yellow leaf disease
Leaves become yellow, smaller, stiff and pointed, crown gets reduced, and palm remains
stunted with few or no nuts.
Maintain the garden properly to keep affected palms in a healthy condition by adopting
recommended manurial, cultural, plant protection and other management practices. Improve drainage
conditions in the garden.
Band disease
Improve soil conditions by loosening hard soil strata, if present, by providing good drainage.
Adopt adequate control measures against spindle bug, mealy bugs, scales and mites. Where the results
of the above treatments are not found satisfactory, apply powdered mixture of copper sulphate and
lime in equal quantities @ 225 g/palm twice a year at the base of affected palms. Application of borax
@ 25 g/palm has been found to have an ameliorative effect.
Collar rot of seedlings
Improve drainage conditions in nursery beds and gardens. Drench spindle and base of
seedlings with 1% Bordeaux mixture in disease affected nursery or garden.
Dieback of inflorescence
Remove affected inflorescence immediately. Spray Zineb (4 g in 1 litre of water) or
Mancozeb (3 g/l) twice, once just after female flowers are set and again 15-28 days later.
Aureofungin sol at 50 ppm concentration is also effective in controlling the disease.
Stem bleeding
Palms in the age group of 10-15 years are more prone to this disease. Symptoms appear on
the basal portion of the stem as small discoloured depression. Later, these spots coalesce and cracks
develop on the stem leading to disintegration of the fibrous tissues inside.

With the progress of the disease a brown exudates oozes out from these cracks. High water table
predisposes the palm to this disease.
Improvement of drainage and root feeding of 125 ml Tridemorph (1.5%) is suggested as
control measure against this disease.
Sun scorch
Protect palms from southwest sun by wrapping stems with areca sheath or white-wash the
exposed portion. Provide reinforcement to palms showing stem fissures. Grow tall, quick growing
trees on southern and western sides of garden.
Nut splitting
This can be considered as a physiological disorder than a disease. Palms in the age group of
10-25 years are more susceptible. Symptoms are premature yellowing of the nuts when they are
half to three-fourth mature. Later splits develop at the tips, which extend longitudinally exposing the
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kernel. Sometimes kernels also show splitting and malformation. Rarely the kernel inside may exhibit
splitting without visual symptoms on the husk, resulting in nut fall. Hyper nutrition or sudden flush
of water after a period of drought or insufficient moisture in the soil is the probable cause (s) of the
disease.
Improvement of drainage in ill drained gardens and spraying of borax @ 2 g/litre of water
are found effective in reducing the disease incidence.

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 Cashew
• Scientific name: Anacardium occidentale L.
• Family: Anacardiaceae
• Chromosome no. 2n= 42
• Centre of Origin: Northern Brazil
• The English name of cashew is derived from Portuguese name 'caju'.
• Introduced by Portuguese traveler during later part of 15th century at
Malabar Coast in Kerala.

1. Introduction

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale), a native of Brazil, was introduced in India during the later half
of the Sixteenth Century for the purpose of afforestation and soil conservation. From its humble
beginning as a crop intended to check soil erosion, cashew has emerged as a major foreign
exchange earner next only to tea and coffee. Cashew nut is one of the important nuts grown in the
world and ranked first. Among various nuts such as hazelnuts, almonds, etc., cashew nut enjoys an
unenviable position and it is an unavoidable snack in all important social functions especially in
the western countries.

2. Scope for Cashew Cultivation and its National Importance

Commercial cultivation of cashew is taken up in eight states of our country mainly in west and
eastern coast viz., Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamilnadu and
West Bengal. In addition, cashew is also grown in few pockets of Assam, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,
Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura. India has an area of 9.53 lakh ha (2010-11) under cashew with
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an estimated annual production of about 6.74 lakh tonnes of raw cashew nut. India is the third
largest producer and exporter of cashew in the world next only to Vietnam and Nigeria. It is the
second largest consumer of cashew and also the biggest processor with highest acreage under the
crop. The current cashew production of the country accounts for 23.0% of the global production.
A large number of small and marginal farmers, especially living on the coastal belts of India,
depend on cashew for their livelihood. Nearly 2.00 lakh workers, more than 90% of whom are
women, are directly employed in cashew processing factories which are concentrated mostly in
Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. It is estimated that nearly two million people are
involved, directly and indirectly in cashew cultivation, processing and marketing.

Cashew cultivation is taken up in small and marginal holdings and as more than 70% of the
cashew area is under this category, cashew plays an important role in the development of small
and marginal farmers.

3. Technical Requirements of Cashew Cultivation

Soil

The general notion is that "cashew is very modest in its soil requirements and can adapt itself to
varying soil conditions without impairing productivity". While Cashew can be grown in poor
soils, its performance would be much better on good soils. The best soils for cashew are deep and
well-drained sandy loams without a hard pan. Cashew also thrives on pure sandy soils, although
mineral deficiencies are more likely to occur. Water stagnation and flooding are not congenial for
cashew. Heavy clay soils with poor drainage and soils with pH more than 8.0 are not suitable for
cashew cultivation. Excessive alkaline and saline soils also do not support its growth. Red sandy
loam, lateritic soils and coastal sands with slightly acidic pH are best for cashew.

Climate
Cashew is a tropical plant and can thrive even at high temperatures. Young plants are sensitive to
frost. The distribution of cashew is restricted to altitudes upto 700 m above mean sea level where
the temperature does not fall below 20°C for prolonged period. Areas where the temperatures
range from 20 to 30°C with an annual precipitation of 1000 - 2000 mm are ideal for cashew
growing. However, temperatures above 36°C between the flowering and fruiting period could
adversely affect the fruit setting and retention. Heavy rainfall, evenly distributed throughout the
year is not favourable though the trees may grow and sometimes set fruit. Cashew needs a climate
with a well-defined dry season of at least four months to produce the best yields. Coincidence of
excessive rainfall and high relative humidity with flowering may result in flower/fruit drop and
heavy incidence of fungal diseases.
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 Varieties

The research programmes on crop improvement had resulted in identification of elite materials
with yield potential ranging between 20-25 kg of nuts per tree. Several varieties have been
released by the different co-ordinating centres of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
All the Agricultural Universities and Research Centres have established bud wood bank with the
released varieties of respective centres for further multiplication and distribution. The cashew
varieties recommended for different states are given in the Table 1.

State Variety
Andhra Pradesh BPP 4, BPP 6, BPP 8
Karnataka Chintamani 1, Chintamani 2, Dhana ( H – 1608), NRCC Selection 2,
Bhaskara, Ullal 1, Ullal 3, Ullal 4, UN 50, Vengurla 4 &Vengurla 7
Kerala Dhana, K 22-1, Madakkathara 1, Madakkathara 2, Kanaka, Amrutha and
Priyanka
Madhya Pradesh T No. 40 &Vengurla - 4
Maharashtra Vengurla 1, Vengurla 4, Vengurla 6 &Vengurla 7
Goa Goa 1, Goa 2, Vengurla 1, Vengurla 4, Vengurla 6 &Vengurla 7
Orissa Bhubaneswar 1, BPP 8 &Dhana
Tamil Nadu VRI 1 & VRI 5
West Bengal Jhargram 1 & BPP 8

Planting material

Cashew is a cross pollinated crop and exhibits wide variation in respect of nut, apple and yield of
seedling progenies. Therefore, vegetative propagation has been advocated to mitigate this
problem. Air layering has been quite successful but survival percentage is low and it has been
reported that the plantations raised from air layers are more susceptible to drought and the life of
such plantation is shorter as compared to that of grafted or seedling ones. The anchorage has also
been observed to be poor, especially in cyclone prone areas. Epicotyl grafting and softwood
grafting are found to be successful because it is easy to produce large number of grafts in a short
time. The percentage of field establishment is also reported to be high with these grafts.
Adequate thrust has been given to produce enough planting material through these standardised
techniques by the ICAR (through the Directorate of Cashew Research, its sub-stations,
Agricultural Universities and State Departments of Horticulture/Agriculture), to meet the
growing demand. Production of cashew planting material is one of the economic activities in
most of the states. The planting material is raised in these nurseries within a year. The farmers
can purchase planting material from these nurseries but care should be taken that the planting
material is purchased from authentic and certified nurseries. The supplier should have the details

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like age of the plant, variety of the cashew, rootstock used etc. and the same should be
mentioned in the bill/ cash receipt.

Preparation of Land

The land should be ploughed thoroughly and levelled in case of agricultural lands. In case of
forestlands, the jungle should be cleared well in advance and the debris burnt. After clearing the
jungles, land is to be terraced or bunds constructed on sloppy land. In order to ensure better
moisture conservation, soil trenches are dug across the contours. The cost of land preparation
will vary depending upon the type and method of soil working. Nowadays, use of JCB for soil
working is most popular; hence a provision for use of soil working is made in the model. The
land preparation work should be completed prior to the onset of monsoon season i.e. during May
– June.

Layout

Cashew trees are generally planted with a spacing of 7 to 9 meters adopting square system. A
spacing of 7.5 m X 7.5 m (175 plants/ ha) or 8 m X 8 m (156 plants/ ha) is recommended. High
density planting of cashew at a closer spacing of 4 m X 4 m (625 plants/ ha) in the beginning and
thinning out in stages to maintain a final spacing of 8 m X 8 m in the tenth year is also
recommended. This enables higher returns during initial years. In case of sloppy lands, the
triangular system of planting is recommended to accommodate 15 per cent more plants without
affecting the growth and development of the trees. In undulating areas, the planting should
preferably be done along the contours, with cradle pits or trenches provided at requisite spacing
in a staggered manner to arrest soil erosion and help moisture conservation.

Digging and filling of pits

The work of digging of pits has to be completed much in advance (May – June). Cashew can be
planted in pits of 60cm x 60cm x 60cm size in soils with normal strata. In hard lateritic soils, pits
of 1m x 1m x 1m size are recommended. The top soil and sub-soil are kept separately and
allowed to wither under sun. It helps in migration of termites and ants. Burning of the debris and
forest wastes inside the pits before planting is advantageous. The pits are then filled with topsoil
mixed with farmyard manure or compost (5 kg) or poultry manure (2 kg) and rock phosphate
(200 g). In order to mitigate soil borne diseases, BHC @ 100g/ pit is also added to the soil
mixture.

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 Planting

The grafted plants obtained from the superior mother plant are usually planted at the onset of
monsoon. It is essential to provide stakes and temporary shade with the locally available
materials wherever necessary (especially in the South West aspects in case of forest plantation)
to reduce the mortality rate and achieve quicker establishment. If the monsoon rains are
inadequate, one or two pot irrigation can be done during the initial stages to ensure
establishment.

Mulching

The cashew is generally planted on the wastelands and hence availability of soil moisture is
always low, hence, mulching is essential. Mulching with black polythene is beneficial to increase
the growth and yield of cashew. However, locally available materials like green or dry grass or
weeds can be utilized for mulching the basins. Small pebbles or stones can also be used for
mulching of the basin. The plastic or stone mulch does not improve soil health but ensures better
moisture retention in the soil and also prevents attack of soil borne insects and pests.

Manuring and fertilization

In our country, application of manures and fertilizers is very limited in the case of Cashew. In
order to get better yield, it is essential to maintain adequate N:P:K ratio in the soil. Application
of 10-15 kg of farmyard manure per plant is recommended to ensure adequate organic matter in
the soil. The fertilizers recommended for a mature cashew tree are 500 g N (1.1 kg urea), 125 g
P2O5 (750 g Single Super Phosphate and 125 g K2O (200 g muriate of potash). The nutritional
requirements and the quantity of fertilizer per plant are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Nutritional requirements and recommended fertilizer doses for cashew

Age Urea (g) SSP (g) MOP (g)

1 st Year 375 275 75
2 nd year 750 525 150
3 rd year 1100 750 200
The ideal time for application of fertilizer is immediately after the cessation of heavy rains.
Fertilisers should be applied in a circular trench along the drip line. Before application of
fertilizer it should be ensured that there is adequate soil moisture. The fertilizers should be
applied in two split doses during pre-monsoon (May – June) and post monsoon (September –
October) season. However, in the case of single application, it should be done during post
monsoon season (September – October) when adequate soil moisture is available. In sandy and
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laterite soils, soils of sloppy land and in heavy rainfall zones, the fertilizer application should be
done in a circular trench of 25 cm width and 15 cm depth at 1.5m from the tree trunk. In red
loamy soils and in low rainfall areas (east coast), the fertilizers should be applied in circular
bands at a distance of 0.5m, 0.7m, 1.0m and 1.5m away from the trunk during first, second, third
and fourth year onwards of planting, respectively.

Weeding

Weeding with a light digging should preferably be done before the end of rainy reason. Hoeing,
cutting the weeds off underground is more effective than slashing. Chemical weeding has not
been of any importance until now, however it may be considered as an alternative, where wages
are high or where there is shortage of labour. Initially, Agrodar-96 (2, 4 –D) @4ml/litre of water
and subsequently Gramaxone @5ml/litre of water is sprayed. Approximately, 400 litre/ha (160
litre/acre) of solution is required per spray. The spray is again repeated in the post monsoon
season.

Inter-cropping

Tall growing intercrops like certain varieties of sorghum and millet should not be encouraged
between young cashew, as they provide too much shade. Leguminous crops such as groundnut
and beans are very suitable for inter cropping. Besides the annual crops, arid zone fruit crops
having less canopy especially annona, phalsa, etc., can be thought of, depending on the
suitability. Cultivation of horse gram, cowpea, groundnut etc is recommended as inter-crops in
cashew. Inter cropping cashew, Casuarina and coconut are popular.

Cover cropping
Leguminous cover enriches soil with the plant nutrients and adds organic matter, prevent soil
erosion and conserves moisture. The seeds of these cover crops may be sown in the beginning of
rainy season. The seed beds of 30cm X 30cm size are prepared in the interspace in slopes by
loosening soil and mixing a little quantity of compost. The seeds of these crops are sown in the
beds and covered with a thin layer of soil. The seeds should be soaked in the water for six hours
before sowing.

Training and Pruning

During first year of planting, the sprouts coming from the rootstock should be removed
frequently to ensure better health of the plant. These sprouts eat up valuable plant nutrition and
also cause death of grafted scion allowing only rootstock to grow. Initial, training and pruning of

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cashew plants during first 3-4 years is essential for providing proper shape to the trees. The trees
are shaped by removing lower branches and water shoots coming from the base during first 3-4
years. Thereafter, little or no pruning is necessary. The plant should be allowed to grow by
maintaining a single stem up to 0.75-1.0 m from the ground level. Weak and criss-cross branches
are also chopped off. In order to avoid lodging of the plant by wind, proper staking of plant is
essential. After 4-5 years, the main stem is detopped to a height of 4-5 m from the ground level.
Thereafter, regular removal of dried/ dead wood, criss-cross branches and water shoots once in
2-3 year is done to keep the plant healthy. The training and pruning of cashew plants is done
during August – September. The cut surfaces are smeared with Bordeaux paste.

The flowers appearing during first and second year of planting should be removed
(deblossoming) and plants should be allowed to bear fruits only after third year.
Top working

Better management practices may increase the yields marginally but boosting cashew production
3-4 folds in a short span of time is perhaps possible only by "genetic transformation" of the
existing plantations with high yielding varieties. It is reported that this genetic transformation can
be effected through top working. The rejuvenation of unthrift cashew plantations through top
working involves beheading of trees, allowing juvenile shoots to start-out and taking up of in-
situ grafting using procured scions of high yielding varieties. Periods from November to March
and February to June have been found to be ideal for beheading and in-situ grafting respectively.
It has been observed that the top worked trees within a period of two years have not only put
forth a canopy of 3-4 m in diameter and 5-6 m in height (as that of 8-10 year old trees) but also
have given an yield of 3 to 5 kg nuts per tree in their first bearing itself.

Pests and Diseases

Pests
It is observed that there are about 30 species of insects infesting cashew. Out of these tea
mosquito, flower thrips, stem and root borer and fruit and nut borer are the major pests, which
are reported to cause around 30% loss in yield.
Tea Mosquito

The nymphs and the adults of tea mosquito (Helopeltis spp.) suck sap on the tender leaves,
shoots and inflorescence and even young nuts and apples. The saliva of the insect is very toxic,
which causes blistering at the site of infestation. Severe attack on the young shoots cause
dieback. Attacked inflorescence usually can be recognised from a distance by their scorched

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appearance. Tea mosquito population builds up during the beginning of the rainy season, when
the cashew tree is full of new flush.

Tea mosquito can be controlled by spraying carbaryl 0.1.% or phosalone 0.07% or dimethoate
0.05%. Spraying should be done thrice, first at the time of flushing, second at early flowering
and third at the time of fruit set.

Thrips

Both nymphs and adults suck and scrape at the underside of the leaves, mainly along main veins,
causing yellowish patches, latter turning grey, giving the leaves a silvery appearance. The thrips
are more active during the dry season. 0.05% monocrotophos or 0.1% carbaryl are very effective
for controlling thrips.

Stem and Root Borers

The young white grubs bore into the fresh tissues of the bark of the trunk and roots and feed on
the subsequent subepidermal tissues and make tunnels in irregular directions. Due to severe
damage to the vascular tissue the sap flow is arrested and the stem is weakened. The
characteristic symptoms of damage include the presence of small holes in the collar region,
gummosis, yellowing and shedding of the leaves and drying of the twigs. Once the plant is
infested complete control of this pest is very difficult. However, prophylactic measures for its
control can be adopted with 0.1% BHC swabbing twice a year, once in April-May and the
second application during November.
Fruit and Nut Borers

The young caterpillar bores through the apple and nut causing deformity and /or loss of kernel
weight. Spraying of monocrotophos - 0.05% concentration at flowering and fruit setting is
recommended.

Diseases

Fortunately cashew crop does not have any serious disease problem except the powdery mildew
caused by a fungus, which affects the young twigs and inflorescence and makes it wither. This
disease generally appears when the weather becomes cloudy. Control can be obtained by dusting
with 2% sulphur W.P.

Harvesting and Yield

Cashew plants start bearing after three years of planting and reach full bearing during tenth year

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and continue giving remunerative yields for another 20 years. The cashew nuts are harvested
during February – May. Normally, harvesting consists of picking of nuts that have dropped to the
ground after maturing. However, if the apples are also used for making jam, juice, syrup, Fenni,
etc., the fruit has to be harvested before it falls naturally. The cashew apples are removed and the
nuts are dried in sun for 2-3 days to bring the moisture level from 25 per cent to 9 per cent. The
maturity of the cashew nut is tested by floatation method. The mature nuts sink in water while
the immature/ unfilled ones float. The nuts are collected at weekly intervals from the farm during
the harvesting season. During that period the land should be clean in order to facilitate collection
of cashew. Plantations of unknown origin or seedling progenies with conventional methods of
cultivation yield less than one kg of raw nuts per tree. However, there is a chance to increase the
yield up to 4 to 5 kg per tree with the adoption of improved production techniques, over a period
of 4 to 5 years. In new plantations, with the use of elite planting material coupled with a package
of improved agronomic practices, a yield of 8-10 kg per tree could be achieved.

Marketing

Marketing of raw cashew is not a problem in view of the fact that our raw material production is
considerably low (around 6.74 lakh t) when compared to the processing capacity of our existing
factories (around 7.0 lakh t developed so far). The raw cashew nuts fetch a price of Rs.65-70 per
kg in the internal market.

Processing

The processing of cashew involves the following steps:

- Preliminary cleaning

- Roasting

- Shelling and separation

- Drying

- Peeling

Preliminary cleaning of cashew nuts is done by manual picking of large objects and by sieving.
The cleaned cashew nut is roasted in open pan or earthen ware or rotary cylinder or hot oil bath.
The first two methods are simple and cheap, but they are time consuming and lead to poor
recovery of CNSL (Cashew Nut Shell Liquid). The rotary cylinder method is more hygienic and
efficient, but a major portion of the CNSL would be lost. The hot oil bath process combines good
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roasting and recovery of shell liquid. The cleaned cashew nuts are placed in wire baskets and
immersed in a tank containing CNSL, boiling at a constant temperature of about 180-200°C for
about 60 to 90 seconds. The CNSL in the tank should be stirred continuously to avoid local
overheating and excessive polymerization and clogging. However, the hot oil bath processing is
costlier, and is resorted to only by a few processors. The most common method adopted is
roasting by rotary cylinder method. After roasting, the shells are removed and the nuts extracted
manually. In manual shelling, recovery of whole kernels is more compared to the mechanical
shelling. The kernels are dried in hot air chambers which facilitates peeling of the outer coating
or testa. To prevent breakage, the kernels are to be handled very carefully, as they are brittle at
this stage. The shelling percentage of cashew varies between 20-25.

Grading and Packing

Grading is done for export purposes based on "counts" or number of kernels per pound. Sound
kernels are named as "wholes" and broken ones as "splits". The wholes are again classified as
whole white kernels, whole scorched kernels, whole dessert kernels (a) and whole dessert kernels
(b). The splits are also further graded into white pieces, scorched pieces, dessert pieces (a) and
dessert pieces (b) based on certain physical characters. The wholes are packed in several grades
viz., 210, 240, 280, 320, 400, 459 and 500; the popular grade is 320. The specifications for
graded kernels are that they should be fully developed, ivory white in colour and should be free
from insect damage and black and brown spots. Packing is done in time by Vita pack method
(exhausting the air inside the packing tin, pumping in carbon dioxide and sealing).

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 TEA
• Scientific name– Camellia sp.
• Family- Camelliaceae/Theaceae
• Centre of origin – China

1. Introduction

Tea plantation/estates in India has been contributing significantly towards the socio economic
development of the people of the tea growing regions of the country. Tea industry contributes
substantially towards the national and state economy by way of enriching the foreign exchange
reservoir and State exchequer besides employment. Today the major tea growing states are Assam,
West Bengal, Tripura, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal are
also traditional tea growing states, albeit to a less significant extent. Besides, tea plantation has
come up recently in states like Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Sikkim, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Bihar,
Orissa, etc. Mizoram also has the potential for development of commercial tea plantation.

2. Indian scenario
India is one of the major tea growing country in the world, producing about 30% of the world tea
production annually. The other leading producers are China, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Turkey and
Vietnam.By building on a proud legacy of enterprise that spanned nearly two and a half centuries, India has
acquired an exalted status on the global tea map. In India, it is grown in an area of approximately six lakh
hectare. The country is the second largest tea producer in the world with production of 1,197.18 million kg in
2014-15. Interestingly, India is also the world's largest consumer of black tea with the domestic market
consuming 911 million kg of tea during 2013-14. India is ranked fourth in terms of tea exports, which
reached 197.81 million kg during 2014-15 and were valued at US$ 619.96 million. The area and production
under tea cultivation in major tea producing areas of the country is given in Table 1
Table 1

Area and production under tea plantation area in major tea producing states of the country- 2013-14
State / Districts Area % of Production % of total
under total (Million Productio
tea area kg) n
(in ‘000 ha)
Assam Valley 270.92 48.04% 581.03 48.07%
Cachar 33.48 5.94% 48.02 3.97%
Total Assam 304.40 53.97% 629.05 52.04%
Darjeeling 17.82 3.16% 8.91 0.74%
Dooars 72.92 12.93% 177.85 14.71%
Terai 49.70 8.81% 125.34 10.37%
Total West Bengal 140.44 24.90% 312.10 25.82%

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Other States(Includes Tripura, 12.29 2.18% 23.92 1.98%
Uttarakhand, Bihar, Manipur,Sikkim,
Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal
Pradesh,Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram
and Orissa)
Sub Total 457.13 81.05% 965.07 79.84%
Tamil Nadu 69.62 12.34% 174.71 14.45%
Kerala 35.01 6.21% 63.48 5.25%
Karnataka 2.22 0.39% 5.52 0.46%
Sub Total 106.85 18.95% 243.71 20.16%
ALL INDIA TOTAL 563.98 100.00% 1208.78 100.00%
(Source: Tea Board of India)

It may be observed that about 81% of the country's total area under tea plantation is located in North
India. Out of the total, 54% is existing in Assam and 23% in West Bengal.

In general, the productivity in North is less than in South. It is primarily due to the comparatively
coarser standard of plucking resorted to in South India. It is reflected in the quality and price
realization factors also. The overall productivity has remained almost static during the last three
years.
Morphology
• Habit: Height about 9m under natural condition but under cultivation pruned to 0.5 to 1m.
• Root: Strong tap and lateral roots. Feeding roots confined to top 60cm.
• Leaves: Evergreen, obovate to lanceolet, simple, alternate with glossy upper surface and
sarsely hairy on lower surface.
• Ployphenol content highest in bud and top leaves.
• Shoot: Two types of shoot
Aperiodic : Arises from pruned bush frame and growth is continuous.
Periodic: Develops from auxillary bud of aperiodic shoot showing rhythmic growth
• In periodic shoot the bud passes through alternate phase of growth and dormancy
• The dormant phase is called Banji phase and the apical bud is called as Banji bud.
• It is extremely small blunt and 5mm size and closed by 2 bud scales.
• Cataphyll: Second scale leaves
• Fish leaf: A leaves larger than scale leaves but not similar to normal flush leaf. It is small ,
blunt and not closely serrated.
• As bud continues to unfold flush leaves are produced.
• After development of 4-5 normal leaves the shoot again goes banji.
• The period of getting a pluckable shoot is 8-13 weeks.
• Tea enters a dormancy phase in winter.
• Flower: Solitary or cluster. Superior ovary.
• Fruit: Capsule
• Pollination: By insects and tea is Self sterile

Species of Tea
• C.assamica (Assam jats), C.sinensis (China jats) and their natural hybrid, C.assamica
subspecies lasiocalyx (Indo China or cambod type).
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 Types of Shoot in Tea
Aperiodic Periodic

Difference between Assam Jat and China Jat

Assam Jat China Jat

It is a tree It is a shrub

Few robust branches Branches abundant

Large, glossy leaves Small leathery leaves.

Light to medium green colour Dark green colour leaves

leaves

High yield and medium quality Low yield but good quality

Susceptible to drought and Hardy and resistant

frost

Sparse flowering Profuse flowering

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 Varieties

Clone Characters

UPASI-2 (Jayaram) An average yielding clone, suitable for all

elevations, tolerant to drought and wind.

UPASI-3 (Sundaram) Very high yielding and quality clone.

UPASI-6 (Brooklands) Fares well at mid and higher elevations.

UPASI-8 (Golconda) High yielding, suitable for all elevations.

UPASI-9 (Athrey) High yielding, fairly tolerant to drought, Can

withstand slightly high pH.

UPASI-10 (Pandian) Hardy clone, resistant to drought and wind;

suitable for high elevation.

UPASI-14 (Singara) Quality clone, suitable for higher elevations.

UPASI-17 A high yielding clone.

TRI-2024 (Sri Lanka) High yielding clone.

TRI-2025 (Sri Lanka) Average yielding, hardy clone.

Technical Parameters for Tea

Cultivation Agro-climatic conditions

ell distributed rainfall ranging around 2000 mm to 5000 mm is considered suitable for successful tea
plantation. The monthly average maximum temperature ranging between 280C and 320C during
April to September, with occasional rise upto 360C -370 C is good for the plantation.

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 Soil Conditions

Generally, sandy loam to silty loam type of soil with pH range of 4.5 - 5.5 is ideal for growing tea.
Soil should possess a minimum 1% of organic carbon, 1-2% of organic matter, 35ppm of P2O5 and
80 ppm of K2O for successful establishment of tea.
Propagation
Tea can be propagated by seed and single node cutting.

Vegetative Propagation
• 3cm long cutting each with a healthy mother leaf and an active axillary bud
• Polythene bags (30cmx10cmx150 gauge), filled with growing medium (soil: sand 3:1) in the
bottom and rooting medium (Red/subsoil:sand 1:1) in the top 8-10cm.
• Uniform and filtered shade is provided for better growth.
• Rooting takes place in 10-12 weeks.
• Open the tent after 80% germination.
• Application of fertilizer mixture(2 kg Urea, 4kg ammonium phosphate and 1.5 kg MOP
dissolved in 200lit. of water) till the cuttings produce 8-10 leaves.
• About 2-5 round spray of zinc sulphate or magnesium sulphate(1%)

Choice of planting materials:

Good number of clones have been released from various sources for using as the planting materials
by the industry. Clones proven to be successful in a particular locality and recommended by
Technical Institutions only should be chosen by the growers.
For better yield and quality tea production, seed and clonal saplings should be used in 80:20 ratio.
In order to have a proper mix of better yield and quality, the standard clones and high yielding and
quality clones should be used in the ratio of 70:30.
Source of planting materials
The sources of planting material must be very reliable. The quality of the planting material will
primarily decide the health of the plants and to a great extent the style of bush formation.
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 Planting seasons
Planting of tea is done either in spring (June-July) after the first few showers of rain or in autumn
(October-November) while the soil is still moist and the area has irrigation facilities.

Land planning and Site Preparation

Topographical planning for laying out drains and bunds, culvert and plucking access would
generally help in soil water management, easier supervision, cheaper maintenance and better
utilisation of mandays for weeding & soil workings, pruning, spraying, plucking, etc.

Drainage
For laying out drains, bunds, culverts, etc., topographical planning is helpful. The drain design, i.e.
depth, width, spacing, etc. would be governed by the topography, soil type, soil structure, etc.
Waterlogging reduces the crop besides causing root diseases. Existing drains should be renovated
as a routine practice to keep them functional. Regular cleaning and desilting of drains to 90cm
depth is desirable. Protection of drain-edges with vegetation is more important than batter or depth.

Layout, Method of Planting and Spacing

Tea Board is recommending either single hedge row or double hedge row system/ method of the
planning in the field. Various spacing norms are followed by the industry. The advisable norms are
105cm X 65cm, 105cm X 75cm, 105cm X 60cm X 60cm, 105cm X 75cm X 60cm, etc for valley
plantation. However, for planting along contour and for small growers, double hedge method of
planting with a spacing of 105 cm X 70 cm is being recommended. Recently, there has been a shift
from manual operations to mechanical filed operations due to labour constraints; a spacing of 120 x
60cm X 60 cm has been adopted for this model scheme so as to accommodate mechanical
operations. This will facilitates the convenience in field works, mechanized field operations
combined with higher plant population.

Pit digging and Refilling of Pits

After site clearance and layout, pits of 45 cm diameter and 45cm depth are to be dug at the designated
spacing as elaborated above. Stones/ boulders, old roots, etc. are to be removed from the pits. The
soil excavated from the pits should be allowed to weather for some period before refilling. The soil
should be mixed with 40 gm of Murate of Potash (MoP) alongwith 2 to 3 kg of bulky organic matter
or well decomposed FYM per pit.
Planting
Only well grown robust plants of 45 to 60 cm height with basal stem diameter of 0.5 – 0.8 cm and
8- 10 leaves should be planted in the main field. Results from the use of planting materials raised in
sleeves are always better than those raised in beds.The polybags should be removed from saplings
and it should be planted in such a manner that collar of the saplings should be above the ground level.
The soil around the sapling should be pressed hard. It needs to be ensured that no depressions are
left around the plants. Mulching should be done immediately after planting to avoid mortalities.

Shade management

 Tea requires filtered shade and if it is exposed to direct sun, its growth is affected. Shade is
hence essential and beneficial to tea as
 It regulates the temperature.
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  It minimizes the effects of drought and radiation injury.
 It increases the soil fertility
 It helps in recycling of nutrients.
 It serves as windbreak.
 It generates additional income by way of timber and fuel.

Planting of shade Trees

As shade is very important in tea plantation, shade trees need to be planted alongwith planting of tea
saplings. In the initial years shade can be provided through planting of suitable nurse crops. A
leguminous crop is very much suitable in the first three years of planting. Green crops like
Crotolaria are useful in young tea areas and their seeds should be sown simultaneously with tea in
lines. A spacing of 3.6m X 3.6m is suggested for the temporary shade trees. When the permanent
shade trees establish well, the temporary shade trees need to be removed. As a routine, the poorly
shaded areas should be renovated by planting new shade trees. Alongwith this, permanent shade
should also be planted. The shade trees species should be planted at a spacing of about 6 m x 6 m in
site exposed to southern aspect and 10 m X 10 m in sites exposed to northern aspects. Later on
depending upon the canopy development, these shade trees may be thinned depending on the
canopy size at maturity.

Mulching
Following planting, the area is thoroughly mulched preferably with grass, water hyacinth, citronella
grass, etc. If paddy straw is used, 20 kg N/ha in the form of urea is to be sprayed. Mulching helps
conservation of soil moisture, prevents erosion, reduces weed growth and adds organic matter to the
soil.

Initial operations for training Bush after planting

Frame forming in the initial stages is very important to build up the bush to give higher
productivity. The following operations are recommended for bringing up of young tea, depending
upon the season of planting as indicated :
Year Operation
#
1styear June-July- Plant tea.
(June-May)
2ndyear October- Finger prune/Decentre at 20cm from the ground & tip at 55-60cm.
(June-December)
3rd year Keep UP Pluck over one leaf in the beginning.
4th year Cut across between 35-40cm and open up the centre selectively. tip over
25cm. (It is called the Frame Forming Pruning)
5th year Keep UP (1st UP year)
6th year Deep skiff / Medium skiff
7th year Keep UP
8th year Light Prune 5-6cm above last cut across mark and tip over 25cm.
Note- # Year of planting is considered as first year in this model scheme (in some cases year of planting is considered as 0 year)

Thereafter, 4 to 5 year pruning cycle may be followed depending on the requirements and growth
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 pattern. Considering the factors such as the growth and region of growing tea and climatic
conditions of the region, the sequence and type of different pruning operations stated above can be
modified.

Special Operations:
• Centering: The leader stem of the plants are cut back within 20 cm above the ground leaving
8 -10 mature leaves below the cut.
• Centering is done 4-6 months after planting during humid weather when there is adequate
moisture in the soil.
• Tipping: Tipping involves plucking of aperiodic shoot after centering.
• First tipping is done at 35cm height and Second tipping at 50cm ht for increasing the density
of plucking point

Pruning:
• To maintain convenient height for plucking
• To maintain plant in permanent vegetative stage
• To maintain plucking table under easy reach to ensure efficient plucking
• To stimulate growth of young shoots
• To remove dead and defunct wood and
• To remove the knots and interlaced branches
• Pruning is normally done 4 to 6 years interval depending upon the altitude of the garden,
growth behavior of plant and previous pruning height.
• The bushes marked for pruning should have adequate starch reserves in roots otherwise the
sprouting following pruning will be less.
• This can be normally tested by the common Iodine test and if the starch reserve is less, bushes
are allowed to rest for 2 to 3 months.

Types of pruning in Tea

Type of Pruning Season Remarks

pruning height (cm)

Rejuvenation 20 – China April - Done is old bushes affected with

pruning Jat May canker and wood rot to invigorate
30 – Assam the new healthy branches. Not done
Jat regularly. Revitalize the plant.
Hard pruning 30 – 45 Apr. – May First formative pruning done to a
young tea. Plants are pruned at a
height of 30-45cm
Medium 45 – 60 Aug. – Normal pruning wherever frames
pruning Sept. are healthy. The plucking table is
lowered to a convenient ht. (55-
70cm)
Light pruning 60 – 65 Aug. – Imparted every 3-5 years, leaving 3-
Sept. 5cm new wood above the last
pruning mark.
Skiffing 65 October Lightest of all pruning. Done to
level the plucking table that has
gone out of order.

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 Manuring

Among the nutrients, N is considered as the most important particularly for a leaf crop like tea.
Tea responds to manuring and it has been estimated that to produce 100 kg. of made tea, tea
plants utilizes on an average 10.2, 3.2 and 5.4 kg. of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potash per ha.
Manuring in tea starts from nursery stage itself. Once they strike roots (after 4 months) 30 g of
soluble mixtures (Ammonium phosphate (20: 20) 35 parts, potassium sulphate and Magnesium
sulphate each 15 parts and zinc sulphate and Magnesium sulphate each 15 parts and zinc
sulphate- 3 parts) is dissolved is 10 litres of water and is applied with rosecan for about 900
plants. This must be repeated at 15 days intervals.
The young seed bearers' upto fourth year after planting should be manured with young tea dose
(YTD) mixture at 2:1:2 ratio of NPK.
It is important to ensure adequate replenishment of nutrients in the soil removed by harvest. A
series of field experiments conducted under different agro climatic conditions have recorded
that annual application of balanced dose of NPK is required to harvest maximum crop. Results
have shown that for sustaining a crop of 2300 kg made tea per hectare (KMTH) in different
regions, in general, a dose of nitrogen not exceeding 140 kg, phosphate 20 - 50 kg and potash
not exceeding 140 kg would suffice.

(a) Young tea manuring: Manure YTD 2:1:3 mixture(N:P:K)

Year of planting/ 1st year 5g YTD / plants, 3-4 times at 6-8 weeks intervals
2nd year 10g YTD/plant, 3-4 times at 6-8 weeks intervals
3rd year onwards 20g YTD/plant, 3-5 times at 6-8 weeks intervals
4th year YTD Broad cast @130-150 kg N/ha

b) Mature tea manuring:

Nitrogen 130-165 kg/ha depending on the yield potential of an individual section
(average yield of the pruning cycle)
Phosphate 40-50 kg P2O5 /ha
Potash On the basis of soil analysis report where the soil potash level should be
minimum 100 ppm.

In addition to the normal, NPK fertilization, micronutrients like Zn, Mg, B etc., may also be applied
as foliar spray for correcting the deficiencies, if any observed in the field.

Weed control
For high productivity, effective control of weeds is very essential. Till the plants are about 1 year
old, the young tea should be kept under manual weeding. Thereafter, very careful use of herbicides
like simazine, 2, 4-D, oxyflurofan, paraquat, etc. can help in keeping the young tea (2 years and
above) free from weed competition. For mature tea, herbicides like 2, 4-D, parquet, dalapon,
glyphosate, simazine, etc., are useful for effective control of weeds.

Pests and diseases control

Intensive management of pests and diseases is required particularly during the formative years for
early establishment. The common pests like thrips, greenflies and mites, caterpillar pests, crickets,
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cockchafer grubs and termites normally create problem during the early years. In mature tea also
pests like red spider, pink, purple and scarlet mites, thrips, helopeltis, caterpillars, termites, etc., cause
a great deal of crop loss. Among the diseases, red rust is a common one in young tea areas. In
mature tea, besides this red rust, black rot, brown root rot, charcoal stump rot, blister blight, etc. are
very common. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary to control the pests and diseases by spraying
appropriate insecticides and fungicides regularly.

Fencing
Fencing of tea plantation is must to protect the tea plants from stray and wild animals especially in
the initial years. Depending on the perimeter of the plot of land, the length of fencing required
would vary. In order to reduce the cost, fencing with barbed wire with locally available wooden
posts, preferably live, may be erected.

Tea Harvesting
Tea is almost exclusively hand picked. In most parts of the world the work is done by women. Tea
leaves have to be picked carefully. If they too big they are too tough; if they are too small they are
not economically viable
The tea pickers pluck new and tender "flush" (two leaves and a bud). These flushes appear every
seven or eight days in hot climates and around twice that long in cooler climates. Generally the
buds near the end of a branch are considered to be the best quality. Lower quality one are found
further down the branch. The flushes are flung over the shoulder of the pickers into baskets
strapped onto their heads and backs. Good pickers pick around 160 pounds of leaves a day, form
which about 40 pounds of finished eta is made.
Freshly picked leaves weigh about twice as much as correctly dried tea leaves. Skill and experience
are needed to accurately judge their condition. It is difficult to produce a high quality tea. Some that
do pick just one bud and two leaves from a single twig (many companies remove more leaves to
increase production) and pick the leaves between 9:00am and 3:00pm when the leaves are in the
best condition.

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Tea Processing
Most tea is processed in large multistory buildings that often look like giant wooden sheds. The tea
is often brought in by trucks, moved through the factory on conveyor belts and elevators. A factory
may process 20,000 kilograms of leaves a day in the high season. This yields 5,000 kilograms of
tea. The final product is placed in large bags that are moved by truck, train or ship.
Green tea is put in a "steamer" and heated immediately after it is picked. This softens the tea for
rolling. The tea is not fermented. The leaves are rolled and dried. Leaves that are made into black
tea are “withered” (de-moisturized by blowing air through them) in a withering shed or upper story
of the factory. Here, piles of leaves are set on hessian mat, nylon "tats," and withered by duct-blown
hot air created by large machines with large fans and heaters. Withering removes moisture while
leaving the leaves soft and pliable.
Next the tea is rolled in special machinery rather than crushed so that they aromatic oils that flavor
tea are not destroyed. While being rolled the juice oozes for tea leaves and fermentation begins.
After rolling the tea is fermented more by placing in a cool, moist room to accelerate oxidation, in
the process turning the tea from green to bright copper. The length of their fermentation process
determines how much oxidation takes place, which in turn determines whether the tea is green,
black or oolong or another variety.
During the next stage the tea is dried or “fired” for 15 to 25 minutes. For black teas, the copper leaf
turns black as carefully controlled driers reduce water content to 3 percent. The key---and the tricky
part---to producing good tea is stopping fermentation and cutting off oxidation at precisely the right
time. Finally, the “made tea” is sorted and rated into commercial grades, ready for shipment. The
grades are determined both by size and quality and the elevation they are grown. Different sizes are
sorted using machines with trays that shake the tea.

Tea sorting

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 COFFEE
Botanical Name – Coffea ssp
Family – Rubiaceae
Centre of Origin- Ethiopia
Chromosome no.- 2n = 44, 22

IMPORTANCE:
More than 70 described species, but only two are economically important
Coffea arabica: better quality and preference of the consumers (70% traded in the
world).Cultivated mainly in America & Higher altitudes
Coffea canephora: Robusta coffee lower prices and quality, but higher content of soluble
solids. Main production areas located in Africa
Origin and Distribution
• Coffee was introduced to India in 1600 AD by Muslim pilgrim, Baba Budan.

• During 18th century it began to grow as commercial crop. In late 1820s commercial
plantation were established in Coorg, Nilgiris, Palani hills and Waynad.

• By 1869, Indian coffee established itself producing quality coffee in world trade.

Difference between C. arabica & C. canephora

CHARACTER C. arabica C. canephora

1. Ploidy Tetraploid (2n=44) Diploid (2n=22)
2. Adaptability Higher elevation lower elevation
3. Plant status A small tree, a shrub or a A bigger tree than arabica.
bush under training.

4. Leaves Dark green Pale green

5. Blossoming Bloom in 9-10 days after Bloom in 7 days after the
the receipt of blossom receipt of blossom
showers. showers.
6. Flowers Scaly, small bracts, per Leafy and expanded
axil 4-5 inflorescence of 1- bracts with 5 to 6 flowers
4 flowers per per inflorescence.
inflorescence.
7. Berries 10-20 per node oblong to 40-60 or more per node,
round in shape. small.

8. Fruit development 8-9 months 10-11months

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9. Root system Small but deep. Large but shallow

10. Pollination Self pollinated & Self Cross pollinated & Self –
& fertilization fertile. sterile.

DESCRIPTION OF COFFEE BEAN

Exocarp:
• This is the botanical name for the coffee cherry's outer thin red skin and is 100-300
micrometer thick.

• It is tough enough to withstand some degree of handling and has a slight bitter flavor.

Mesocarp:
• The thin layer of fleshy sugary mucilaginous jelly-like pulp located just under the red
skin (exocarp) of the coffee cherry.

Parchment: Is the endocarp (skin) of the coffee bean that lies between the coffee cherry flesh
and the bean’s outer silverskin.
Silverskin: The thin, papery innermost skin of the coffee cherry that surrounds the coffee
beans.

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PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
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Cultivation of Coffee
Soil and climate:
 Soil should be deep, friable, rich in plant nutrients with plenty of humus with
neutral soil reaction.

 It grows up well from 500 m to 1650 m Mean Sea Level with a well distributed
rainfall of 150 to 200 cm annually.

 Definite wet and dry season are essential to have a well marked cycle of
flowering.

 A blossom shower during March - April and a back up shower during May -
June is essential for successful crop.

Varieties
 Arabica varieties:

 Oldchiks, Coorgs, Kents,Sln 288, Sln1934, Sln 795, Sln 7, Sln 9, Sln 10, Cauvery and
its selections and HRC (Hawaian Red Cuturra)

 Robusta varieties: Sln 274

 Dwarf hybrids - San Ramon hybrids

 Hibrido de Timor - is a spontaneous cross of robusta x arabica from Timor supplied

by the Coffee Rust Research Centre, Portugal.

Nursery
A gentle slopy land without big shade trees is preferred for raising nurseries.
Water should not stagnate in the nursery sites.
Nursery Bed size – 1m width of convenient length and 15cm height.
Soil mixture: Soil: Compost:Sand(6:2:1)
Sowing of seed - December or January. The seeds be sown at a spacing of 1.0 to
1.5cm with their flat side facing the soil which helps early germination and easy
rooting in the soil.
After sowing, the seeds are covered with a thin layer of finely sieved soil and mulched
with a layer of paddy straw

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 Preparation of field:
 Selective felling may be done while retaining a number of desirable shade trees.

 Terracing should be done in deep slopy areas. After the summer showers, pits of 45
cm x 45 cm x 45 cm are dug at 1.25 - 2.5 m apart.

 The pits are left open for weathering and then filled and heaped for planting.

 At the time of filling, apply 500 g of rock phosphate per pit along with top soil.

Planting shade trees:

 Dadap is commonly used .

 Two metre long stakes are planted for every two plants of coffee.

 Silver Oak and Dadaps are planted during June.

 During summer the stem of young Dadaps are painted with diluted lime or wrapped in
agave leaves or polythene sheets in order to prevent them from sun scorch.

 Regulate shade by cutting criss-cross branches during monsoon season.

 Silver oak trees are planted for permanent shade.

Arabica Coffee
spacing of 1.5 to 2.0 m either way

Dwarf varieties
For Sanraman : 1 x 1 m spacing.

Robusta coffee
spacing of 2.5 m either way
After care
1.The clearing should be well fenced to prevent damage to coffee and dadap from
stray cattle.
2. The plants should be protected against cockchaffer attack during the first 2 years by
applying Lindane or granular insecticides around the seedlings.
3. Weeds should be eradicated in the very first year.
4. The soil around the seedlings should be properly mulched and the plants provided
with shade.
5. No manure needs to be applied till May-June of the following year.
6. Sprinkler irrigation may be given.

Training and Prunning

• Training leads to good framework.

• Promotes bearing wood.

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 • Arabica : 75cm(9-12 months)

• Robusta:105-120cm(18-24months)

• Vertical sprouts are removed during April-May.

• Ht-135-150cm

• Pruning is done for better productive efficiency

• Helps in crop regulation and prevents overcrowding.

• Type and Frequency of pruning depends upon type of vegetative growth, incidence of
pest and diseases, patten of blossom shower.

• Centering and de suckering is carried out for 5 to 6 years after planting.

• Removal of dead and whippy wood is essential during early years

• Mature plants given medium to severe pruning once in 4 years.

• Rejuvenation pruning: Pruning at collar region

• Hard pruning: Plants cut at 5-10cmabove the ground.

• Medium pruning: Removal of lateral shoot to regulate shade

• Light pruning: Removal of sucker.

Harvesting
• Small yield from 5th years onwards

• Full yield after 10-12 years

• Harvest maturity: When berries turn red or deep crimson

• Arabica coffee ripens by October

• Robusta : Dec.-Jan.

Ethrel : 0.25 to 0.35ml/500ml water- Arabica coffee for ripening and for Robusta:0.15
to 2.0ml /500ml water
• Plantation having average plant stand: 1.25ton/ha

• Well maintained plantation :2.25 2.50ton/ha

 In mid-December, coffee branches hang, heavily loaded with the cherries, ready for
the harvest.

 Coffee doesn't all ripen at once, but requires up to 3 or 4 pickings in order to harvest
each cherry at its peak ripeness
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  Many trees have new flowers, immature green beans, and ripe cherries all at once.
Thus, the harvest season lasts from mid-December until late February. The harvest of
only mature cherries assures better taste.

 Coffee-picking is not as beautiful as it appears in some advertisements and

commercials.

 Instead, it is hard work to pick a basket of ripe coffee cherries.

 A good worker picks 7-12 baskets a day, depending on the number of ripe cherries
remaining in the fields.

 Once picked, berries transport them to the beneficio (coffee mill).

 There, the first process is wet pulping, which removes the cherry skin from the coffee
cherry.

PROCESSING
Coffee cherries:
Separating the beans from the pulp and skin must be done on the same day the workers
pick the cherry from the branches, in order to maximize the flavor potential of good
quality coffee beans.
Washing:
Wet processing, removes the red skin and fleshy pulp material through a process
called pulping. First, they are immersed in a pool of water, to remove any twigs and
stones.
Pulping:
Next, they go to the pulping machinery, which removes the red skin from the two coffee
beans inside each cherry. The pulp is collected and afterwards reused as an ecological
fertilizer on the plantation.
Fermentation:
Afterwards it goes into the fermentation box, where the natural process triggers a series of
chemical reactions that enhance the flavour quality of the roasted coffee
The wet beans slowly sun dried, down to a 10 - 11% humidity level. Workers hand-
distribute them on the drying floor (also called a patio, to dry in the sun. This process
takes from one to two weeks, depending on the amount of sunny days available. During
this drying time, workers must rake the beans many times to insure that they dry evenly.
Workers bag the sun-dried beans, now called "parchment," and take them to the
warehouse. The machines then removes the parchment and silver skin from each bean.
This renders a green bean suitable for roasting. Grading quality coffees by size, shape,
density and colour is the next step.
Roasting / Packging:
Roasting the beans in a 25-pound coffee roasting machine. Carefully watching is required
until the perfect moment the beans change to a beautiful medium roast, a full bodied dark
roast, or an espresso roast, depending on each customer's preference.
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PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
 RUBBER
Botanical name – Hevea brasilliensis
Family – Euphorbiaceae
Centre of Origin – Brazil
Different species of NR
Manihot glaziovii ( Cera rubber)
Ficus elastica ( Indian rubber)
Castiolla elastica(Panama rubber)
Parthenium argentatum(Guayal)
Taraxacum kokosaghyz
Hevea brasiliensis(Para rubber)

• Thailand is the world’s largest producer of natural rubber. It produced 3,394

thousand tonnes in 2011.

• Indonesia is the second largest producer contributing around 27% of the world’s total
natural rubber production.

• Malaysia produced 996 thousand tonnes and occupies the third rank in terms of
production.

• India is the fourth largest producer of natural rubber in the world.

• In the year 2011, India produced 890 thousand tonnes of natural rubber, up
from 851 thousand tonnes in the previous year. India contributes 8% of the world
natural rubber production.

• Other major producers include Vietnam and China contributing 7% each to the world
production.

• India is the fourth largest producer of Natural Rubber (NR).

• India became the second largest consumer of NR in the world overtaking USA.

• Area - over 6.87 lakh hectares.

Varieties
• Primary Clone:TJIR, G.T.-1, G. I -1, P.B. -86,RRII-105, PB-260

• Secondary Clone:PRIM-600, RRIM-628, GTI, FB28/59, PB217

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PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
 • Tertiary Clone:RRIM-703

Soil and climate

• Soil - Deep and lateritic fertile soil

• pH - 4.0 to 6.5

• Gentle slope (5 to 15% ideal)

• 29 0 N and 230 S of equator.

• Annual rainfall of 2000 – 3000 mm

• Temperature- 21 to 35°C

• Relative humidity – 70-95%

• MSL- upto 450m.

• Regions prone to heavy winds should be avoided

PROPOGATION
• Propagation by Seed:

• Prepare nursery bed (width 1m).

• The germinated seeds are then planted about 30x30cm apart to raise seedling stump or
60 x 90 cm or 60 x 120 cm to raise bud wood nursery or stumped budding.

• The seedlings are kept in the nursery till they attain a diameter of 20 to 25 mm above
the collar.

Budding
• Age of root stock – 2 to 8 months.

• Brown bud: One year growth, Root stock: 10months, girth 7.5cm . Bud found in axil
of fallen leaf is selected

• Green bud: Bud shoot of 6 to 8 weeks, Rootstock : 2 to 8 months with 2.5cm girth.
Buds seen in axil of scale leaf is selected

• Budded stocks are ready to be stumped about 4 weeks after budding.

• Cut 10 to 15cm above the bud patch.

• Transplant in main field

• Seed stake: Planting seeds in-situ followed by field budding

• Seedling stump: Seedlings pulled out from nursery are pruned(stem & root) before
planting.
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PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
 • Budded stump: Budded plant are pulled out and the stock is cut back at a height of
7.5cm Polybag nursery: 400-500gauge of size 55cmX 25cm or 65cmx35cm

• Stumped budding:

• Successful green bud plants are cut back above the bud patch and allowed to grow.

• tap root pruned at 45-60cm from collar

• Pollarding is done at a height of 60cm(mini stumed) or 2.4m(maxi stumped) above

the bud patch .

CULTIVATION:
• Time of planting: June – July is optimum for cultivation.

• Planting: Pits of size 1 m x 1 m x 1 m are dug and filled up with soil, FYM (10kg)
and 175g rock phosphate.

• Spacing : 4.2 – 4.5m x 4.2 – 4.5m

• Cover cropping : Mimosa invisa,

• Pueraria phaseoloides

• Calopogonium mucunoides

• Mulching: November is ideal time of mulching

• Weeding: 2,4 D @ 2kg in 450 lit of water

• Training and Pruning: No sprout below graft union

Manuring
For immature rubber trees at pre-tapping stage
Apply 12 kg of compost or FYM and 120 g of rock phosphate in each pit before planting.
Apply 10:10:4:1.5 NPK and Mg.
Apply 400 kg of mixture/ha in 2 split doses, once in April/May and another in
September/October from the 5th year till the tree is ready for tapping.
Matured rubber trees under tapping
Apply NPK 10:10:10 mixture at the rate of 300 kg/ha during March-April. Add 50 kg
Magnesium sulphate if there is magnesium deficiency.
Tapping
It is the process of controlled wounding of rubber tree during which thin shavings of bark are
removed leading to flow of latex.
Aim : To cut open the latex vessels in case of tree tapped for first time & To remove the
coagulum which blocks the cut ends of the latex vessels in case the tree is under regular
tapping.
Standard of Tappability and Height of Opening
48
PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
 • Economic when 70% of the trees attain the tapping standard

• Budded tree: Girth of 50cm at a height of 125cm, Subsequent tapping panel at same
height.

• Seedling tree: Girth 55cm at a height of 50 cm. Subsequent tapping panel at ht. of
100cm.

• Best time to open new tapping are is March-April.

Slope and direction of tapping

• Budded tree: Tapping cut of budded tree should have aslope of about 300

• Seedling tree: slope of 250

• Steep cut leads to wastages of bark when tapping reaches to base of the tree.

• Too flat cut leads to over flow of latex.

• The latex vessel in the bark run at a slight angle to the right

• Cut from high left to low right will open greater number of latex vessels.

Latex Flow
• When tree is tapped and latex vessel is cut, the pressure at the location of the cut is
released and the viscous latex exudes

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PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
 • Exudation of latex would result in displacement of the latex along the length of latex
vessels and laterally owing to strong forces of cohesion existing in liquid phase.

• This results in fall in pressure leading to entry of water from surrounding tissues
which makes the latex more dilute and less viscous

• Damage of lutoid particles releases a protein named “Hevein”.

• This cross link with rubber particle resulting in coagulation of latex. Hevein binding is
more in acidic pH

• Lutoids, which comprise nearly 20% of the latex volume, are unit-membrane
organelles from 1 to 5 pm in diameter. They constitute a dispersed lysosomal
vacuome in a specialized cytoplasm, that is the latex.

Tapping Depth, Bark consumption and Bark Renewal

• Maximum yield is obtained when tapping is done to a depth less than 1mm close to
cambium

• For optimum yield it is preferable to consume about 20 -30cm bark annually on ½ S

d/2 system without rest period.

• Bark renewal depends on the inherent genetic character of plant, soil and climatic
factor, tapping system and intensity.

Time of tapping task and utensil

• Best time early in the morning.

• Late tapping reduces exudation of latex.

• Michie Golledge knife is used in India

Raingurading
• To protect the cut from the stem flow of rainwater. 30-45 additional tapping is
possible by rain guarding the tree.

• Rainguarding is recommended in areas where the yield is 675kg/ha/yr or more and

more than 25 tapping days are annually lost by rain.

Yield

Rubber yield steeply increases year by year, reaching a peak after 14 years of
planting.
In South India, the annual yield of rubber is 375 kg/ha from seedlings trees, whereas

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PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT
budded plants yield 800 - 1000 kg/ha.

Crop Collection
The main crop from a rubber plantation is latex( a milky white dispersion of rubber in
water) which is harvested by the tapping process.
Two to three hours after tapping, the latex collected in the cup is transferred to a clean
bucket.
About 70-80 per cent of the crop from a rubber plantation is in the form of latex.

The latex which gets solidified in the tapping panel (tree lace) and the collection cups
(cup lump) also form part of the crop and are collected by the tapper in a basket just
prior to tapping.
The latex spilt and/or overflowed to the ground (earth scrap) when gets dried up is
also collected as scrap once in a month. These are collectively called field coagulum.
Latex and field coagulum are highly susceptible to bacterial action and therefore it is
essential to process these into forms that will allow safe storage and marketing.

51
PRADYOT KUMAR NAYAK
DEPT. OF FRUIT SCIENCE AND HORTICULTURE TECHNOLOGY, OUAT