Abatement: The process of reducing the quantity, intensity, or saturation of a

pollutant or other harmful substance by way of treatment.

Acidification: Reducing the pH rating of a substance making it more acidic in nature,

for example, increased carbon emissions lead to the oceans absorbing more of it,
increasing acidification and damaging ecology such as coral bleaching.

Active ingredient: Also used in medicine, the “active ingredient” in

a chemical compound is the one that has the intended effect. In medicinal use, it's the
substance that attacks the bacteria/virus/tumor. In pesticide use, it's the substance that
kills or repels pests.

Air emissions: Any gas emitted into the atmosphere from industrial or commercial
activity. Typically used in conjunction with “greenhouse gas” but some emissions are
not GHGs.

Biodegradable: Used to describe substances and the ability

of microorganisms (bacteria, algae) to break it down.

Biodiversity: The range of species in an ecology, examining population numbers of

each species, number of species, the balance between predator and prey, and the food
chain.

Biomass: The sum total of vegetation in a given ecological area.

Brownfields site: Land that has been developed in the past but is now underused or
disused (3). In some cases, they are risky due to potential contamination that may
require investigation and treatment before construction or to simply protect the local
environment.

Catalyst: A chemical compound that alters another to render it inert, less harmful, or
less intense without removing some of its parts - usually adding to it.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): A group of inert chemical used in many industrial and

everyday processes such as our refrigerators that are not broken down at lower
atmospheric levels and rise to the upper levels, destroying ozone.

Climate change: The process by which the climate changes due to “forcings”. These
can be natural events or, as is the case at present, the result of industrial age actions in
increasing greenhouse gases and reducing carbon sinks.

Commercial Waste: Any waste material produced as a byproduct of commercial or

industrial activity.
Conservation: The preservation or restoration of a natural environment for the social,
ecological, or even economical benefit. For example, a program of
river conservation will increase biodiversity while making the surrounding environment
and people who live there healthier.

Decontamination: The removal of toxic or other harmful substances from an

environment. The substance may be harmful to wildlife, people, biodiversity or the
overall ecology.

Drainage: The process of removing excess moisture from land - typically wetlands or
saturated agricultural land.

Dredging: The removal of silt, mud, or other sold material from the bed of a body of
water. Too much of this material can cause flooding.

Emission: Any pollutant discharged into the atmosphere that will contribute to overall
chemical change as it will not be broken down or otherwise removed.

Endangered species: Any species whose numbers and diversity is so low that they
are at danger of becoming extinct.

Erosion: The process of land wearing away over time.

Energy Efficiency: The amount of energy harnessed from the combustion process
(burning fuel). Machinery, motor vehicles, and our homes are said to be energy efficient
the more energy that is extracted from lower or smaller volumes of the source.

Filtration: Removing solid waste and material from water in the process of wastewater
treatment.

Fossil fuel: Any mineralized formerly organic material extracted from the ground and
used in energy production: coal, natural gas, oil.

Greenfields site: The opposite of brownfield sites, it is typically land that has been
used only for agricultural use, or forested area, that has never been developed for
residential, commercial or industrial use (4).

Greenhouse gas: A group of gases known to be responsible for increasing the

“greenhouse effect” - that is, gases that absorb infrared radiation and increase
atmospheric density. They are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
ozone, CFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons.

Half-life: the time it takes for any pollutant (usually refers to radioactive material but
also includes other toxic material) to halve its effect on the environment.
Hazardous material/substance: Any organic on inorganic material that can damage
human health or the environment. This can include corrosive, toxic, explosive,
flammable, or chemical reactants. Anything with this designation, of spilled in US
waters, must be reported to the EPA.

Hazardous Waste: Similar to above, but waste material produced as a byproduct of

any commercial or industrial activity that has the same dangerous attributes. As it is a
waste, it serves no purpose on its own.

Indigenous species: A species of flora or fauna recognized as being native to a

certain area. Often subject to specific environmental protections, especially when
“endangered” (see above)

Indoor air (pollution): coming under OSHA rather than EPA, there are laws in place
to ensure that employees work in a clean and safe environment with good ventilation.
Indoor air is anything contained with a building. Indoor air pollution is any chemical or
other substances contributing to an imbalance that could affect the health of the
building's inhabitants.

Invasive species: A species of flora or fauna not native to a certain area, but one that
has colonized it - usually presenting problems for native wildlife. Invasive species are
sometimes subject to active control and deliberate removal

Landfill: An area of land set aside for the disposal of waste - usually commercial or
residential of non-toxic waste although in the case of where they might contain such,
treatment may be required to prevent pollution.

Margin of Safety: The designated upper limit of exposure to a potentially harmful

substance before it becomes harmful. This can apply to human health and to
environmental exposure.

Material Safety Data Sheet: An international standard form containing information

relevant to a substance's toxicity, hazardousness, and potential environmental damage.
It also explains proper protection equipment and what to do in the result of exposure
(First Aid)

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS): A set of EPA standards

applying to the quality of outside air in the US.

National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP): A set of

EPA standards on air pollutant emissions of chemicals that could cause serious
permanent harm to wildlife or people or kill organic matter.
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES): Set up by the EPA to
determine standards for clean water (part of the Clean Water Act). It prohibits the
discharge of polluting chemicals into US waters unless a special permit is granted.

National Priorities List (NPL): The EPA keeps a registered list of sites in the US that
have been abandoned due to the presence of hazardous waste and require long-term
remedial action. They use a hazard ranking system and a fund is made available for
remediation.

National Response Team (NRT): This is a team from 13 different Federal agencies
that come together to coordinate federal responses to incidents such as natural
disasters, oil spills, significant pollution emission, chemical releases and so on.

National Strike Force (NSF): an area of responsibility for the US Coast Guard, the
NSF has three teams - one in the Atlantic area, one in the Pacific area, and the third in
the coast area. Their job is to back up the federal On-Scene Coordinators in responding
to the events mentioned in the NRT listing.

Ozone layer: A protective layer of gas in the upper atmosphere that absorbs the sun's
must harmful radiation. Its depletion was one of the major problems of the 1980s.

Pollutant: A substance or material introduced into an environment that has negative

or harmful effects to the ecology or specific biological species, or one that reduces the
efficiency or safety of a resource.

Radiation: The transmission of energy through space. It can be ionizing or non-

ionizing. The former is powerful enough to break bonds (x-rays) the latter is not (radio
frequency)

Remediation: The process of removing toxic materials from an environment and the
attempt to restore it to a previous state. This can be anything from asbestos, lead and
other heavy metals, and radioactive isotopes.

Risk Assessment: An official investigation, usually required legally, to examine risk

exposure and potential consequences under any scenario.

Sanctions: This legal term also exists outside of environmental law and it means the
same thing. It's the application of measures against a polluter or other entity or person
who breaks environmental law. Often, measures will include a ban on government
contracts.

Sewage: Solid and liquid waste removed from residential properties, typically human
waste but also includes anything that uses water to take it away. Sometimes called
“wastewater”.
Smog: a portmanteau of “smoke” and “fog”. Smog is not natural, It is the direct result
of emissions from industrial processes.

Toxic: A substance is labeled “toxic” if it is poisonous or otherwise harmful to the

health of biological organisms or an ecology.

Vulnerable Zone: During a chemical leak, it will be necessary to track its most likely
path based on meteorological data. The vulnerable zone is the area where the airborne
pollutant or chemical might because problematic.

Water budget: What is the difference between the water stock and the water used?
Increasingly important in drought-hit areas, it's important to monitor and manage water
supplies to ensure we don't use more than is available.

Water table: The “typical” level of water beneath solid ground. It's higher during wet
periods and lower during drier spells.

Wetlands: A wetland is an area of land that has a high water table or one that is
typically flooded for most of the time. It can be tidal or nosn-tidal and includes marshes
and floodplains. The Everglades National Park is one such example. They are often a
haven for wildlife and subject to protections to preserve their unique profile.

Carl Linnaeus classified living organisms as being from either the plant or animal kingdom.
Each kingdom was divided into smaller groups referred to as classes. Each class was divided into
orders. Every order was split into genera. Each genus divided into species, and each division was
made based upon specific features. He described 4,300 species of animals in his 1735 book
“Systema Naturae” and 5,000 species of plants in his 1737 book, “Geenera Plantarum” This
classification system, with its many additions, revisions and modifications, is used worldwide.

Linnaeus’ other significant scientific contribution was his system of binomial nomenclature. This
system gives a scientific name consisting of two words to every plant and animal species. The
first word describes the name of the genus, while the second word denotes the name of the
species. Scientists throughout the world continue to use this system.

Linnaeus was born in Sweden on May 23, 1707, and he died on Jan. 10, 1778 in Uppsala. He
studied botany at Uppsala University. He later explored the Swedish Lapland and studied
medicine in Holland. It was during his studies in Holland that Linnaeus first developed his
classification system and binomial nomenclature.
Alexander Humboldt who was first to describe ecological gradient of latitudinal biodiversity
increase toward the tropics in 1807.

Charles Darwin was a British naturalist best known for his work establishing the theory of

organic evolution by means of natural selection. Based on his early training, his circle of

mentors and colleagues, and most importantly the many observations that he made

aboard the celebrated five-year voyage of the HMS Beagle, Darwin formulated a theory

of species change he termed descent with modification through the primary means of

natural selection. The first hints of this theory began to appear in 1837 and were

recorded in his private notebooks, but only after over twenty years of additional research,

the collection of many examples, extensive reading, and much reflection did he publish it

in 1859, and then only after learning that the younger British naturalist Alfred Russel

Wallace had independently formulated a similar understanding of species change. With

the support of a small circle of colleagues, an abbreviated version of his theory was first

presented, and it was then published in conjunction with Wallace in 1958. He then turned

to writing what was intended to be an abstract of a planned longer series of works in

support of his theory, but which became instead On the Origin of Species by Means of

Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, published

in 1859. His scientific oeuvre is dominated by this book, but he subsequently published a

number of important books that either extended or supported the theory set forth in

1859 including his reflections on human evolution set forth in The Descent of Man, and

Selection in Relation to Sex published in 1871. Though he is best known for his theory of

species change, Darwin had a number of other interests. He was a keen experimentalist,

performing a series of small but elegant studies involving plants and other organisms that
 reflected a grasp of the complex interactions between organisms at a time when

ecological thinking was only just emerging. Indeed, Darwin is considered one of the first

ecological thinkers, using the phrase “economy of nature,” on multiple occasions in his On

the Origin of Species. His many botanical studies as laid out in no less than six books are

now considered both pathbreaking but also imaginative and crucial to laying the

foundations of what is now plant evolutionary biology, plant ecology, and invasion

biology, and his examination of the behavior of humans as shown in his The Expression of

the Emotions in Man and Animals published in 1872 is considered foundational in

behavioral studies and in the field called evolutionary psychology. With the help of many

commentators, furthermore, his influence spread well outside scientific circles and

shaped prevailing social and political views, as well as challenging belief in a purposive,

anthropocentric universe.

Herbert Spencer likening society to an organism, Spencer emphasized that it should be

permitted to develop organically, without the intervention of the State. Spencer argued in

favor of natural rights that would allow individuals to do as they thought best. His political

philosophy of decreased state power continues to influence libertarians and other

political thinkers critical of the government’s impact on individual rights.

Karl Möbius was trained for elementary teaching at a private college in Eilenburg, and from
1844 to 1849 he taught at Seesen in the Harz Mountains. He went to the University of Berlin to
study in the natural sciences under Johannes Muller (1849–53), then took up teaching again at
the Johanneum Grammar School in Hamburg. There his continuing studies in the natural
sciences gained him a reputation that led to a post at the Hamburg Museum of Natural History.
His research on corals and foraminiferans (i.e., protozoans of the rhizopodan order
Foraminiferida) led to the discovery of symbiosis in marine invertebrates. He also proved
that Eozoon canadense, long thought to be a species of living marine organisms, was actually an
aggregate of minerals. Interested in fishery biology, Möbius investigated mussel
and oyster breeding as well as the artificial cultivation of pearls. He helped to develop various
impressive zoological collections. In 1863 he cofounded the Hamburg Zoo and was chief
designer of Germany’s first public aquarium. While professor of zoology at the University of
Kiel, he created a museum for its zoological institute (1881), which became a model for such
establishments for years to come. Later, as director of the newly founded Natural History
Museum in Berlin (1887), Möbius succeeded in setting the groundwork for its large and
impressive collection.

Ernst Haeckel Invented the term ecology, popularized research links between ecology and
evolution.

Victor Hensen invented term plankton, developed quantitative and statistical measures of
productivity in the seas.

Eugenius Warming: Early founder of Ecological Plant Geography.

Ellen Swallow Richards: Pioneer and educator who linked urban ecology to human

health.

Stephen Forbes an entomologist and naturalist, was the son of Isaac Sawyer and Agnes

(Van Hoesen) Forbes. Forbes was born at Silver Creek, Ill. His father was a farmer, and

died when Stephen was 10 years old. An older brother, Henry, then 21 years old, had

been independent since he was 14, working his way toward a college education, but on

his father’s death he abandoned his career, took the burden of his father’s family on his

shoulders, and supported and educated the children. He taught Stephen to read French,

sent him to Beloit to prepare for college; and when the Civil War came he sold the farm

and gave the proceeds (after the mortgage was paid) to his mother and sister for their

support. Both brothers then joined the 7th Illinois Cavalry, Henry having retained enough

money to buy horses for both. Stephen, enlisting at 17, was rapidly promoted, and at 20

became a captain in the regiment of which his brother ultimately became colonel. In
1862, while carrying dispatches, he was captured and held in a Confederate prison for

four months. After liberation and three months in the hospital recuperating, he rejoined

his regiment and served until the end of the war. He had learned to read Italian and

Spanish in addition to French, before the war, and studied Greek while in prison. He was a

born naturalist. His farm life as a boy and his open-air life in the army intensified his

interest in nature . After the close of the war, he began at once the study of medicine,

entering the Rush Medical College where he nearly completed the course. His

biographers have not as yet given the reason for the radical change in his plans which

caused him to abandon medicine at this late stage in his education; but the writer has

been told by his son, that it was “because of a series of incidents having to do mainly with

operations without the use of anesthetics which convinced him that he was not

temperamentally adapted to medical practice.” His scientific interests, however, had

been thoroughly aroused, and for several years while he taught school in southern Illinois,

he carried on studies in natural history. In 1872 through the interest and influence of Dr.

George Vasey, the well-known botanist, he was made curator of the Museum of State

Natural History at Normal, Ill., and three years later was made instructor in zoology at the

normal school. In 1877 the Illinois State Museum was established at Springfield; and the

museum at Normal, becoming the property of the state, was made the Illinois State

Laboratory of Natural History. Forbes was made its director. During these years he had

been publishing the results of his researches rather extensively, and had gone into a most

interesting and important line of investigation, namely the food of birds and fishes. He

studied intensively the food of the different species of fish inhabiting Illinois waters and
the food of the different birds. This study, of course, kept him close to entomology, and in

1884 he was appointed professor of zoology and entomology in the University of Illinois.

The State Laboratory of Natural History was transferred to the university and in 1917 was

renamed the Illinois Natural History Survey. He retained his position as chief, and held it

up to the time of his death. He was appointed state entomologist in 1882 and served until

1917, when the position was merged in the survey. He retired from his teaching position

as an emeritus professor in 1921. He served as dean of the College of Science of the

university from 1888 to 1905. All through his career Forbes had been publishing his

writings actively. As early as 1895, Samuel Henshaw, in his Bibliography of the more

Important Contributions to American Economic Entomology, listed 101 titles. It is said that

his bibliography runs to more than 500 titles. And the range of these titles is

extraordinary; they include papers on entomology, ornithology,limnology ,

ichthyology, ecology , and other phases of biology. All of his work was characterized by

remarkable originality and depth of thought. Forbes was the first writer and teacher in

America to stress the study of ecology, and thus began a movement which has gained

great headway. He published 18 annual entomological reports, all of which have been

models. He was the first and leading worker in America on hydrobiology. He studied the

fresh-water organisms of the inland waters and was the first scientist to write on

the fauna of the Great Lakes . His work on the food of fishes was pioneer work and has

been of very great practical value. Forbes was a charter member of the American

Association of Economic Entomologists and served twice as its president. He was also a

charter member of the Illinois Academy of Science; a member of the National Academy
of Sciences and of the American Philosophical Society; and in 1928 was made an

honorary member of the Fourth International Congress of Entomology. Indiana University

gave him the degree of Ph.D., in 1884, on examination and presentation of a thesis.

Vito Volterra Independently pioneered mathematical populations models around the

same time as Alfred J. Lotka.